Guarding dogs are usefultools for reducing livestocklosses to predators. Success

depends on the inborn abilities ofthe dog and on proper training. Thispublication provides suggestions forbringing out the best performance inyour livestock-guarding dog.

We’ll review the basics of guard-ing dog behavior and methods forstarting a pup with sheep. We’lldiscuss problems that you mightencounter during the trainingprocess, as well as possible solutions.

Basic behavior patterns are thesame for any of the Old Worldbreeds, such as Anatolian Shepherd,Castro Laboreiro, Great Pyrenees,Komondor, Kuvasz, Maremma,Polish Tatra, Shar Planinetz, andTibetan Mastiff. Our suggestionswill work for any of these breeds.Furthermore, over the past 200 years,the Navajos have used the samemethods to train dogs for guardianduty in New Mexico and Arizona.

Training a guarding dog usestechniques that are much differentfrom those used in training a dog forobedience, hunting, or herding.

Training a livestock-guarding dogis primarily a matter of raising thedog with sheep to establish a socialbond between sheep and dog(Figure 1). It’s a process thatdepends on supervision to preventbad habits from developing and onestablishing limits of acceptable

behavior that are compatible withyour operation.

Successful training produces anadult that’s trustworthy with sheep,attentive to sheep, and protective ofsheep. These factors build on oneanother: protective behavior ismainly the result of trustworthy andattentive behavior.

Training may include specificgoals that blend with your operation.Perhaps your dog must not jumpfences, must adjust to rotationalgrazing, or must avoid antipredator

devices. Deciding where you wantthe dog to work and which sheepyou want the dog to protect areother factors in developing a suc-cessful training program.

Raising and Training aLivestock-guarding DogJ.R. Lorenz and L. Coppinger

EC 1238Reprinted May 2002

$1.50

Figure 1.—These 8-week Maremma pups are being raised in the lambing barn. Thevertical boards nailed to the feed trough give pups a place to escape from a ewethat may butt. Sniffing nose-to-nose is the start of social bonding. Note the similarityof the interaction between this lamb and pup to the ram and adult dog in Figure 2b.

Jay R. Lorenz, former Extensionwildlife specialist, Oregon StateUniversity; and Lorna Coppinger,faculty associate, Hampshire College,Amherst, Massachusetts.

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Basic guardingdog behavior

Livestock-guarding dogs havetraits that distinguish them fromother breeds. They tend to retainpuppylike characteristics throughouttheir adult lives—licking the muzzleof an adult, food begging, playwrestling, following parents orlittermates, staying near a home orden site, barking when somethingnew or strange approaches, andabsence of predatory behavior.

The frequency of display of thesebehaviors varies among dogs, but itcan be encouraged and reinforced ina dog through learning and positiveexperience. Your dog will directmany of these behaviors toward thesheep as if they were littermates orparents.

Livestock-guarding dogs alsotend to follow a routine. Establish-ing an acceptable routine for agrowing pup will help to set thepattern of adult behavior. A well-established pattern or routine oftenis difficult to change.

For example, a pup that neverlearns to jump a fence may neverbecome a fence-jumper as an adult.However, if fence jumping becomesan established routine, it’s difficultto correct.

TrustworthyThe absence of predatory behav-

ior is the basis of trustworthiness.Livestock-guarding dogs areselected to display investigatory andsubmissive behaviors that do notthreaten sheep or other livestock.

Approaching sheep with earsback and squinted eyes, avoidingdirect eye contact, and lying on theback are called submissive behav-iors (Figure 2). Sniffing around thehead or anal areas is called investi-gatory behavior. Both are desirablebehaviors, signs that your dog hasthe right instincts and is workingproperly.

Figure 2a.—These three different submissive poses of an adult Maremma allowsheep to investigate, and each one fosters dog–sheep bonding. Here, eyes aresquinted and ears are back; forepaw and rear leg are raised. The dog is preparedto roll over on its back as in Figure 4a.

Figure 2c.—Again with squinted eyes and ears back, the dog avoids direct eyecontact with sheep.

Figure 2b.—Eyes are squinted, and ears are back in this nose-to-nose sniffing.

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AttentiveThe attraction of a guarding dog

to a homesite and to surrogate litter-mates is the basis of attentiveness.Flock guardians are selected fortheir ability to follow other animals.Following a moving flock andsleeping and loafing among the sheepare signs of attentiveness to sheep.

A dog that retreats to the flock atthe approach of a stranger is show-ing another good sign of a sheep-attentive dog. Researchers haveshown a direct correlation betweenattentiveness to livestock and areduction in predation. Therefore,success depends on training yourpup to follow sheep.

ProtectiveThe basis of protectiveness is

your dog’s ability to react to devia-tions from the routine. Consequently,flock guardians are selected for theirability to bark at new or strangeactivities.

Typically, a young pup willrespond to a new or strange situationby rushing out and barking with tailraised over its back or it will retreat

to the sheep or homesite, if chal-lenged, with tail between its legs.This is called approach-withdrawalbehavior (Figure 3).

A predator—let’s say a coyote—usually avoids the threateningapproach-withdrawal behavior of aguarding dog. Attacking a predatorgenerally is unnecessary, and itrarely occurs.

Interactions with potentialpredators often involve complexbehaviors that are difficult to inter-pret. Approach-withdrawal behaviormay quickly shift to an aggressivedisplay of dominance or a hastyretreat to the sheep. It might becoupled with defense of food ormaternal-like defense of a younglamb.

The distance of the approachtoward strange activity increases asthe dog matures. The distance a dogtravels varies with individuals butrarely extends beyond the bound-aries of the property. Becauseprotective behavior develops as aresult of good trustworthy andattentive behaviors, it doesn’trequire specific training.

Raising your pup

Social bondsDuring the first year, training

should emphasize socializing yourdog with sheep to form socialbonds. Social contacts made shortlyafter weaning are believed to beimportant for correct social contactsas adults.

Young pups confined with sheepare more likely as adults to prefersheep to people or other dogs.Similarly, lambs that are raised witha dog will show an attachment asadults to the dog with which theywere raised. An important point isthat the sheep–dog bond involvestraining both sheep and dog.

Many producers find lambingseason to be convenient for startinga pup. Pups can be started inside abarn or shed. Allow the pup tomingle with lambs in grouping pens.

Timing the arrival of a pup withlambing can be difficult. Therefore,any of the strategies below can beused to start a pup any time of theyear.

Rearing your pup with sheepFrom the start, it’s very important

to keep your dog with sheep and toavoid contact with your house, withpeople, and with other dogs—including littermates.

Pen your newly weaned pup withsix or more sheep for 8 to 16 weeks(until it’s 5 months old) near water,bedding ground, or other pointswhere the sheep gather (Figure 4).Possible pen locations are a lambingbarn, lamb creep, night corral, orpasture.

One Texas rancher started a newpup in a welded-wire pen under ashade tree in a pasture. He kept sixsheep in the pen at all times, rotatingsheep several times a week to giveall flock members an opportunity tomeet the dog.

He kept food, water, and shelterfor the dog and sheep in the pen. Heplaced a salt lick outside the pen todraw other flock members near the

Figure 3.—This is a display of approach-withdrawal behavior. There’s real uncer-tainty here: The dog’s hackles and tail are raised in a posture of dominance oraggression, but his ears are back and he avoids eye contact with the intruder—postures of submission. The dog circles between sheep and intruder. Will thisdisplay become aggressive? The chance that it might is enough to ward off mostpredators. Note how calmly the sheep are feeding in the background.

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dog. He let the pup out to exerciseseveral times a week.

Hampshire College used avariation of the Texas rancher’ssystem. Pups were placed individu-ally in pens containing a calf hutchwith a lamb or a ewe. Heavy-wirecattle panels formed the sides of thepen. Wire panels were mounted oninsulators and connected to electricfencing.

Another variation used by ranch-ers in Oregon is training pens madeout of fencing wire. Training penscan be made using a combination ofwoven, barbed, smooth, or poly wire.Any metal fencing material can bemounted on insulators and connectedto an electric charger.

Even if your pastures are notsurrounded by electric fences,teaching your pup that fences are“hot” decreases the likelihood of itssqueezing through or jumping over(wandering).

At 5 months—when the adultteeth erupt—open the gate of thetraining pen. Your pup should followthe sheep out to the main flock.Continue to pen several sheep andthe pup at night for another monthor two. A young dog also can bepenned if you’re away for prolongedperiods.

Leave the gate to the training penopen when the pup is out with thesheep. This will give the pup accessto its homesite. In addition, you canuse the pen as a feeding station.

For an older dog, a doghousemakes a good homesite and feedingstation. It can double as a salt lickfor the sheep if you add a tray on theback of the house. The doghousethen becomes a socializing point forboth dog and sheep. You easily canmove this homesite from one pastureto the next if you build it on skids,go-cart wheels, or a trailer frame.

These examples work well forranchers who want to keep their dogin distant pastures, away from thehouse, and away from constantshepherding. Remember the con-cept: If you want your dog to

Figure 4b.—The pup’s sitting posture is another aspect of submissive behavior, thistime with a touch of curiosity—what are those sheep eating?

Figure 4a.—At 16 weeks of age, this Anatolian pup is in a well-fenced dry lot withewes. The pup’s submissive posture allows sheep to investigate.

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become attentive to sheep, you mustraise it with them.

Use your own judgment aboutwhen to leave your dog unpennedwithout supervision. Normally, youcan do so when the dog is between6 and 8 months of age. A good signthat you can leave your dog alone isthat it stays with the sheep ratherthan following you as you leave thepasture.

It may be a mistake to leave a 4- or5-month-old pup alone in a distantpasture, even if the pup is trustworthyand attentive (Figure 5). Such ayoung pup doesn’t have the size andstrength to defend itself from

marauding predators, and a badexperience at that age may preventits development into a good guard-ing dog.

Spooky sheepConfinement of a pup with sheep

in a small area promotes the pup’sinteraction with spooky sheep. Youmight corral the pup with the flockat night or follow the example of theTexas rancher.

An alternative is to raise thesheep with replacement lambs thatyou plan to incorporate into themain flock. Once the dog has madea bond with one group of sheep,other sheep tend to follow.

It’s not a good idea to raise thepup with a flock of market lambs—and then expect your dog to beattentive to older spooky ewes whenyou sell the lambs. In one early trial,a pup was trustworthy and attentivetoward the market lambs with whichit was raised. When the pup was6 months old, the rancher sold themarket lambs and placed the dogwith the ewe flock. The ewes fled,which in turn triggered a play chasefrom the dog.

Herding dogsKeep the duties of your herding

or pet dogs separate from those ofyour guarding dogs. A guarding dogthat plays with other dogs reinforcesthe dog–dog bond rather than thedog–sheep bond.

However, introduce your herdingdog to your guarding dog so theguardian doesn’t act aggressivelytoward the herder. Sometimes, aguarding dog will act aggressivelytoward your neighbor’s herding dog,even though it’s friendly towardyour herding dog.

Aggression of a guarding dogtoward either herding dogs orintruding dogs likely will depend ondifferences in age, sex, familiarity,and individual temperament.Antagonistic displays tend to occurmost often as a result of competitionbetween dogs of the same sex andage.

PattingPat your dog only with deliberate

planning because patting reinforcesthe dog–human bond. The more youpat the dog, the more it will seekhuman attention. Some dog–humanbonding is needed because familymembers and hired help need tointeract occasionally with the dog—when, for example, you need to takehealth exams or rotate pastures.

It’s appropriate to pat the dog atfeeding time or during checks ofsheep, but do it in the middle of thepasture or within the pen. Pattingyour dog through the fence, over a

Figure 5.—At 6 months of age, these Shar Planinetz are being taught to follow theflock in a range operation in the former Yugoslavia.

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gate, or at the house reinforcesfrequent visits to these locations.

Don’t pat your dog or feed it at asteady location unless you want it tobe there. Obedience training isn’tappropriate—it tends to increasesocial bonding to people.

SummaryEach dog, handler, and ranch

share a unique set of conditions.Needs and expectations in predatorcontrol are different for a small,part-time producer close to town, amidsize commercial producer, and alarge range operator.

For example, the small-flockowner may be close to town or closeto neighbors. Neighbors and frequentvisitors can be a distraction for thedog. On the small farmstead, extrapatting can reinforce the bond toyour property and familiarize thedog to people.

A dog that displays attentivenessto people but moves freely about thefarm can provide a degree ofprotection even if it’s not with thesheep all the time.

On the other hand, a commercialproducer with several hundred sheepmay require a dog that is shy ofpeople. A dog that prefers sheep topeople will work better in unsuper-vised settings. Shyness to peoplecan be fostered by minimizinghuman attention, beginning at5 weeks of age.

Range operators face otherproblems. Training pens are imprac-tical at a range camp that’s movedfrequently. Range operators woulddo better to raise the pup withreplacement ewe lambs or dry ewesat the home ranch the first year. Analternative is to purchase an 8-monthor older dog that was started atanother ranch. An older dog couldbe taken directly to the range camp.

Problems—and somesolutions

The first step in diagnosing abehavioral problem is to relate it toone of the three basic behavioral

attributes: trustworthiness, attentive-ness, or protectiveness. Experienceshows that most problems relate toone of these three categories, so wepresent them here in that order.Then, we discuss two specialsituations, rotational grazing andantipredator devices.

Not trustworthyOccasionally, a dog will injure or

kill a sheep. Most behaviors result-ing in injuries to livestock arecorrectable. They usually have oneof these causes: play, injury to a sickor odd sheep, injury to a newbornlamb, or stalking.

Play. Pups, especially from 5 to10 months old, may start playingwith sheep the same way they playwith littermates. They usuallyoutgrow disruptive play behavior by12 to 18 months.

Typically, a young dog will runaround a sheep in a circle and stopquickly—front paws extended, rearend raised with tail wagging, andhead lowered as in a bow. Ears maybe cocked up and forward. If thesheep runs, a play chase often follows.

Sometimes, the dog grabs woolor nibbles on the sheep’s ears as itruns alongside. Experienced sheepgenerally don’t run from the playapproach of a young dog. Sheepalso don’t run if the dog is preventedfrom chasing.

Corrective behavior is mandatorywhen chasing occurs: the problemcan become serious as the sheepdevelop fear, and the dog’s successreinforces further chasing. Youmight throw a stick in the dog’sdirection to divert its attention orspank the dog and give it a firm “No!”

Your dog may tend to play with aspecific group of sheep, such aslambs. In that case, place the pupwith rams or older ewes until theundesirable behavior subsides. Adifferent group of sheep can inhibitthe play approaches of a young pup.

A dangle stick is a useful trainingtool for playful pups that are leftunattended with the flock. This is aboard, stick, or tire section (18 to

30 inches long) that dangles from ahook attached to the dog’s collar.Snap the stick to the collar with aswivel hook.

The stick should hang 3 or4 inches above the ground when thedog stands upright. The deviceallows the dog to eat, drink, anddisplay submissive and investigatorybehaviors. But when the dog tries torun, the stick gets tangled about thelegs. This provides immediatediscipline and prevents a playfulchase.

You can use this device on aplayful pup for 3 to 4 weeks.Remove it in stages. First, removethe stick but leave the dangle chain;then, remove the chain when allplayful behavior stops.

Another contribution to playbehavior may be excess energycaused by improper feeding. A pupthat’s fed excess calories can eitherstore them as fat or burn them inplay activity.

If a pup is playful and fat, reduceits energy intake (but not the quan-tity of food) by selecting a chowthat’s low in fat and carbohydrates.Tests indicate that overactive dogsplaced on a diet of cooked oats for2 weeks show reduced play. A dietof cooked oats is high in fiber andcreates a feeling of fullness withoutproviding excess energy.

Sick or odd sheep. On rareoccasions, a pup or older dog mayinjure or kill a sick, weak, or oddsheep. Sheep with severe cases offoot rot or those weakened byinternal parasites or other medicalproblems may be attacked byotherwise trustworthy dogs.

There are documented cases ofdogs chewing on dead scrotal sacsor tails that remain followingcastration or docking with rubberbands. Sheep whose heads arecaught in woven wire fences orfeeders have been injured also.

Trustworthy dogs that displayunusual behavior toward sick or oddsheep normally don’t becomegeneralized sheep-killers. Treat or

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remove the sick or odd sheep—don’t remove the dog from guardianduty.

Newborn lambs. Several guard-ing dogs made mistakes during theirfirst exposure to lambing. Typically,the injurious behavior occurred tothe firstborn lambs of the season.

Supervision is required duringyour dog’s first exposure to lambs.Tie or pen the pup if necessary.Discipline prevents a young dogfrom making further mistakes.(Those same dogs were trustworthywith newborn lambs in later years.)Eating afterbirths is normal, and itwon’t lead to injurious behavior tosheep.

Stalking. An uncorrectableproblem is frequent stalking in acrouch with lowered head, like aBorder Collie. This response tosheep is an inborn trait of herdingdogs. Training can’t prevent thedisplay of such inborn characteris-tics. Stalking behavior is virtuallynonexistent in the Old Worldguarding dogs. If it does occur,replace the dog.

Not attentiveThe most common problem here

is a dog returning to areas of humanactivity, around the house or thebarn. Wandering off the propertygenerally is associated with investi-gatory activity at a nearby house orranch or with sexual behavior.

Very few dogs are attentive100 percent of the time, and most ofthem sleep during the day. Summerheat may reduce attention towardsheep.

Human activity. If your dog’sbond is greater to your house orbarn than to the sheep, look for oneor more of these causes:• You’ve patted or played with the

dog• The dog is attracted to house dogs• Sheep don’t accept the dog

You can avoid these problems bystrictly following the training routinedescribed in “Rearing your pup,”page 3.

Some curiosity toward areas ofactivity such as corrals or barnyardscan be expected—alertness is thebasis of protectiveness. A dog thatisn’t primarily responsive to theactivity of sheep may be lesseffective.

However, dogs attentive to peoplecan be effective in these situations:where a shepherd is constantlypresent, within an electric fence, orwhere pastures surround house andbarn.

Wandering may be associatedwith an attraction to human activityor with sexual activity of both malesand females. Neutering your dogbetween 6 and 12 months of age canprevent unwanted wanderingassociated with sexual activity inboth sexes. Neutering doesn’t seemto affect other qualities of guardingdogs.

Summer heat. Large dogs,especially if they haven’t shed theirwinter coats, may have difficultydissipating excess heat during summermonths. Your dog may retreatbeneath a barn or dig a hole in cooldirt—and show no interest in sheep.

Brushing out underfur andshearing long-coated dogs may help.Provide plenty of cool water. Seekveterinary assistance if the dog’stemperature rises above 102°F.

Not protectiveConsistency in your training for

trustworthiness and attentivenesswill contribute to protectiveness.Most protectiveness problems areassociated with poor attentiveness.Your dog’s protectiveness alsodepends on its aggressiveness andon factors such as density of preda-tors and flocking behavior of sheep.

Aggression toward predatorsdepends on age and sex, and itvaries among individual dogs.Displays of dominance associatedwith aggression may not appearuntil your dog reaches 18 months.

Don’t punish a young dog for notacting aggressively toward a pack ofolder strays. An attentive dog that’sonly moderately aggressive still can

be an effective guarding dog byalerting a shepherd with barks or bydiverting the attention of the preda-tor to itself, and thus away from thesheep.

Scattered sheep. A single dogmay have difficulty protecting largenumbers of widely scattered sheep,especially where predator densitiesare high. In this case, you mighteither keep sheep flocked to maxi-mize the dog’s effectiveness, or adda second or third dog for reinforce-ment. Adjusting the number of dogsin a sheep operation must be doneon a case-by-case basis.

Other factorsRotational grazing. Moves to

new quarters may upset your dog’sroutine. You should anticipate thisand incorporate your moves into thetraining. The transition is easier ifyou move a doghouse or pen(homesite and feeding station) withthe dog.

Walking your dog around theperimeter of a new pasture is a goodmethod for introducing new sur-roundings. Sometimes, you mayhave to tie your dog in a new pasturefor 1 to 3 days before it adjusts tothe new location.

Antipredator devices. Don’t useejector devices or poison baits inpastures when a guarding dog ispresent. If ejector devices must beused in the vicinity of your pasture,you’ll need to teach your dog toavoid them.

One method is to bait the devicewith scent and fill the capsule withred pepper and hot sauce. Your dogwill associate the scent with theunpalatable taste. Remember toretrain your dog each time you use anew scent.

Raising a second orreplacement dog

Sheep producers find that raisinga second or replacement dog iseasier than raising their first dog.Sheep producer and sheep havemore experience the second timearound.

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The sheep producer has the addedconvenience of using an older dogas a “teaching” dog. A pup that hasan older dog to follow may be leftunsupervised at an earlier age than apup that’s raised alone with sheep.

Through 16 weeks of age, it’s agood idea to keep your replacementpup near the watchful eye of ashepherd. Pen the pup with sheep ina barn, corral, or pasture as wedescribed in “Rearing your pup withsheep,” page 3.

By 16 weeks, you can let the pupfollow the older dog and benefitfrom the older dog’s supervision.Producers find that replacementpups direct playful energy towardolder dogs rather than sheep and thatexperienced sheep are less skittisharound a new dog when a familiarone also is present.

You’ll want to consider starting areplacement when your first dogreaches 2 to 4 years of age, becauseit takes 11⁄2 to 2 years for a guardingdog to mature.

Fatal accidents are high in youngdogs 6 months to 2 years old andlow in the middle years (2 to 6). Ifyou have two dogs on your ranch,separated in age by 2 to 4 years,your odds are the best that you’llalways have a guardian with yourflock.

More assistanceThere’s no way to anticipate the

full range of good and bad behaviorsyour dog may exhibit. Don’t hesitateto call on your county Extensionagent if you have questions about

the behavior or management of yourdog. If you need further assistance,call your state Animal DamageControl office listed under U.S.Department of Agriculture, Animaland Plant Health Inspection Service,or call the Western Regional Officeat 303-969-6560.

For further readingBlack, H. and J. Green, “Navajo

Use of Mixed-Breed Dogs forManagement of Predators,” Journalof Range Management, 1985, 38(1):11–15.

Coppinger, L. and R. Coppinger,“Livestock-guarding Dogs,” Coun-try Journal, April 1980, pp. 68–77.

Coppinger, L. and R. Coppinger,“Livestock-guarding Dogs ThatWear Sheep’s Clothing,”Smithsonian, April 1982, pp. 65–73.

Coppinger, R., L. Coppinger,G. Langeloh, L. Gettler, andJ. Lorenz, “A Decade of Use ofLivestock Guarding Dogs,” Pro-ceedings of the 13th Vertebrate PestConference, Monterey, CA, 1988.

Coppinger, R., J. Lorenz,J. Glendinning, and P. Pinardi,“Attentiveness of Guarding Dogs forReducing Predation on DomesticSheep,” Journal of Range Manage-ment, 1983, 36(3): 275–279.

Green, J. and R. Woodruff,“Breed Comparisons and Character-istics of Use of Livestock GuardingDogs,” Journal of Range Manage-ment, 1988, 41(3): 249–251.

Green, J. and R. Woodruff,Guarding Dogs Protect Sheep fromPredators, USDA AgriculturalInformation Bulletin 588, revised1993.

Green, J., R. Woodruff, andT. Teuller, “Livestock GuardingDogs for Predator Control: Costs,Benefits, and Practicality,” WildlifeSociety Bulletin, 1984, 12(1): 44–50.

Lorenz, J., R. Coppinger, andM. Sutherland, “Causes and Eco-nomic Effects of Mortality inLivestock Guarding Dogs,” Journalof Range Management, 1986, 39(4):293–295.

Ordering instructionsIf you would like additional

copies of EC 1238, Raising andTraining a Livestock-guarding Dog,send $1.50 per copy to:

Publication OrdersExtension & Station

CommunicationsOregon State University422 Kerr AdministrationCorvallis, OR 97331-2119Fax: 541-737-0817We offer discounts on orders of

100 or more copies of a single title.Please call 541-737-2513 for pricequotes.

World Wide WebYou can access our Publications

and Videos catalog and many of ourpublications through our Web site athttp://eesc.oregonstate.edu

There are many sites aboutlivestock-guarding dogs on the Web.Search “livestock guarding dog” onyour search engine, or start withhttp://www.lgd.org (the Web site ofthe Livestock Guarding DogAssociation).

© 1996 Oregon State University

Produced and distributed in furtherance of the Acts of Congress of May 8 and June 30, 1914. Extension work is a cooperative program of OregonState University, the U.S. Department of Agriculture, and Oregon counties. Oregon State University Extension Service offers educational programs,activities, and materials—without regard to race, color, religion, sex, sexual orientation, national origin, age, marital status, disability, and disabledveteran or Vietnam-era veteran status—as required by Title VI of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, Title IX of the Education Amendments of 1972, andSection 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973. Oregon State University Extension Service is an Equal Opportunity Employer.

Revised December 1988. Reprinted May 2002.

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