rajnish kumar on report writing june 2013

7/28/2019 Rajnish Kumar on Report Writing June 2013

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REPORT WRITING

Rajnish Kumar

Professor IT

National Academy of Indian Railways



Structure of Presentation

Format of a

Report

About

Plagiarism

How to cite

references

Commonlanguage

errors

Commonspellingerrors

Use of Latinterms



Format of Report/Paper

What should a report contain?1. Cover page

2. Inner cover page

3. Acknowledgments

4. Contents5. List of symbols, figures and tables, if any

6. Preface

7. Introduction

8. Literature review

9. Chapters covering the work10. Conclusion

11. References

12. Appendices



Preface

The preface should contain informationabout:

• The purpose of the report

• The history of the project

• Major contents of the report

in about 500-1000 words



Introduction

The introduction should comprise:

• A short historical review

• A brief description of the methods• The limitations of the report

• Information on accuracy of the given data

• Structure of the report.



Mechanics of Reportonly a guide

Paper – A4 size

Margins – 1.5 inch left

1 inch right, top and bottom

Font Times New Roman 12 sizeHeading Font Arial 14

Second heading Times New Roman or Arial 12 Bold

Third heading Times New Roman or Arial 12 Italics

Spacing 1.5

Best is to use standard word DEFAULT Style set



General Guidelines

1. All tables and figures must be numbered

2. If abbreviations which are uncommon are used, list of

abbreviations should be prepared and placed after list

of table/figures

3. Pages should be numbered starting from Introduction,

not before that.

4. Consistent spacing must be given throughout the report.



Reformatting Report for publishing

in Journals

If the report is to be published in a journal, some

reformatting is required. Most of it is common, except

that some journals prefer their style.

Example of IIMB Management Review is taken which is

published by world‘s leading publisher, ELSEVEIR



Example of formatting for

IIMB Management Review

Format

• Cover page The manuscript should be accompanied by a cover pagecontaining the article title, the short title (not more than 5words and which may be used in all correspondence), thenames and affiliations of all the authors (specify order), alongwith their postal address, phone and fax numbers, and emailaddress.

• Details of the authors' name and affiliation should not appear elsewhere in the manuscript. In the case of multiple authors,the cover page should indicate the designated correspondingauthor.





Secon d page The second page should contain the article title, the short title, the abstract (notmore than 100 words), keywords (a maximum of 8 keywords), and anextended summary (not exceeding 300 words).

Body of the article: The recommended length of papers is 8000 – 10000 words,inclusive of tables and figures. Material may be formatted in Times NewRoman, font size 12 and double spaced.

All tables and figures are to be serially numbered, sequentially following referencesto them in the text.

All tables and figures are also to be presented in a separate WORD document andfile names should clearly specify the paper to which the exhibits belong.

All tables and figures should be in black and white only.

IMR follows British spelling (e.g.: organisation, programme, and colour), except inthe case of direct quotations. Wherever possible, explanatorytheories/concepts and other background material of a historical or collateralnature, and case illustrations/anecdotal applications should be presented intext boxes to ensure they do not interfere with the flow of the main text.





References

Authors must acknowledge all the sources they have drawn upon, including direct

quotations, as well as ideas, concepts, data, and exhibits.

Only those references cited in the main text should be listed in the reference list. Sourcesshould be stated briefly in the text, following the author-date convention of by the last

name and the date of publication, in parentheses. Citations within the text would read, for

e.g. ‘ According to Pawlak, (1991) … ‘ or … (Pawlak, 1991) ‘.

These citations should be amplified in a list of references appearing at the end of the

paper.

The reference l is t sh ould be in alphabet ical and ch rono logical order, and sho uld

include comp lete bib l iographical detai ls , as appropriate— the name(s) of the

author(s), year of publication, title of the article/book, name of the journal, details of the

publisher, volume and issue number, and individual page numbers, URL of online

sources (online journals, magazines, or newspapers) with access date.





The prescribed style of citation is as follows:

Samp le Boo k References:

Pawlak, Z. (1991). Rough sets: Theoretical aspects of reasoning about data.Norwell, MA: Kluwer Academic Publishers.

Hair, J. F., Black, W. C., Babin, B. J., Anderson, R. E., & Tatham, R. L. (2006).Multivariate data analysis (6th ed.). New Jersey: Pearson Prentice Hall.

Samp le Reference to Chapter in B ook :

Ravallion, M. (2007). Transfers and safety nets in poor countries: Revisiting thetrade-offs and policy options. In V. Abhijit, R. B. Banerjee, & D. Mukherjee (Eds.),Understanding poverty (pp. 203 – 230). Oxford University Press.

Sample Jou rnal Reference: Bose, I. (2006). ‘Deciding the financial health of dot-coms using rough sets‘.Information & Management, 43(7), 835 – 846.



So……

• If you follow one style, there is no effort in

converting a report into a paper ready for

being published.

• We‘ll cover on how to quote references in

the report in the next part,

avoiding plagiar ism



Avoiding Plagiarism



Plagiarism – Definition

• Taking and using the thoughts, writings,

and inventions of another person as one's

own

• Using someone‘s ideas without citing or quoting; thereby, receiving credit for

someone else‘s intellectual effort

15



Forms of plagiarism

• Copying from a single source

• Copying from several sources

• Paraphrasing

• Collusion

16



How to avoid plagiarism

• Use quotes for

– Information that comes directly from any

source

– Words, spoken or written, that you use directlyfrom another person

• Make sure you document the source

17



How to avoid plagiarism

• Paraphrase

– Write the information in your own words, but

do not change its meaning or intention

– Because you are using someone else‘s idea,

always mention the source even if you useyour own words

18



Common knowledge

• Any information, fact, or statement that is

widespread and known by a variety of people

is considered common knowledge

– John Adams was the second president of USA

– The Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor on

December 7, 1941

• There is no need to give credit to information

that is of common knowledge

19



No need to cite

Common knowledgeExamples of Commo n Know ledge ( Source: http://gethelp.library.upenn.edu/PORT/documentation/commonknowledge.html

Not every fact in the report needs to be documented. Facts that are widely known—common knowledge—can stand bythemselves.

Examples of statements expressing common knowledge:

George Washington was the first president.

Plato spent most of his life in Athens.

Maine has a lower yearly average temperature than Florida.

Any statement that originates from another source and contains information that is not common knowledgemust be cited.

Examples of statements that don't express common knowledge:

Civilizations that were aware of geese usually considered them intermediariesbetween heaven and earth (Toussaint-Samat 352).

The Chinese fishing industry produces 800,000 tons of fish annually (Toussaint-Samat 328).

The first international coffee syndicate was based in Germany (Toussaint-Samat 590).

These statements aren't surrounded by quotation marks because they aren't the original authors' words

but must be cited because they express information that involves facts that are not commonly known.

http://gethelp.library.upenn.edu/PORT/documentation/commonknowledge.html





When should I cite?

21

Is it your idea?

No

No need to cite

Is it common knowledge?

No

Yes

CITE



Accidental plagiarism

• Using words from another source without

indicating where they came from.

• Ways to avoid accidental plagiarism:

– Careful note taking

– A clear understanding of the rules for quoting,

paraphrasing, and summarizing sources

22



When in doubt, cite.

Read thishttps://www.writecheck.com/static/ways_to_avoid_plagiarism.html

23

https://www.writecheck.com/static/ways_to_avoid_plagiarism.html





Plagiarism detection software

24

http://turnitin.com/





Terminology: Fair Use

• Fair Use is a statute under copyright law thatallows for the use of limited portions of awork that has copyright without having to

have permission from the original author. Itwas created for the purposes of educationand research.

• BIG QUESTION, what qualifies as a "limitedportion"?



How to Quote in a Report

Two styles

MLA- Modern Language Association

APA – American Psychological

Association



MLA Quotations

• Indirect: Some researchers note that "children aretotally insensitive to their parents' shyness"(Zimbardo 62).

• Direct: Zimbardo notes that ―children are totallyinsensitive to their parents‘ shyness‖ (62).

• Paraphrasing: Some researchers have observedthat children seem unaware that their parents areconsidered bashful (Zimbardo 62).



APA or Chicago Quotations

• Indirect: Some researchers note that"children are totally insensitive to their parents' shyness" (Zimbardo, 1977, p.62).

• Direct: Zimbardo (1977) notes that ―Childrenare totally insensitive to their parents‘shyness‖ (p. 62).

• Paraphrasing: Some researchers haveobserved that children seem oblivious to their parents‘ bashfulness (Zimbardo, 1977).



MLA Citations

Book

Zimbardo, Philip G. Shyness: What It Is, What To Do About It. Cambridge, Mass.: Perseus Books, 1977.

Print.

Essay/Chapter in a Book

Swanson, Gunnar. "Graphic Design Education as aLiberal Art: Design and Knowledge in the Universityand The 'Real World.'" The Education of a GraphicDesigner. Ed. Steven Heller. New York: Allworth Press,1998. 13-24. Print.

** Many of these examples came from the OWL at Purdue **



MLA Citations

Article

Bagchi, Alaknanda. "Conflicting Nationalisms: The Voiceof the Subaltern in Mahasweta Devi's Bashai Tudu."

Tulsa Studies in Women's Literature 15.1 (1996): 41-50. Print.

Article from a Database

Langhamer , Claire. ―Love and Courtship in Mid-Twentieth-Century England.‖ Historical Journal 50.1(2007): 173-96. ProQuest. Web. 27 May 2009.




MLA Citations

Entire Website

The Purdue OWL Family of Sites. The

Writing Lab and OWL at Purdue and PurdueU, 2008. Web. 6 September 2012.

Page on a Website"How to Make Vegetarian Chili." eHow.com.eHow, n.d. Web. 24 Feb. 2012.




APA Citations

BookZimbardo, P.G. (1977). Shyness: What it is,

what to do about it. Cambridge, Mass.:Perseus Books.

Essay/Chapter in a Book

O'Neil, J. M., & Egan, J. (1992). Men's and

women's gender role journeys: Metaphor for healing, transition, and transformation. In B.R. Wainrib (Ed.), Gender issues across thelife cycle (pp. 107-123). New York: Springer.




APA Citations

ArticleScruton, R. (1996). The eclipse of listening. The New

Criterion, 15(30), 5-13.

Article from a Database

APA does not require that a citation for an articlein a database document that fact. You can cite an

article you find in a database the same way you‘dcite a regular print article, as in the exampleabove.




APA Citations

Website

Lowe, M. (2012). Megan Lowe @ ULM.

January 29, 2012, fromhttp://www.ulm./edu/~lowe.

Item Without Author

Merriam-Webster's collegiate dictionary (10thed.).(1993). Springfield, MA: Merriam-Webster.


http://www.ulm./edu/~lowe

http://www.ulm./edu/~lowe



Presentation Resources

The Purdue Online Writing Lab (OWL)

http://owl.english.purdue.edu/

Harvard Guide to Using Sources

http://isites.harvard.edu/icb/icb.do?keyword=k70847&pageid=icb.page342054

https://www.writecheck.com/static/common_grammar_mistakes.html

http://www.apastyle.org/

http://www.mla.org/

!






http://www.mla.org/

http://www.mla.org/








Tips on Punctuation Adapted from The Craft of Editing (Springer-Verlag, 2000) and The Craft of Scientific Writing , 3rd edition (Springer-Verlag, 1996).

!

?;

:“

‘ ,

.

_ -

{}()

/

Punctuation rules are designed to have



Punctuation rules are designed to havesentences be read one way

Colon: a colon introduces a formal list, long quotation,

equation, or definition.

Semi-Colon: a semi-colon either joins two

independent clauses (closely linked in thought) or

separates complex items in a list.

Dash: a dash acts as a parenthesis to separate items

that cannot be separated by commas.

Comma: a comma separates details in a sentence.



A colon introduces a formal list,long quotation, equation, or

definitionWe studied five types of marsupials: opossums,

bandicoots, koalas, wombats, and kangaroos.

The laboratory growth of this crystal made possible a new

astronomical tool: a gamma-ray detector with high-energy

resolution.

In formal writing, what is on the left side of the colon should stand aloneas a separate sentence.

Once the list ends, the sentence ends.



Although equations are separated by white space,they should be treated as part of the sentence

To calculate the strain, , we used equation 1:

where is the stress estimated by FEPC and E is the modulus of

elasticity of aluminum.

=

E

(1),

Em dashes act as parentheses to



Em-dashes act as parentheses toseparate items that commas cannot

Because two isotopes of hydrogen—deuterium and tritium—arelightweight, can be produced easily, and require little energy, they are

prime candidates to begin the fusion process.

After one year, we measured mirror reflectivity at 96 percent—a high

percentage, but not as high as originally expected.

Because two isotopes of hydrogen (deuterium and tritium) are

lightweight, can be produced easily, and require little energy, they are

prime candidates to begin the fusion process.

After one year, we measured mirror reflectivity at 96 percent (a high

percentage, but not as high as originally expected).



Commas separate introductoryphrases and clauses

After cooling the exhaust gases continue to expand.

After cooling, the exhaust gases continue to expand.



Commas separate parenthetical details

X-ray backscatter systems, which are relatively inexpensive require the

operator‘s attention.

X-ray backscatter systems, which are relatively inexpensive, require the

operator‘s attention.

Parenthetical: Set off within or as if within parentheses; qualifying or

explanatory



An error of ,

Possession

Misplaced modifiers are also very common grammar mistakes:

Incorrect: The girl smiled at the camera holding the basket

of fruit. (The camera was holding the basket of fruit?)

Correct: Holding the basket of fruit, the girl smiled at thecamera.



Hyphenation

“We built a high- performance implementation.” ―high-performance‖ is

hyphenated because ―high‖ modifies ―performance‖ not ―implementation‖.

It's not a ―high implementation‖. Here, ―high-performance‖ is an adjective.

But: “Our implementation has high performance.” Here, ―performance‖ is a

noun. No hyphen. Similarly: ―throughput-oriented workloads‖ or ―GPU-based

implementation‖.

For some words, it's not clear if it should be hyphenated or not (e.g. ―e-mail‖ vs.

―email‖). The general trend in English is to move toward non-hyphenation(e.g. ―to-morrow‖ became ―tomorrow‖).

http://www.ece.ucdavis.edu/~jowens/commonerrors.html





Semi Colon ;;;;

Use the semicolon to separate units of a series when one or more of the units

contain commas.

Example: This conference has people who have come from Boise, Idaho; Los

Angeles, California; and Nashville, Tennessee.

It is preferable to use a semicolon before introductory words such as namely,

however, therefore, that is, i.e., for example, e.g., or for instance when they

introduce a complete sentence. It is also preferable to use a comma after

the introductory word.

Examples: You will want to bring many backpacking items; for example, sleeping bags,

pans, and warm clothing will make the trip better.

As we discussed, you will bring two items; i.e., a sleeping bag and a tent are

not optional.http://www.grammarbook.com/

http://www.grammarbook.com/

http://www.grammarbook.com/



Apostrophes‘‘‘‘‘

Apostrophe errors are also common. Apostrophes are used to showpossession, to show that certain words are plural, and to show that letters are

missing.

Apostrophes show possession:

Jim's coat (singular possession)The children's clothes (possession for plural noun that does not end in s)

The dogs' toys (possession for plural nouns that end in s)Jim and Ted's apartment (possession shown on the last noun)

Apostrophes are also used in contractions to show missing letters and

numbers:

Can't (cannot)I'm (I am)Who's (Who is)‘70 (1970)

Also, when writing the ‗70s, no apostrophe is present after the number when no

possession is being shown.https://www.writecheck.com/static/common_grammar_mistakes.html





The criteria for assessing the environmental effects of acid

rain (are / is) given in the next section.

So far, the daily number of engineers applying (has / have)

remained constant.

The goggles protect a (persons / person‘s) eyes from any

damaging effects that a laser could cause.

In accordance with my (boss‘ / boss‘s) schedule, the first

series of computers was replaced.

are

Two common usage errors are possessivesand subject-verb disagreements

has

person’s

boss’s

http://writing.engr.psu.edu/handbook/visuals.html

Th b t f t th t f t th





The verb tenses of sentences that refer to thedocument depend upon position

Introduction

This report presents a design for connecting light emitting diodes to theHC11 microcontroller.

Results and Discussion

...Figure 1 shows the circuit that connects thelight emitting diodes to the HC11microcontroller.

Conclusions

This report has presented a design for connecting light emitting diodes to the HC11microcontroller. As was shown in Figure 1, thecircuit...

Use numerals when referring to



Use numerals when referring tomeasurements

When to write out numbers

Counting (one or two words) twenty-three gagesInformal measurements two hours

First word of sentence Thirty-three...

When to use numerals

Specific measurements 3 volts, 2 seconds, 1 m/s

Percentages 15 percent

Monetary figures $3000

Large numerals 5 million



We produced a small (amount, number) of autos thisyear, even (fewer, less) than last year.

A company‘s success depends on (its / it's)

employees.

The new material is (composed / comprised) of plastic

and iodine.

It appears (as if, like) the Department of Energy will

choose the third option.

number fewer

Certain words are commonly misused

its

composed

as if

C t i d l i d



Reduced weight was the (principal / principle) reason for

choosing aluminum.

The talk centered (around / on) the (principal / principle) of

virtual work.

(Regrettably / Regretfully), the launch was delayed because

of thunderstorms.

You need not proceed any (farther / further) on your test.

The serum had serious side (affects / effects).

principal

Certain words are commonly misused

on

principle

Regrettably

further

effects

Non-words and nonsensical groupings



g p gof words also cause problems

Whichever design you choose is (alright / all right) with me.

(Irregardless / Regardless) of the shipping delay, the work

will stop because of the strike.

Applying that set of constraints is a (most unique / unique /

very unique) way to approach the problem.

The serum had (alot / a lot) of side effects.

all right

Regardless

unique

a lot



Spelling mistakes

Spell check is not the solution

affecteffect

a fact

they’re their

there

twoto

too

whether

weather

your

you’re

yore

it’s

its



Possible confusion

• accept/except

• affect/effect

• assure/ensure/insure

• enquire/inquire

• Practice (noun) /practise (verb)

• recent/resent

• Weather/whether • Lose/loose

http://www.wsu.edu/~brians/errors/accept.html

http://www.wsu.edu/~brians/errors/accept.html



Common Mistakes in Language

accept vs except Accept is a verb, which means to agree to take something . For example: "I always accept good advice."

Except is a preposition or conjunction, which means not including.

For example: "I teach every day except Sunday(s)."

advice vs advise Advice is a noun, which means an opinion that someone offers

you about what you should do or how you should act in a particular

situation. For example: "I need someone to give me some advice ."

Advise is a verb, which means to give information and suggesttypes of action. For example: "I advise everybody to be nice to their teacher."

!Often in English the noun form ends in ...ice and the verb form

ends in ...ise.



affect vs

effect Affect and effect are two words that are commonly confused. affect is usually a verb (action) - effect is usually a noun (thing) Hint: If it's something you're going to do, use "affect." If it'ssomething you've already done, use "effect." To affect something or someone. Meaning: to influence, act upon, or change something or

someone. For example: The noise outside affected my performance. To have an effect on something or someone !Note: effect is followed by the preposition on and preceded by an

article (an, the) Meaning: to have an impact on something or someone.

For example: His smile had a strange effect on me. !Effect can also mean "the end result". For example: The drug has many adverse side effects .



complement

(v) vs

compliment

(n)

Complement is a verb, which m eans to make

som ething seem better or more attract ive wh en

combined.

For examp le: " The colours b lue and g reen

com plement each oth er perfect ly."

Compl iment is a nou n, which m eans a remark that

expresses appro val , admirat ion o r respect. For examp le: " It was the nicest compl iment anyon e

had ever paid m e." Tip! Having p rob lems with you r spel l ing? Try these

mnemonics : - If i t complements something i t comp letes i t . (With an

e.)

I l ike complim ents. (With an i.)



decent vs

descent

Decent is an adject ive meaning soc ial ly

acceptable or good . For example: Everyone sho uld be enti t led to a

decent standard of l iv ing. Descent is a noun which can mean a movement

downwards, or your ancestry . For example: The plane began its f inal descent

pr ior to landing. / " She found out that she was of

Welsh descent ."



for vssince

The prepos it ions for and s ince are of ten used w ith t ime express ions.

For indic ates a per iod of t ime.

For example:

I have been wo rkin g here for 2 years.

Since indicates a point in t ime.

For example:

I have been workin g here since the year before last.



loose vs lose Loose is an adject ive. If something isn ' t

f ixed proper ly or i t d oesn' t f i t , because it 's too large, it 's loose. For examp le:- My headphones weren' t wo rking , because

a wire was loose. Lose is a verb that means to n o longer

possess something because you do no t

know where it is, or b ecause it has been

taken away from you. For examp le:

A lot o f peop le wil l lose their job if th ere is

a recession .

f f



principal vs

principle

Principal as an adjective means first in order of importance: For example: The Mississippi is the principal river of the

United States. Principal as a noun can mean the head teacher in a school

or college:

For example: The teacher sent the unruly student to see the

principal. Principal as a noun can also mean the original amount of adebt on which interest is calculated

For example: She lives off the interest and tries to keep the

principal intact. Principle is a noun which means a basic idea, standard of behaviour or rule that explains or controls how something

happens or works: For example: The country works on the principle that all

citizens have equal rights.

personal vs Personal is an adjective.



personnel It can mean relating to or belonging to someone. For example: Your personal belongings are the things that belong to you. It can relate to the private parts of someone's life, including their

relationships and feelings.

Personnel is a noun. The people who work for an organisation are the personnel.

For example: military personnel are the members of an army. The department of an organisation that deals with finding people to workthere, keeping records about them, etc is the Personnel Department.



stationary vs

stationery Stat ionary means standing st i l l or not

mov ing

For examp le: "The car was stat ionary." Stat ionery means th e items needed fo r

wri t ing , suc h as paper, pens, penci ls and

envelopes.

For example: " It is th e secretary 's job to

order the stat ionery?" ! 'e ' is fo r envelopes 'a' is for automobi les.



there,

their,

they're There can be used as an adjective of place:-

For example: "The car is over there in the car park." There can also be used as the introductory subject in

sentences:-

For example: "There are some grammar pages on this web

site."

They're is the a contraction of "they are".

For example: "They're always surfing the Internet."

Their is a possessive pronoun like "her" or "our".

For example: "Have they done their homework?" Example: "There's a large family in this town. Look they're

over there by their car." !If you've written "they're," ask yourself whether you can

substitute "they are." If not, you've made a mistake. There"

has "here" inside it to remind you it refers to a place, while

"their" has "heir" buried in it to remind you that it has to do

with possession.

Common Spelling Mistakes I



Common Spelling Mistakes ICorrect Wrong Correct Wrong

supersede supercedesuperceed

pronunciation pronounciation

accommodation accomodation

acommodation

separate seperate

receive recieve necessary neccesarynecesary

definitely definatelydifinately

address adressadres

Common Spelling Mistakes II



Common Spelling Mistakes II

Correct Wrong Correct Wrong

occurrence occurence useful usefull

independent independant beginning begining

questionnaire questionaire parallel paralelparalellparrallel

http://www.learnenglish.de/spelling/CommonSpellingMistakes.htm





Many more such errors

Good Places to learn

• http://www.learnenglish.de/mistakes/CommonMistakes.h

tm

• http://www.engvid.com/english-resource/50-common-

grammar-mistakes-in-english/

• http://public.wsu.edu/~brians/errors/errors.html

• http://www.englishforums.com/content/resources/commo

n-spelling-mistakes-in-english.htm

• http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Lists_of_common_

misspellings

http://www.learnenglish.de/mistakes/CommonMistakes.htm


http://www.engvid.com/english-resource/50-common-grammar-mistakes-in-english/


http://public.wsu.edu/~brians/errors/errors.html

http://www.englishforums.com/content/resources/common-spelling-mistakes-in-english.htm


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Lists_of_common_misspellings














http://public.wsu.edu/~brians/errors/errors.html


















Latin Terms commonly used in Reports

e.g. – for example

i.e. – that is

ibid - Latin word ibidem, which means ―in the same place.‖

et al - stands for et alii which translates as ―and other people.‖

circa- around: e.g. - c. 3000 B.C.

viz - namely

e g and i e



e.g. and i.e

USAGE

Let‘s look at some examples of how to use i.e. and e.g. correctly:

YES The rocky planets (e.g., Mercury) are closest to our sun. NO The rocky planets (i.e., Mercury) are closest to our sun.

Mercury is not equivalent to the rocky planets-they‘re not thesame thing. Mercury is just one example of a rocky planet,therefore e.g. is appropriate.

YES The rocky planets (i.e., Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars) are closest toour sun.

YES Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars (i.e., the rocky planets) are closest to our sun.

NO The rocky planets (e.g., Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars) are closest to our sun.

http://writingcenter.unc.edu/handouts/latin-terms-and-abbreviations/

e g and i e











e.g. and i.e

USAGE

In some instances, i.e. and e.g. may both be acceptable,but using one or the other will drastically change the

meaning of the sentence. For example:

1. Farmer Brown sells his produce (e.g., apples, oranges,carrots) at the market.

2. Farmer Brown sells his produce (i.e., apples, oranges,

carrots) at the market.

??? Spot the difference












Ibid.

The abbreviation ibid. stands for the Latin word ibidem, which means―in the same place.‖

It is used in endnotes or footnotes when you cite the same source and

page number(s) two or more times.

If you cite the same source but a different page number, you can use

ibid. followed by a comma and the page number(s). Also, note that ibid.

is capitalized when it begins a note.

For example:

1. Barsby, 99-101.

2. Ibid.

3. Ibid., 97. http://writingcenter.unc.edu/handouts/latin-terms-and-abbreviations/











et al.

EXAMPLE: Even the recent Gartner repo rt from star analyst Jane Disbrow et al. shows that 61% of their customers have been

audited by at least one softw are vendor. [ Forbes ]

Et al.is an abbreviation of the Latin loanphrase et alii , meaning and

others. It is similar to etc.(short for et cetera, meaning and the rest ),

but whereas etc. applies to things, et al. applies to people.

If you cite one author in body text, it should be ― AuthorOne‖. Two

authors: ― AuthorOne and AuthorTwo‖. Three or more authors:

― AuthorOne et al.‖

Name of the first author will be given in full and then followed by et al.

As with etc., there is no need to include ‘and’ before et al.


http://www.forbes.com/sites/ciocentral/2011/04/19/tuesdays-tip-dealing-with-pesky-software-licensing-audits/









http://www.forbes.com/sites/ciocentral/2011/04/19/tuesdays-tip-dealing-with-pesky-software-licensing-audits/



Now you can do

rajnish kumar on report writing june 2013

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