rainforest on floodplain - south endeavour · nsw 1scientific 1committee 1(1999) 1lowland...

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KewilpaȱPlanȱofȱManagementȱ7ȱSeptemberȱ2009ȱ Pageȱ53ȱ

APPENDIXȱDȱȬȱTHREATENEDȱSPECIESȱPROFILESȱȱȱTheȱ followingȱ profilesȱ areȱ sourcedȱ fromȱ theȱ Departmentȱ ofȱ Environmentȱ andȱ ClimateȱChange.ȱȱ

LowlandȱRainforestȱonȱFloodplainȱ ȱScientificȱname:ȱLowlandȱRainforestȱonȱFloodplainȱinȱtheȱNewȱSouthȱWalesȱNorthȱCoastȱBioregionȱȱConservationȱstatusȱinȱNSW:ȱEndangeredȱEcologicalȱCommunityȱȱDescriptionȱLowlandȱRainforestȱ onȱ Floodplainȱ isȱ aȱ rainforestȱ communityȱwhichȱ nowȱ occursȱ onlyȱ asȱsmallȱremnantsȱinȱscatteredȱlocalitiesȱonȱtheȱNSWȱnorthȱcoast,ȱwithȱlessȱthanȱ1000haȱinȱtotalȱthoughtȱ toȱremain.ȱLargerȱstandsȱofȱ theȱcommunityȱ typicallyȱhaveȱaȱdenseȱcanopy,ȱwhichȱblocksȱ mostȱ lightȱ fromȱ reachingȱ theȱ ground,ȱ creatingȱ cool,ȱ moistȱ conditionsȱ within.ȱLowlandȱRainforestȱonȱFloodplainȱsupportsȱaȱrichȱdiversityȱofȱplantsȱandȱanimals.ȱTypicalȱtreeȱ speciesȱ inȱ theȱcommunityȱ includeȱ figsȱFicusȱmacrophylla,ȱF.ȱobliquaȱandȱF.ȱwatkinsiana,ȱpalmsȱArchontophoenixȱ cunninghamianaȱ andȱ Livistonaȱ australis,ȱ SilkyȱOakȱGrevilleaȱ robusta,ȱBlackȱBeanȱCastanospermumȱ australeȱandȱBrushȱCherryȱSyzygiumȱ australe.ȱAnimalsȱpresentȱincludeȱfruitȬeatingȱrainforestȱpigeons,ȱNoisyȱPitta,ȱBrushȬturkey,ȱpademelons,ȱflyingȱfoxes,ȱtheȱLandȱMulletȱskinkȱandȱrainforestȱsnails.ȱȱDistributionȱTheȱNSWȱnorthȱcoast.ȱȱHabitatȱandȱecologyȱȱThisȱcommunityȱoccursȱonȱfertileȱsoilsȱinȱlowlandȱriverȱvalleys.ȱȱThreatsȱ

x Clearingȱ andȱ fragmentationȱ ofȱ habitatȱ forȱdevelopmentȱandȱagriculture.ȱȱ

x Invasionȱ ofȱ communityȱ byȱ introducedȱ weeds,ȱparticularlyȱexoticȱvinesȱandȱlantana.ȱȱ

x Degradationȱofȱhabitatȱbyȱfire.ȱȱx Degradationȱofȱhabitatȱbyȱgrazingȱstock.ȱȱx Dumpingȱofȱrubbishȱwithinȱrainforestȱremnants.ȱ

ȱReferencesȱNSWȱNPWSȱ(2002).ȱThreatenedȱSpeciesȱofȱtheȱUpperȱNorthȱCoastȱofȱNSW:ȱFlora.ȱNSWȱNPWS,ȱ

CoffsȱHarbour,ȱNSW.ȱȱNSWȱ ScientificȱCommitteeȱ (1999)ȱ Lowlandȱ rainforestȱ onȱ floodplainȱ inȱ theȱNSWȱNorthȱ Coastȱ

BioregionȱȬȱEndangeredȱecologicalȱcommunityȱdeterminationȱȬȱfinal.ȱDECȱ(NSW),ȱSydney.ȱ

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Image:ȱ Michaelȱ Murphyȱ ©ȱMichaelȱMurphy

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SwampȱSclerophyllȱForestȱonȱCoastalȱFloodplainsȱ ȱScientificȱname:ȱSwampȱsclerophyllȱ forestȱonȱcoastalȱ floodplainsȱofȱ theȱNSWȱNorthȱCoast,ȱSydneyȱBasinȱandȱSouthȱEastȱCornerȱbioregions.ȱConservationȱstatusȱinȱNSW:ȱEndangeredȱEcologicalȱCommunityȱȱDescriptionȱThisȱ swampȱ communityȱ hasȱ anȱ openȱ toȱ denseȱ treeȱ layerȱ ofȱeucalyptsȱandȱpaperbarksȱalthoughȱ someȱ remnantsȱnowȱonlyȱhaveȱ scatteredȱ treesȱ asȱ aȱ resultȱ ofȱ partialȱ clearing.ȱ Theȱ treesȱmayȱexceedȱ25ȱmȱinȱheight,ȱbutȱcanȱbeȱconsiderablyȱshorterȱinȱregrowthȱ standsȱ orȱ underȱ conditionsȱ ofȱ lowerȱ siteȱ qualityȱwhereȱ theȱ treeȱstratumȱ isȱ lowȱandȱdense.ȱForȱexample,ȱstandsȱdominatedȱbyȱMelaleucaȱericifoliaȱtypicallyȱdoȱnotȱexceedȱ8ȱmȱinȱheight.ȱTheȱ communityȱ alsoȱ includesȱ someȱ areasȱ ofȱ fernlandȱandȱtallȱreedlandȱorȱsedgeland,ȱwhereȱtreesȱareȱveryȱsparseȱorȱabsent.ȱȱȱTheȱmostȱwidespreadȱ andȱ abundantȱ dominantȱ treesȱ includeȱEucalyptusȱrobustaȱ(swampȱmahogany),ȱMelaleucaȱquinquenerviaȱ(paperbark)ȱ and,ȱ southȱ fromȱ Sydney,ȱ Eucalyptusȱ botryoidesȱ (bangalay)ȱ andȱ Eucalyptusȱlongifoliaȱ(woollybut).ȱOtherȱtreesȱmayȱbeȱscatteredȱthroughoutȱatȱlowȱabundanceȱorȱmayȱbeȱlocallyȱ commonȱ atȱ fewȱ sites,ȱ includingȱ Callistemonȱ salignusȱ (sweetȱ willowȱ bottlebrush),ȱCasuarinaȱglaucaȱ (swampȱoak)ȱandȱEucalyptusȱ resiniferaȱsubsp.ȱhemilampraȱ (redȱmahogany),ȱLivistonaȱaustralisȱ(cabbageȱpalm)ȱandȱLophostemonȱsuaveolensȱ(swampȱturpentine).ȱȱAȱlayerȱofȱsmallȱtreesȱmayȱbeȱpresent,ȱincludingȱAcaciaȱirrorataȱ(greenȱwattle),ȱAcmenaȱsmithiiȱ(lillyȱ pilly),ȱ Elaeocarpusȱ reticulatusȱ (blueberryȱ ash),ȱ Glochidionȱ ferdinandiȱ (cheeseȱ tree),ȱMelaleucaȱlinariifoliaȱandȱM.ȱstyphelioidesȱ(paperbarks).ȱȱShrubsȱ includeȱ Acaciaȱ longifolia,ȱ Dodonaeaȱ triquetra,ȱ Ficusȱ coronata,ȱ Leptospermumȱpolygalifoliumȱ subsp.ȱ polygalifoliumȱ andȱ Melaleucaȱ spp..ȱOccasionalȱ vinesȱ includeȱ Parsonsiaȱ straminea,ȱ MorindaȱjasminoidesȱandȱStephaniaȱjaponicaȱvar.ȱdiscolor.ȱȱTheȱgroundcoverȱ isȱcomposedȱofȱabundantȱsedges,ȱ ferns,ȱforbs,ȱ andȱ grassesȱ includingȱ Gahniaȱ clarkei,ȱ Pteridiumȱesculentum,ȱ Hypolepisȱ muelleri,ȱ Calochlaenaȱ dubia,ȱ Dianellaȱcaerulea,ȱ Violaȱ hederacea,ȱ Lomandraȱ longifolia,ȱ EntolasiaȱmarginataȱandȱImperataȱcylindrica.ȱȱOnȱ sitesȱ downslopeȱ ofȱ lithicȱ substratesȱ orȱwithȱ soilsȱ ofȱclayȬloamȱ texture,ȱ speciesȱ suchȱ asȱ Allocasuarinaȱ littoralis,ȱBanksiaȱ oblongifolia,ȱ B.ȱ spinulosa,ȱ Ptilothrixȱ deustaȱ andȱThemedaȱ australis,ȱmayȱ alsoȱbeȱpresentȱ inȱ theȱunderstorey.ȱCharacteristicȱspeciesȱareȱlistedȱinȱtheȱfinalȱdeterminationȱforȱthisȱcomplex.ȱȱ

Melaleucaȱ shrubland,ȱ SwampȱSclerophyllȱ Forest.ȱ Image:ȱ R.ȱPayneȱ©ȱDEC.

Reedland,ȱSwampȱSclerophyllȱForest.ȱImage:ȱChrisȱPennayȱ©ȱChrisPennay.

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DistributionȱThisȱ communityȱ isȱ knownȱ fromȱ partsȱ ofȱ theȱ LocalȱGovernmentȱAreasȱ ofȱ Tweed,ȱ Byron,ȱLismore,ȱBallina,ȱRichmondȱValley,ȱClarenceȱValley,ȱCoffsȱHarbour,ȱBellingen,ȱNambucca,ȱKempsey,ȱ Hastings,ȱ Greaterȱ Taree,ȱ Greatȱ Lakesȱ andȱ Portȱ Stephens,ȱ Lakeȱ Macquarie,ȱWyong,ȱGosford,ȱHornsby,ȱPittwater,ȱWarringah,ȱManly,ȱLiverpool,ȱRockdale,ȱBotanyȱBay,ȱRandwick,ȱSutherland,ȱWollongong,ȱShellharbour,ȱKiamaȱandȱShoalhavenȱbutȱmayȱoccurȱelsewhereȱ inȱ theseȱ bioregions.ȱMajorȱ examplesȱ onceȱ occurredȱ onȱ theȱ floodplainsȱ ofȱ theȱTweed,ȱ Richmond,ȱ Clarence,ȱMacleay,ȱ Hastingsȱ andȱManningȱ Rivers,ȱ althoughȱ smallerȱfloodplainsȱwouldȱhaveȱalsoȱsupportedȱconsiderableȱareasȱofȱthisȱcommunity.ȱȱȱTheȱexactȱamountȱofȱitsȱoriginalȱextentȱisȱunknownȱbutȱitȱisȱmuchȱlessȱthanȱ30%.ȱThereȱareȱlessȱthanȱ350ȱhaȱofȱnativeȱvegetationȱattributableȱtoȱthisȱcommunityȱonȱtheȱTweedȱlowlands,ȱlessȱthanȱ2,500ȱhaȱonȱtheȱClarenceȱfloodplain,ȱlessȱthanȱ700ȱhaȱonȱtheȱMacleayȱfloodplain,ȱupȱtoȱ7,000ȱhaȱinȱtheȱlowerȱHunterȱ–ȱcentralȱcoastȱdistrict,ȱandȱlessȱthanȱ1,000ȱhaȱinȱtheȱSydneyȱ–ȱSouthȱCoastȱregion.ȱȱSmallȱ areasȱ ofȱ Swampȱ Sclerophyllȱ Forestȱ onȱ Coastalȱ Floodplainsȱ areȱ containedȱ withinȱexistingȱconservationȱreserves,ȱincludingȱBungawalbin,ȱTuckeanȱandȱMooneeȱBeachȱNatureȱReserves,ȱandȱHatȱHead,ȱCrowdyȱBay,ȱWallingat,ȱMyallȱLakesȱandȱGarigalȱNationalȱParks.ȱTheseȱoccurrencesȱareȱunevenlyȱdistributedȱthroughoutȱtheȱrangeȱandȱunlikelyȱtoȱrepresentȱtheȱfullȱdiversityȱofȱtheȱcommunity.ȱInȱaddition,ȱwetlandsȱwithinȱprotectedȱȱȱareasȱareȱexposedȱ toȱhydrologicalȱchangesȱ thatȱwere,ȱandȱcontinueȱ toȱbeȱ initiatedȱoutsideȱtheirȱ boundaries.ȱ Someȱ areasȱ ofȱ Swampȱ Oakȱ FloodplainȱForestȱareȱprotectedȱbyȱStateȱEnvironmentalȱPlanningȱPolicyȱ14,ȱ althoughȱ thisȱ hasȱ notȱ alwaysȱ precludedȱ impactsȱ onȱwetlandsȱfromȱtheȱdevelopmentȱofȱmajorȱinfrastructure.ȱȱHabitatȱandȱecologyȱȱ

x Associatedȱwithȱhumicȱclayȱ loamsȱandȱsandyȱ loams,ȱonȱ waterloggedȱ orȱ periodicallyȱ inundatedȱ alluvialȱflatsȱ andȱ drainageȱ linesȱ associatedȱ withȱ coastalȱfloodplains.ȱȱ

x Generallyȱoccursȱbelowȱ20ȱmȱ (thoughȱsometimesȱupȱtoȱ50ȱm)ȱelevation.ȱȱ

x Theȱ compositionȱ ofȱ theȱ communityȱ isȱ primarilyȱdeterminedȱ byȱ theȱ frequencyȱ andȱ durationȱ ofȱwaterloggingȱ andȱ theȱ texture,ȱ salinityȱ nutrientȱ andȱmoistureȱ contentȱ ofȱ theȱ soil,ȱ andȱ latitude.ȱ Theȱcompositionȱ andȱ structureȱ ofȱ theȱ understoreyȱ isȱinfluencedȱbyȱgrazingȱandȱ fireȱhistory,ȱchangesȱ toȱhydrologyȱandȱsoilȱsalinityȱandȱotherȱdisturbance,ȱandȱmayȱhaveȱaȱ substantialȱ componentȱofȱ exoticȱgrasses,ȱvinesȱandȱforbs.ȱ

ȱThreatsȱ

x Furtherȱclearingȱforȱurbanȱandȱruralȱdevelopment,ȱandȱtheȱsubsequentȱimpactsȱfromȱfragmentationȱȱ

x Floodȱmitigationȱandȱdrainageȱworksȱȱ

Forestȱ Redȱ Gum,ȱ SwampȱSclerophyllȱ Forest.ȱ Image:ȱR.ȱPayneȱ©ȱDEC.

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x Managementȱofȱwaterȱandȱtidalȱflowsȱȱx Landfillingȱandȱearthworksȱassociatedȱwithȱurbanȱandȱindustrialȱdevelopmentȱȱx Grazingȱandȱtramplingȱbyȱstockȱandȱferalȱanimalsȱ(particularlyȱpigs)ȱȱx Changesȱinȱwaterȱquality,ȱparticularlyȱincreasedȱnutrientsȱandȱsedimentationȱȱx Weedȱinvasionȱȱx Climateȱchangeȱȱx Activationȱofȱacidȱsulfateȱsoilsȱȱx Removalȱofȱdeadȱwoodȱȱx Rubbishȱdumpingȱȱx Frequentȱburningȱwhichȱreducesȱtheȱdiversityȱofȱwoodyȱplantȱspeciesȱ

ȱReferencesȱBenson,ȱD.ȱ&ȱHowell,ȱ J.ȱ (1994)ȱTheȱnaturalȱvegetationȱofȱ theȱSydneyȱ1:100000ȱmapȱ sheet.ȱ

Cunninghamiaȱ3(4):ȱ679Ȭ789.ȱȱNSWȱ ScientificȱCommitteeȱ (2004)ȱ Swampȱ sclerophyllȱ forestȱ onȱ coastalȱ floodplainsȱ ofȱ theȱ

NSWȱNorthȱ Coast,ȱ Sydneyȱ Basinȱ andȱ Southȱ Eastȱ Cornerȱ bioregionsȱ Ȭȱ EndangeredȱecologicalȱcommunityȱdeterminationȱȬȱfinal.ȱDECȱ(NSW),ȱSydney.ȱ

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SwampȱOakȱFloodplainȱForestȱȱȱȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ

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SubȬtropicalȱCoastalȱFloodplainȱForestȱȱ

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FreshwaterȱWetlandsȱonȱCoastalȱFloodplainsȱȱ

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GreenȬleavedȱRoseȱWalnutȱ Endiandraȱmuelleriȱsubsp.ȱBracteataȱConservationȱstatusȱinȱNSW:ȱEndangeredȱȱDescriptionȱAȱ treeȱ upȱ toȱ 30ȱmȱ tallȱwithȱ brownȱ bark,ȱ oftenȱwithȱ looseȱroundȱplates.ȱTwigsȱandȱbranchletsȱareȱcoveredȱinȱhairs.ȱTheȱmoderatelyȱglossyȱ leavesȱareȱovalȱorȱdrawnȱoutȱtowardsȱtheȱtips,ȱ andȱmeasureȱ 6ȱ –ȱ12ȱ cmȱ longȱandȱ 3ȱ–ȱ 5ȱ cmȱwide,ȱwithȱthreeȱ toȱ fiveȱpairsȱofȱ sideȱveins.ȱFlushesȱofȱnewȱgrowthȱareȱpinkishȬgreen.ȱFlowersȱareȱsmall,ȱyellowishȱandȱhairless,ȱandȱareȱheldȱ inȱ smallȱ clusters.ȱTheȱ fleshyȱ fruitsȱ areȱ eggȬshaped,ȱ2.5ȱ–ȱ3ȱcmȱlongȱandȱblackȱwhenȱripe.ȱȱDistributionȱOccursȱ inȱ Queenslandȱ andȱ inȱ northȬeastȱ NSWȱ southȱ toȱMaclean.ȱItȱisȱsparselyȱdistributedȱwithinȱthisȱrange.ȱȱHabitatȱandȱecologyȱȱSubtropicalȱ rainforestȱ orȱ wetȱ eucalyptȱ forest,ȱ chieflyȱ atȱlowerȱaltitudes.ȱȱThreatsȱ

x Clearingȱ andȱ fragmentationȱ ofȱ habitatȱ forȱ coastalȱdevelopment,ȱagricultureȱandȱroadȬworks.ȱȱ

x Infestationȱofȱhabitatȱbyȱweeds.ȱȱx Frequentȱfire.ȱȱx Tramplingȱbyȱvisitors.ȱ

ȱWhatȱneedsȱtoȱbeȱdoneȱtoȱrecoverȱthisȱspecies?ȱ

x Keepȱtoȱestablishedȱtracksȱinȱareasȱofȱhabitatȱtoȱavoidȱtramplingȱsmallȱplants.ȱȱx SupportȱlocalȱLandcareȱgroupsȱandȱbushȱregenerationȱteams.ȱȱx Protectȱrainforestȱandȱwetȱeucalyptȱforestȱfromȱfire.ȱȱx IdentifyȱpopulationsȱalongȱroadsidesȱandȱprotectȱthemȱduringȱroadȬworks.ȱȱx Removeȱweedsȱwhereȱtheyȱthreatenȱadultȱplantsȱorȱregeneration.ȱȱx Protectȱareasȱofȱsuitableȱhabitatȱfromȱclearingȱorȱdevelopment.ȱȱx Expandȱandȱconnectȱremainingȱhabitatȱremnants.ȱ

ȱReferencesȱNSWȱNationalȱParksȱandȱWildlifeȱServiceȱ(2004)ȱDraftȱRecoveryȱPlanȱforȱEndiandraȱmuelleriȱ

subsp.ȱ bracteataȱ (GreenȬleavedȱ Roseȱ Walnut)ȱ andȱ Endiandraȱ hayesiiȱ (Rustyȱ RoseȱWalnut).ȱNSWȱNPWS,ȱSydney.ȱȱ

NSWȱNPWSȱ(2002).ȱThreatenedȱSpeciesȱofȱtheȱUpperȱNorthȱCoastȱofȱNSW:ȱFlora.ȱNSWȱNPWS,ȱCoffsȱHarbour,ȱNSW.ȱ

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Image:ȱHughȱNicholson,ȱTeraniaȱRainforestȱPublishingȱ©ȱHughȱ

Nicholson

DistributionȱinȱNSWȱȱ©ȱNSWȱGovernmentȱ2004ȱ

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SlatyȱRedȱGumȱȱȱȱȱȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱEucalyptusȱ glaucinaȱȱConservationȱstatusȱinȱNSW:ȱVulnerableȱNationalȱconservationȱstatus:ȱVulnerableȱȱȱDescriptionȱAȱ mediumȬsizedȱ treeȱ toȱ 30ȱ mȱ tall.ȱ Theȱ barkȱ isȱsmoothȱ andȱ mottledȱ whiteȱ toȱ slatyȱ grey.ȱ Theȱjuvenileȱ leavesȱ areȱ ovalȱ inȱ shapeȱ andȱ blueȬgreenȱwithȱaȱwhitishȱbloom,ȱandȱ theȱbudsȱandȱ fruitȱareȱsimilarlyȱ coloured.ȱ Theȱ flowersȱ areȱ white,ȱ orȱoccasionallyȱ pink,ȱ andȱ areȱ producedȱ betweenȱAugustȱandȱDecember.ȱTheȱfruitsȱareȱovalȬshapedȱandȱ7–ȱ10ȱmmȱlong.ȱTheȱthreeȱtoȱfiveȱraisedȱvalvesȱareȱsurroundedȱbyȱaȱdomedȱdiskȱraisedȱaboveȱtheȱfruit.ȱȱDistributionȱFoundȱonlyȱonȱtheȱnorthȱcoastȱofȱNSWȱandȱ inȱseparateȱdistricts:ȱnearȱCasinoȱwhereȱitȱcanȱbeȱlocallyȱcommon,ȱandȱfartherȱsouth,ȱfromȱTareeȱtoȱBroke,ȱwestȱofȱMaitland.ȱȱHabitatȱandȱecologyȱȱGrowsȱ inȱgrassyȱwoodlandȱandȱdryȱeucalyptȱ forest.ȱGrowsȱonȱdeep,ȱmoderatelyȱfertileȱandȱwellȬwateredȱsoils.ȱȱThreatsȱ

x Clearingȱforȱagricultureȱandȱdevelopment.ȱx Timberȱharvestingȱactivities.ȱx Lackȱofȱregenerationȱthroughȱgrazingȱpressure.ȱ


x Fenceȱareasȱofȱknownȱhabitatȱtoȱprotectȱfromȱgrazingȱstockȱandȱtoȱpromoteȱregeneration.ȱ

x Protectȱareasȱofȱhabitatȱfromȱtimberȱharvestingȱactivities.ȱȱ

x Protectȱ knownȱ populationsȱ andȱ areasȱ ofȱ potentialȱhabitatȱfromȱclearingȱandȱdevelopment.ȱ

ȱReferencesȱBarker,ȱR.M.,ȱHaegi,ȱL.ȱandȱBarker,ȱW.R.ȱ(1999)ȱ42.ȱHakea.ȱFloraȱofȱAustraliaȱ17B:ȱ44.ȱNSWȱNPWSȱ(2002).ȱThreatenedȱSpeciesȱofȱtheȱUpperȱNorthȱCoastȱofȱNSW:ȱFlora.ȱNSWȱNPWS,ȱ

CoffsȱHarbour,ȱNSWȱ

Images:ȱEuclidȱ©ȱCSIROȱPublishing

DistributionȱinȱNSWȱ(©ȱNSWȱGovernmentȱ2004)ȱ

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Image:ȱPeterȱRichardsȱ©ȱPeterȱRichardsȱ

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GlossyȱBlackȬcockatooȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱCalyptorhynchusȱlathamiȱConservationȱstatusȱinȱNSW:ȱVulnerableȱNationalȱconservationȱstatus:ȱEndangeredȱ(onlyȱtheȱSouthȱAustralianȱsubȬspecies)ȱȱDescriptionȱTheȱGlossyȱBlackȬcockatooȱ isȱaȱduskyȱbrownȱ toȱblackȱ cockatooȱwithȱaȱmassive,ȱbulbousȱbillȱandȱaȱbroad,ȱredȱbandȱthroughȱtheȱtail.ȱTheȱ redȱ inȱ theȱ tailȱ isȱbarredȱblackȱandȱedgedȱwithȱyellow.ȱTheȱ femaleȱ usuallyȱ hasȱ irregularȱ paleȬyellowȱmarkingsȱ onȱ theȱheadȱ andȱ neckȱ andȱ yellowȱ flecksȱ onȱ theȱ underpartsȱ andȱunderwing.ȱ Theyȱ areȱ usuallyȱ seenȱ inȱ pairsȱ orȱ smallȱ groupsȱfeedingȱquietlyȱ inȱ sheȬoaks.ȱTheyȱareȱ smallerȱ thanȱotherȱblackȬcockatoosȱ(aboutȱ50ȱcmȱinȱlength),ȱwithȱaȱsmallerȱcrest.ȱȱDistributionȱTheȱ speciesȱ isȱ uncommonȱ althoughȱ widespreadȱ throughoutȱsuitableȱ forestȱ andȱ woodlandȱ habitats,ȱ fromȱ theȱ centralȱQueenslandȱ coastȱ toȱEastȱGippslandȱ inȱVictoria,ȱ andȱ inlandȱ toȱtheȱsouthernȱtablelandsȱandȱcentralȱwesternȱplainsȱofȱNSW,ȱwithȱaȱsmallȱpopulationȱinȱtheȱRiverina.ȱAnȱisolatedȱpopulationȱexistsȱonȱKangarooȱIsland,ȱSouthȱAustralia.ȱȱHabitatȱandȱecologyȱȱ

x InhabitsȱopenȱforestȱandȱwoodlandsȱofȱtheȱcoastȱandȱtheȱGreatȱDividingȱRangeȱupȱ toȱ 1000ȱmȱ inȱwhichȱ standsȱofȱsheȬoakȱspecies,ȱparticularlyȱBlackȱSheȬoakȱ(Allocasuarinaȱlittoralis),ȱ Forestȱ SheȬoakȱ (A.ȱ torulosa)ȱ orȱDroopingȱ SheȬoakȱ(A.ȱverticillata)ȱoccur.ȱȱ

x InȱtheȱRiverinaȱarea,ȱinhabitsȱopenȱwoodlandsȱdominatedȱbyȱBelahȱ(Casuarinaȱcristata).ȱȱ

x FeedsȱalmostȱexclusivelyȱonȱtheȱseedsȱofȱseveralȱspeciesȱofȱsheȬoakȱ (Casuarinaȱ andȱ Allocasuarinaȱ species),ȱ shreddingȱtheȱconesȱwithȱtheȱmassiveȱbill.ȱȱ

x Dependentȱ onȱ largeȱ hollowȬbearingȱ eucalyptsȱ forȱnestȱsites.ȱOneȱorȱtwoȱeggsȱareȱlaidȱbetweenȱMarchȱandȱAugust.ȱȱ

ȱThreatsȱ

x Reductionȱ ofȱ suitableȱ habitatȱ throughȱ clearingȱ forȱdevelopment.ȱȱ

x Lossȱofȱtreeȱhollows.ȱȱx Excessivelyȱ frequentȱ fireȱ whichȱ reducesȱ theȱ

abundanceȱandȱrecoveryȱofȱsheȬoaks.ȱȱx IllegalȱbirdȱsmugglingȱandȱeggȬcollecting.ȱȱ

ReferencesȱForeshaw,ȱJ.ȱM.ȱ(2003).ȱAustralianȱParrots.ȱCSIROȱPublishing.ȱȱ

Image:ȱDougȱMillsȱ©ȱDougȱMillsȱ

Distributionȱ inȱ NSWȱ (©ȱ NSWȱGovernmentȱ2004)ȱ

Image:ȱ Shaneȱ Rurningȱ ©ȱShaneȱRurningȱȱ

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Higgins,ȱP.J.ȱ (ed),ȱ1999.ȱHandbookȱ ofȱAustralian,ȱNewȱZealandȱ andȱAntarcticȱBirds.ȱVolumeȱ4.ȱOxfordȱUniversityȱPress.ȱȱ

Pizzey,ȱ G.ȱ andȱ Knight,ȱ F.ȱ (2003).ȱ Theȱ Fieldȱ Guideȱ toȱ theȱ Birdsȱ ofȱ Australiaȱ 7thȱ Edition.ȱMenkhorst,ȱP.ȱ(ed).ȱHarperCollins.ȱȱ

Robinson,ȱD.ȱandȱTraill,ȱB.ȱJ.ȱ(1996).ȱConservingȱwoodlandȱbirdsȱ inȱtheȱwheatȱandȱsheepȱbeltsȱofȱsouthernȱ Australia.ȱ RAOUȱ Conservationȱ Statementȱ No.ȱ 10.ȱ Birdsȱ Australia,ȱMelbourne.ȱȱ

Walpole,ȱS.C.ȱandȱOliver,ȱD.ȱL.ȱ(2000).ȱObservationsȱofȱGlossyȱBlackȬCockatoosȱCalyptorhynchusȱlathamiȱfeedingȱonȱtheȱseedsȱofȱBullokeȱAllocasuarinaȱluehmannii.ȱAustralianȱBirdȱWatcherȱ18,ȱ284Ȭ285.ȱ

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PowerfulȱOwlȱȱȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱNinoxȱstrenuaȱConservationȱstatusȱinȱNSW:ȱVulnerableȱȱDescriptionȱȱTheȱPowerfulȱOwlȱisȱtheȱlargestȱowlȱinȱAustralasia.ȱItȱisȱaȱtypicalȱhawkȬowl,ȱwithȱ staringȱ yellowȱ eyesȱ andȱ noȱ facialȬdisc.ȱAdultsȱreachȱ 60ȱ cmȱ inȱ length,ȱ haveȱ aȱwingspanȱ ofȱ upȱ toȱ 140ȱ cmȱ andȱweighȱupȱ toȱ1.45ȱkilograms.ȱMalesȱareȱ largerȱ thanȱ females.ȱTheȱupperȱpartsȱofȱ theȱPowerfulȱOwlȱareȱdark,ȱgreyishȬbrownȱwithȱindistinctȱoffȬwhiteȱbars.ȱTheȱunderpartsȱareȱwhitishȱwithȱdarkȱgreyishȬbrownȱ VȬshapedȱ markings.ȱ Juvenileȱ Powerfulȱ Owlsȱhaveȱaȱwhiteȱcrownȱandȱunderpartsȱthatȱcontrastsȱwithȱitsȱsmall,ȱdarkȱstreaksȱandȱdarkȱeyeȱpatches.ȱTheȱcallȱofȱthisȱspeciesȱmayȱbeȱheardȱ atȱ anyȱ timeȱ ofȱ theȱ year,ȱ butȱ itȱ isȱmoreȱ vocalȱduringȱ theȱwinterȱbreedingȱseason.ȱItȱhasȱaȱslow,ȱdeepȱandȱresonantȱdoubleȱhoot,ȱwithȱ theȱ femaleȇsȱbeingȱhigherȱpitchedȱandȱexpressingȱanȱupwardȱinflectionȱonȱtheȱsecondȱnote.ȱȱDistributionȱȱTheȱPowerfulȱOwlȱisȱendemicȱtoȱeasternȱandȱsouthȬeasternȱAustralia,ȱmainlyȱonȱtheȱcoastalȱsideȱ ofȱ theȱGreatȱDividingȱRangeȱ fromȱMackayȱ toȱ southȬwesternȱVictoria.ȱ InȱNSW,ȱ itȱ isȱwidelyȱdistributedȱthroughoutȱtheȱeasternȱforestsȱfromȱtheȱcoastȱinlandȱtoȱtablelands,ȱwithȱscattered,ȱmostlyȱ historicalȱ recordsȱ onȱ theȱwesternȱ slopesȱ andȱ plains.ȱNowȱ uncommonȱthroughoutȱitsȱrangeȱwhereȱitȱoccursȱatȱlowȱdensities.ȱȱHabitatȱandȱecologyȱȱ

x TheȱPowerfulȱOwlȱ inhabitsȱaȱrangeȱofȱvegetationȱtypes,ȱfromȱwoodlandȱandȱopenȱsclerophyllȱforestȱtoȱtallȱopenȱwetȱforestȱandȱrainforest.ȱ

x TheȱPowerfulȱOwlȱrequiresȱlargeȱtractsȱofȱforestȱorȱwoodlandȱ habitatȱ butȱ canȱ occurȱ inȱ fragmentedȱlandscapesȱasȱwell.ȱTheȱspeciesȱbreedsȱandȱhuntsȱinȱopenȱorȱclosedȱsclerophyllȱforestȱorȱwoodlandsȱandȱoccasionallyȱhuntsȱ inȱopenȱhabitats.ȱ Itȱroostsȱbyȱdayȱinȱdenseȱvegetationȱcomprisingȱspeciesȱsuchȱ

Image:ȱBarryȱBrownȱ©ȱȱAustralianȱBotanicalȱGardensȱ

Distributionȱ inȱ NSWȱ (©ȱ NSWȱ Govȱ2004)ȱ

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asȱTurpentineȱSyncarpiaȱglomulifera,ȱBlackȱSheȬoakȱAllocasuarinaȱlittoralis,ȱBlackwoodȱAcaciaȱ melanoxylon,ȱ RoughȬbarkedȱ Appleȱ Angorphoraȱ floribunda,ȱ Cherryȱ BallartȱExocarpusȱcupressiformisȱandȱaȱnumberȱofȱeucalyptȱspecies.ȱȱ

x TheȱmainȱpreyȱitemsȱareȱmediumȬsizedȱarborealȱmarsupials,ȱparticularlyȱtheȱGreaterȱGlider,ȱCommonȱRingtailȱPossumȱandȱSugarȱGlider.ȱThereȱmayȱbeȱmarkedȱregionalȱdifferencesȱ inȱ theȱ preyȱ takenȱ byȱ PowerfulȱOwls.ȱ Forȱ exampleȱ inȱ southernȱNSW,ȱRingtailȱ Possumȱmakeȱ upȱ theȱ bulkȱ ofȱ preyȱ inȱ theȱ lowlandȱ orȱ coastalȱ habitat.ȱAtȱhigherȱ elevations,ȱ suchȱasȱ theȱ tablelandȱ forests,ȱ theȱGreaterȱGliderȱmayȱ constituteȱalmostȱallȱofȱtheȱpreyȱforȱaȱpairȱofȱPowerfulȱOwls.ȱBirdsȱcompriseȱaboutȱ10%ȱofȱtheȱdiet,ȱ withȱ flyingȱ foxesȱ importantȱ inȱ someȱ areas.ȱ Asȱ mostȱ preyȱ speciesȱ requireȱhollowsȱandȱaȱshrubȱlayer,ȱtheseȱareȱimportantȱhabitatȱcomponentsȱforȱtheȱowl.ȱȱ

x Pairsȱ ofȱ PowerfulȱOwlsȱ areȱ believedȱ toȱ haveȱ highȱ fidelityȱ toȱ aȱ smallȱ numberȱ ofȱhollowȬbearingȱnestȱtreesȱandȱwillȱdefendȱaȱlargeȱhomeȱrangeȱofȱ400Ȭ1450ȱha.ȱ

x PowerfulȱOwlsȱnestȱ inȱ largeȱ treeȱhollowsȱ (atȱ leastȱ0.5ȱmȱdeep),ȱ inȱ largeȱ eucalyptsȱ(diameterȱatȱbreastȱheightȱofȱ80Ȭ240ȱcm)ȱ thatȱareȱatȱ leastȱ150ȱyearsȱold.ȱDuringȱ theȱbreedingȱ season,ȱ theȱmaleȱPowerfulȱOwlȱ roostsȱ inȱ aȱ ȈgroveȈȱ ofȱupȱ toȱ 20Ȭ30ȱ trees,ȱsituatedȱwithinȱ100Ȭ200ȱmetresȱofȱtheȱnestȱtreeȱwhereȱtheȱfemaleȱshelters.ȱ

x PowerfulȱOwlsȱareȱmonogamousȱandȱmateȱforȱlife.ȱNestingȱoccursȱfromȱlateȱautumnȱtoȱmidȬwinter,ȱ butȱ isȱ slightlyȱ earlierȱ inȱ northȬeasternȱ NSWȱ (lateȱ summerȱ Ȭȱmidȱautumn).ȱClutchesȱconsistȱofȱtwoȱdullȱwhiteȱeggsȱandȱincubationȱlastsȱapproximatelyȱ38ȱdays.ȱ

ȱThreatsȱȱ

x Historicalȱlossȱandȱfragmentationȱofȱsuitableȱforestȱandȱwoodlandȱhabitatȱfromȱlandȱclearingȱ forȱ residentialȱ andȱ agriculturalȱ development.ȱ Thisȱ lossȱ alsoȱ affectsȱ theȱpopulationsȱofȱarborealȱpreyȱspecies,ȱparticularlyȱtheȱGreaterȱGliderȱwhichȱreducesȱfoodȱavailabilityȱforȱtheȱPowerfulȱOwl.ȱ

x Inappropriateȱ forestȱ harvestingȱ practicesȱ thatȱ haveȱ changedȱ forestȱ structureȱ andȱremovedȱoldȱgrowthȱhollowȬbearingȱtrees.ȱLossȱofȱhollowȬbearingȱtreesȱreducesȱtheȱavailabilityȱofȱsuitableȱnestȱsitesȱandȱpreyȱhabitat.ȱ

x Canȱbeȱextremelyȱsensitiveȱ toȱdisturbanceȱaroundȱ theȱnestȱsite,ȱparticularlyȱduringȱpreȬlaying,ȱlayingȱandȱdownyȱchickȱstages.ȱDisturbanceȱduringȱtheȱbreedingȱperiodȱmayȱaffectȱbreedingȱsuccess.ȱ

x Highȱ frequencyȱ hazardȱ reductionȱ burningȱ mayȱ alsoȱ reduceȱ theȱ longevityȱ ofȱindividualsȱbyȱaffectingȱpreyȱavailability.ȱ

x Roadȱkills.ȱx Secondaryȱpoisoning.ȱx Predationȱofȱfledglingsȱbyȱfoxes,ȱdogsȱandȱcats.ȱȱ

Whatȱneedsȱtoȱbeȱdoneȱtoȱrecoverȱthisȱspecies?ȱx ApplyȱlowȬintensity,ȱmosaicȱpatternȱfuelȱreductionȱregimes.ȱx Searchesȱ forȱ theȱ speciesȱ shouldȱ beȱ conductedȱ inȱ suitableȱ habitatȱ inȱ proposedȱ

developmentȱareasȱandȱproposedȱforestȱharvestingȱcompartments.ȱx Retainȱatȱleastȱaȱ200ȱmetreȱbufferȱofȱnativeȱvegetationȱaroundȱknownȱnestingȱsites.ȱx Retainȱlargeȱstandsȱofȱnativeȱvegetation,ȱespeciallyȱthoseȱcontainingȱhollowȬbearingȱ

trees.ȱx Protectȱriparianȱvegetationȱtoȱpreserveȱroostingȱareas.ȱ

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x ProtectȱhollowȬbearingȱtreesȱforȱnestȱsites.ȱYoungerȱrecruitmentȱtreesȱshouldȱalsoȱbeȱretainedȱtoȱreplaceȱolderȱtreesȱinȱtheȱlongȬterm.ȱ

x Minimiseȱ visitsȱ toȱ nestsȱ andȱ otherȱ disturbances,ȱ includingȱ surveysȱ usingȱ callȱplayback,ȱwhenȱowlsȱareȱbreeding.ȱ

x Assessȱtheȱimportanceȱofȱtheȱsiteȱtoȱtheȱspeciesȇȱsurvival.ȱIncludeȱtheȱlinkagesȱtheȱsiteȱprovidesȱforȱtheȱspeciesȱbetweenȱecologicalȱresourcesȱacrossȱtheȱbroaderȱlandscape.ȱ

ȱReferencesȱDebus,ȱ S.J.S.ȱ andȱChafer,ȱC.J.ȱ (1994).ȱTheȱPowerfulȱOwlȱNinoxȱ strenuaȱ inȱNewȱSouthȱWales.ȱ

AustralianȱBirdsȱ28ȱsupplement:ȱS21ȬS38.ȱHiggins,ȱP.J.ȱ (ed),ȱ1999.ȱHandbookȱofȱAustralian,ȱNewȱZealandȱandȱAntarcticȱBirds.ȱVolumeȱ4.ȱ

OxfordȱUniversityȱPress.ȱKavanagh,ȱR.P.ȱ(1988).ȱTheȱ impactȱofȱpredationȱbyȱtheȱPowerfulȱOwl,ȱNinoxȱstrenua,ȱonȱaȱ

populationȱ ofȱ theȱGreaterȱGlider,ȱPetauroidesȱ volans.ȱAustralianȱ Journalȱ ofȱEcologyȱ 13:ȱ445Ȭ450.ȱ

Kavanagh,ȱR.P.ȱ(1992).ȱReply.ȱTheȱimpactȱofȱpredationȱbyȱtheȱPowerfulȱOwlȱNinoxȱstrenuaȱonȱaȱpopulationȱofȱtheȱGreaterȱGliderȱPetauroidesȱvolans.ȱAustralianȱJournalȱofȱEcologyȱ17:ȱ469Ȭ472.ȱ

Kavanagh,ȱR.P.ȱ (2002).ȱComparativeȱdietsȱofȱ theȱPowerfulȱOwlȱ (Ninoxȱstrenua),ȱSootyȱOwlȱ(Tytoȱtenebricosa)ȱandȱMaskedȱOwlȱ(Tytoȱnovaehollandiae)ȱ inȱsoutheasternȱAustralia.ȱInȱNewton,ȱ I.,ȱKavanagh,ȱR.,ȱOlsen,ȱ J.ȱ andȱTaylor,ȱ I.ȱ (eds.).ȱEcologyȱ andȱConservationȱ ofȱOwls.ȱCSIROȱPublishing.ȱCollingwoodȱVictoria.ȱ

Kavanagh,ȱ R.P.ȱ andȱ Stanton,ȱ M.A.ȱ (2002c).ȱ Responseȱ toȱ habitatȱ fragmentationȱ byȱ theȱPowerfulȱOwlȱ (Ninoxȱ strenua),ȱ SootyȱOwlȱ (Tytoȱ tenebricosa)ȱ andȱMaskedȱOwlȱ (Tytoȱnovaehollandiae)ȱ andȱ otherȱ nocturnalȱ faunaȱ inȱ southeasternȱAustralia.ȱ InȱNewton,ȱ I.,ȱKavanagh,ȱR.,ȱOlsen,ȱ J.ȱandȱTaylor,ȱ I.ȱ (eds.).ȱEcologyȱandȱConservationȱofȱOwls.ȱCSIROȱPublishing.ȱCollingwoodȱVictoria.ȱ

NSWȱDepartmentȱofȱEnvironmentȱandȱConservationȱ(2005)ȱDraftȱRecoveryȱPlanȱforȱtheȱLargeȱForestȱOwls:ȱPowerfulȱOwlȱNinoxȱ strenua,ȱSootyȱOwlȱTytoȱ tenebricosa,ȱMaskedȱOwlȱTytoȱnovaehollandiae.ȱNSWȱDEC,ȱSydney.ȱ

Pavey,ȱ C.R.ȱ (1995).ȱ Foodȱ ofȱ theȱ Powerfulȱ Owlȱ Ninoxȱ strenuaȱ inȱ suburbanȱ Brisbane,ȱQueensland.ȱEmuȱ95:ȱ231Ȭ232.ȱ

Pavey,ȱ C.R.,ȱ Smyth,ȱ A.K.ȱ andȱMathieson,ȱM.T.ȱ (1994).ȱ Theȱ breedingȱ seasonȱ dietȱ ofȱ theȱPowerfulȱOwlȱNinoxȱstrenuaȱatȱBrisbane,ȱQueensland.ȱEmuȱ94:ȱ278Ȭ284.ȱ

Pizzey,ȱ G.ȱ andȱ Knight,ȱ F.ȱ (2003).ȱ Theȱ Fieldȱ Guideȱ toȱ theȱ Birdsȱ ofȱ Australiaȱ 7thȱ Edition.ȱMenkhorst,ȱP.ȱ(ed).ȱHarperCollins.ȱ

Robinson,ȱD.ȱandȱTraill,ȱB.ȱJ.ȱ(1996).ȱConservingȱwoodlandȱbirdsȱ inȱtheȱwheatȱandȱsheepȱbeltsȱofȱsouthernȱAustralia.ȱRAOUȱConservationȱStatementȱNo.ȱ10.ȱBirdsȱAustralia,ȱMelbourne.ȱ

Soderquist,ȱT.R.,ȱLowe,ȱK.W.,ȱLoyn,ȱR.H.,ȱandȱPrice,ȱR.ȱ(2002).ȱHabitatȱqualityȱ inȱPowerfulȱOwlȱ (Ninoxȱ strenua)ȱ territoriesȱ inȱ theȱ BoxȬIronbarkȱ forestȱ ofȱ Victoria,ȱAustralia.ȱ InȱNewton,ȱ I.,ȱKavanagh,ȱR.,ȱOlsen,ȱ J.ȱ andȱTaylor,ȱ I.ȱ (eds.).ȱEcologyȱ andȱConservationȱ ofȱOwls.ȱCSIROȱPublishing.ȱCollingwoodȱVictoria.ȱ

ȱȱȱȱȱ

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MaskedȱOwlȱȱ ȱ ȱTytoȱnovaehollandiaeȱConservationȱstatusȱinȱNSW:ȱVulnerableȱȱDescriptionȱȱAȱmediumȬsizedȱowlȱ toȱ40ȱ Ȭȱ50ȱ cmȱ long,ȱwithȱdarkȱeyesȱ setȱ inȱaȱprominentȱflat,ȱheartȬshapedȱfacialȱdiscȱthatȱisȱencircledȱbyȱaȱdarkȱborder.ȱTheȱ feetȱareȱ largeȱandȱpowerful,ȱwithȱ fullyȱ featheredȱ legsȱdownȱtoȱtheȱtoes.ȱTheȱowlȱexistsȱinȱseveralȱcolourȱforms,ȱwithȱwideȱvariationȱinȱplumage.ȱTheȱupperpartsȱareȱgreyȱtoȱdarkȱbrownȱwithȱbuffȱtoȱrufousȱmottlingȱandȱfine,ȱpaleȱspots.ȱTheȱwingsȱandȱtailȱareȱwellȱ barred.ȱ Theȱ underpartsȱ areȱ whiteȱ toȱ rufousȬbrownȱ withȱvariableȱdarkȱspotting.ȱTheȱpalestȱbirdsȱhaveȱaȱwhiteȱ faceȱwithȱaȱbrownȱpatchȱaroundȱ eachȱ eye;ȱ theȱdarkestȱbirdsȱhaveȱaȱ chestnutȱface.ȱTheȱdarkȱformȱofȱtheȱMaskedȱOwlȱisȱmuchȱbrownerȱthanȱtheȱSootyȱOwlȱTytoȱtenebricosa. ȱȱDistributionȱȱExtendsȱfromȱtheȱcoastȱwhereȱitȱisȱmostȱabundantȱtoȱtheȱwesternȱplains.ȱOverallȱrecordsȱforȱthisȱspeciesȱfallȱwithinȱapproximatelyȱ90%ȱofȱNSW,ȱexcludingȱtheȱmostȱaridȱnorthȬwesternȱcorner.ȱThereȱisȱnoȱseasonalȱvariationȱinȱitsȱdistribution.ȱȱȱHabitatȱandȱecologyȱȱ

x Livesȱ inȱdryȱ eucalyptȱ forestsȱ andȱwoodlandsȱ fromȱ seaȱlevelȱtoȱ1100ȱm.ȱ

x Aȱforestȱowl,ȱbutȱoftenȱhuntsȱalongȱtheȱedgesȱofȱforests,ȱincludingȱroadsides.ȱ

x Theȱ typicalȱ dietȱ consistsȱ ofȱ treeȬdwellingȱ andȱ groundȱmammals,ȱespeciallyȱrats.ȱ

x PairsȱhaveȱaȱlargeȱhomeȬrangeȱofȱ500ȱtoȱ1000ȱhectares.ȱx Roostsȱ andȱ breedsȱ inȱmoistȱ eucalyptȱ forestedȱ gullies,ȱ

usingȱ largeȱ treeȱ hollowsȱ orȱ sometimesȱ cavesȱ forȱnesting.ȱȱ

ȱȱThreatsȱȱ

x LossȱofȱmatureȱhollowȬbearingȱtreesȱandȱchangesȱtoȱforestȱandȱwoodlandȱstructure,ȱwhichȱleadsȱtoȱfewerȱsuchȱtreesȱinȱtheȱfuture.ȱ

x Clearingȱofȱhabitatȱforȱgrazing,ȱagriculture,ȱforestryȱorȱotherȱdevelopment.ȱx Aȱcombinationȱofȱgrazingȱandȱregularȱburningȱisȱaȱthreat,ȱthroughȱtheȱeffectsȱonȱtheȱ

qualityȱofȱgroundȱcoverȱforȱmammalȱprey,ȱparticularlyȱinȱopen,ȱgrassyȱforests.ȱx Secondaryȱpoisoningȱfromȱrodenticides.ȱx Beingȱhitȱbyȱvehicles.ȱ


x Driveȱcarefullyȱatȱnightȱthroughȱforestȱareas.ȱx Retainȱandȱprotectȱstandsȱofȱnativeȱvegetation,ȱespeciallyȱthoseȱwithȱhollowȬbearingȱ

trees.ȱ

Image:ȱ Daveȱ Wattsȱ ©ȱ DaveȱWattsȱ

Distributionȱ inȱ NSWȱ (©ȱ NSWȱGovernmentȱ2004)ȱ

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x RetainȱhollowȬbearingȱtreesȱasȱwellȱasȱlarge,ȱmatureȱtreesȱthatȱwillȱprovideȱhollowsȱinȱtheȱfuture.ȱ

x Limitȱtheȱuseȱofȱpesticidesȱusedȱinȱsuitableȱnativeȱhabitat.ȱȱReferencesȱGarnett,ȱ S.ȱ andȱCrowley,ȱG.ȱM.ȱ (2000).ȱTheȱActionȱPlanȱ forȱAustralianȱBirds.ȱPublishedȱ byȱ

EnvironmentȱAustralia.ȱCanberra,ȱACT.ȱKavanagh,ȱR.ȱP.ȱandȱMurray,ȱM.ȱ(1996).ȱHomeȱrange,ȱhabitatȱandȱbehaviourȱofȱtheȱMaskedȱ

OwlȱTytoȱnovaehollandiaeȱnearȱNewcastle,ȱNewȱSouthȱWales.ȱEmuȱ96:ȱ250Ȭ257.ȱNewton,ȱ I.,ȱKavanagh,ȱR.,ȱOlson,ȱ J.ȱandȱTaylor,ȱ I.ȱ (eds)ȱ (2002).ȱEcologyȱandȱConservationȱ ofȱ

Owls.ȱCSIROȱPublishing.ȱCollingwoodȱVictoria.ȱNSWȱDepartmentȱofȱEnvironmentȱandȱConservationȱ(2005)ȱDraftȱRecoveryȱPlanȱforȱtheȱLargeȱ

ForestȱOwls:ȱPowerfulȱOwlȱNinoxȱstrenua,ȱSootyȱOwlȱTytoȱtenebricosa,ȱMaskedȱOwlȱTytoȱnovaehollandiae.ȱNSWȱDEC,ȱSydney.ȱ

WompooȱFruitȬdoveȱȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱPtilinopusȱmagnificusȱȱConservationȱstatusȱinȱNSW:ȱVulnerableȱȱDescriptionȱAȱ largeȱandȱdramaticallyȱbeautifulȱ rainforestȱpigeon,ȱalmostȱtwiceȱtheȱsizeȱofȱotherȱcolouredȱfruitȬdoves.ȱItȱisȱupȱtoȱ56ȱcmȱlong,ȱwithȱaȱpaleȱgreyȱheadȱshadingȱintoȱrichȱgreenȱbackȱandȱwings.ȱThereȱ isȱaȱbrokenȱyellowȱbandȱacrossȱeachȱwing.ȱTheȱbreastȱ andȱ bellyȱ areȱ plumȬpurpleȱ andȱ theȱ underpartsȱ areȱyellow.ȱȱDistributionȱOccursȱ alongȱ theȱ coastȱ andȱ coastalȱ rangesȱ fromȱ theȱHunterȱRiverȱinȱNSWȱtoȱCapeȱYorkȱPeninsula.ȱItȱisȱrareȱsouthȱofȱCoffsȱHarbour.ȱ Threeȱ subspeciesȱ areȱ recognised,ȱ withȱ theȱ mostȱsoutherlyȱ inȱNSWȱandȱ southȬeasternȱQueensland.ȱ Itȱusedȱ toȱoccurȱinȱtheȱIllawarra,ȱthoughȱthereȱareȱnoȱrecentȱrecords.ȱȱȱȱ Image:ȱDavidȱCowenȱ©ȱDavidȱCowenȱ

HabitatȱandȱecologyȱȱOccursȱ in,ȱ orȱ nearȱ rainforest,ȱ lowȱ elevationȱmoistȱ eucalyptȱ forestȱ andȱ brushȱ boxȱ forests.ȱFeedsȱonȱaȱdiverseȱrangeȱofȱtreeȱandȱvineȱfruitsȱandȱisȱlocallyȱnomadicȱȬȱfollowingȱripeningȱfruit;ȱsomeȱofȱitsȱfeedȱtreesȱrelyȱonȱspeciesȱsuchȱasȱthisȱtoȱdistributeȱ theirȱ seeds.ȱ Feedsȱ alone,ȱ orȱ inȱ looseȱ flocksȱ atȱanyȱ heightȱ inȱ theȱ canopy.ȱDespiteȱ itsȱ plumage,ȱ canȱ beȱremarkablyȱ crypticȱ asȱ itȱ feeds,ȱwithȱ theȱ callȱ andȱ fallingȱfruitȱbeingȱanȱindicationȱofȱitsȱpresence.ȱȱȱTheȱnestȱisȱaȱtypicalȱpigeonȱnestȱȬȱaȱflimsyȱplatformȱofȱsticksȱonȱaȱthinȱbranchȱorȱaȱpalmȱfrond,ȱoftenȱoverȱwater,ȱusuallyȱ3ȱȬȱ10ȱmȱaboveȱtheȱground.ȱBreedsȱinȱspringȱandȱearlyȱsummer;ȱaȱsingleȱwhiteȱeggȱisȱlaid.ȱMostȱoftenȱseenȱinȱmatureȱforests,ȱbutȱalsoȱfoundȱinȱremnantȱandȱregeneraȱȱ DistributionȱinȱNSWȱ©ȱNSWȱGov2004ȱ

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tingȱrainforest.ȱAspectsȱofȱitsȱbehaviourȱsuchȱasȱsocialȱbehaviourȱandȱstructure,ȱmovementsȱandȱbreedingȱbiologyȱhaveȱnotȱbeenȱwellȬstudied.ȱȱThreatsȱ

x Clearing,ȱfragmentationȱandȱweedȱinvasionȱofȱlowȱtoȱmidȬelevationȱrainforestȱdueȱtoȱcoastalȱdevelopmentȱandȱgrazing.ȱȱ

x Loggingȱ andȱ roadingȱ inȱ moistȱ eucalyptȱ forestȱ withȱ wellȬdevelopedȱ rainforestȱunderstorey.ȱȱ

x Burning,ȱwhichȱreducesȱremnantȱrainforestȱhabitatȱpatches.ȱȱReferencesȱHiggins,ȱP.ȱandȱDavies,ȱS.ȱ (eds.)ȱ (1996).ȱHandbookȱ ofȱAustralian,ȱNewȱZealandȱ andȱAntarcticȱ

BirdsȱVolumeȱ3:ȱSnipeȱtoȱPigeons.ȱOxfordȱUniversityȱPress,ȱMelbourne.ȱȱNPWSȱ(2000).ȱThreatenedȱSpeciesȱofȱtheȱLowerȱNorthȱCoastȱofȱNewȱSouthȱWales.ȱNPWS,ȱSydney.ȱȱNPWSȱ (2002).ȱ Threatenedȱ Speciesȱ ofȱ theȱ Upperȱ Northȱ Coastȱ ofȱ NSW:ȱ Fauna.ȱ NPWS,ȱ Coffsȱ

Harbour.ȱȱPizzey,ȱ G.ȱ andȱ Knight,ȱ F.ȱ (2003).ȱ Theȱ Fieldȱ Guideȱ toȱ theȱ Birdsȱ ofȱ Australiaȱ 7thȱ Edition.ȱ

Menkhorst,ȱP.ȱ(ed).ȱHarperCollins.ȱȱ

RedȬbackedȱButtonȬquailȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱ ȱTurnixȱmaculosaȱConservationȱstatusȱinȱNSW:ȱVulnerableȱȱDescriptionȱTheȱ RedȬbackedȱ ButtonȬquailȱ isȱ aȱ small,ȱ groundȬdwellingȱ birdȱ ofȱ lengthȱ 12Ȭ16ȱ cmȱ andȱweightȱ35Ȭ45ȱg.ȱIndividualsȱhaveȱaȱpatternȱofȱboldȱblackȱspotsȱandȱbarsȱoverȱpaleȱorȱdeepȬbuffȱonȱtheȱsidesȱofȱtheȱbreast,ȱflanksȱandȱwingȬcoverts;ȱbirdsȱalsoȱhaveȱaȱrufousȬbrownȱorȱchestnutȱhindneckȬcollarȱandȱshoulderȬpatch.ȱRedȬbackȱButtonȬquailȱmayȱbeȱdistinguishedȱfromȱotherȱquailȱbyȱtheirȱfineȱyellowȱbill.ȱȱDistributionȱTheȱ RedȬbackedȱ ButtonȬquailȱ isȱ distributedȱ fromȱ theȱ Philippinesȱ andȱ easternȱ Indonesia,ȱthroughȱPapuaȱNewȱGuinea,ȱAustraliaȱandȱeastȱ toȱ theȱSolomonȱ Islands.ȱ InȱAustralia,ȱ theȱspeciesȱ hasȱ aȱ largelyȱ coastalȱ andȱ subȬcoastalȱ rangeȱ fromȱ theȱKimberleyȱ region,ȱWesternȱAustralia,ȱthroughȱtheȱNorthernȱTerritory,ȱQueenslandȱandȱNSW.ȱInȱNSW,ȱtheȱmajorityȱofȱRedȬbackedȱButtonȬquailȱrecordsȱareȱfromȱtheȱNorthȱCoastȱBioregionȱwithȱaȱsmallȱnumberȱofȱ recordsȱsouthȱasȱ farȱasȱSydney.ȱThreeȱoutlyingȱ recordsȱareȱknownȱ fromȱwesternȱNSW.ȱBetweenȱ1977ȱandȱ1994,ȱthereȱwereȱ17ȱrecordsȱofȱRedȬbackedȱButtonȬquailȱfromȱfourȱNSWȱnorthȱ coastȱ reservesȱ (Bundjalung,ȱCrowdyȱBay,ȱNymboidaȱ andȱYuraygirȱNationalȱParks)ȱbutȱ sinceȱ Augustȱ 1994,ȱ thereȱ haveȱ beenȱ noȱ furtherȱ recordsȱ ofȱ RedȬbackedȱ ButtonȬquailȱwithinȱreservesȱinȱNSW.ȱȱHabitatȱandȱecologyȱȱ

x RedȬbackedȱButtonȬquailȱinhabitȱgrasslands,ȱwoodlandsȱandȱ croppedȱ landsȱ ofȱ warmȱ temperateȱ areasȱ thatȱannuallyȱreceiveȱ400ȱmmȱorȱmoreȱofȱsummerȱrain.ȱȱ

x Observationsȱofȱpopulationsȱ inȱotherȱpartsȱofȱ itsȱrangeȱsuggestȱ theȱ speciesȱprefersȱ sitesȱnearȱwater,ȱ includingȱ

Distributionȱ inȱ NSW(©ȱ NSWȱGovȱ2004)ȱ

ȱ


grasslandsȱandȱsedgelandsȱnearȱcreeks,ȱswampsȱandȱsprings,ȱandȱwetlands.ȱȱx RedȬbackedȱ ButtonȬquailȱ usuallyȱ breedȱ inȱ denseȱ grassȱ nearȱwater,ȱ andȱ nestsȱ areȱ

madeȱinȱaȱshallowȱdepressionȱsparselyȱlinedȱwithȱgrassȱandȱgroundȱlitter.ȱȱThreatsȱ

x RedȬbackedȱButtonȬquailȱmayȱbeȱ threatenedȱbyȱ inappropriateȱburningȱandȱgrazingȱregimesȱthatȱdestroyȱextensiveȱareasȱofȱgroundȱlayerȱvegetationȱorȱenableȱocclusionȱofȱgrasslandsȱandȱgrassyȱwoodlandsȱbyȱwoodyȱweeds.ȱȱ

x Althoughȱtheȱspeciesȱcanȱapparentlyȱutiliseȱcroppedȱorȱirrigatedȱlands,ȱtheȱdrainageȱofȱ coastalȱ wetlandsȱ forȱ agriculture,ȱ particularlyȱ sugarȱ caneȱ farming,ȱ andȱ urbanȱdevelopmentȱreducesȱtheȱavailabilityȱofȱbreedingȱhabitat.ȱȱ

x Tramplingȱ andȱ disturbanceȱ byȱ livestockȱ andȱ feralȱ pigsȱmayȱ alterȱ theȱ qualityȱ ofȱremainingȱhabitatȱandȱcouldȱdirectlyȱaffectȱnestingȱbirds.ȱȱ

x TheȱgroundȬdwellingȱnatureȱofȱtheȱRedȬbackedȱButtonȬquailȱandȱitsȱdefensiveȱhabitȱofȱ freezingȱ whenȱ disturbedȱ renderȱ theȱ speciesȱ susceptibleȱ toȱ predationȱ byȱintroducedȱ predators.ȱ Further,ȱ clearingȱ andȱ alterationȱ ofȱ habitatȱ increasesȱ theȱnumberȱofȱferalȱandȱdomesticȱpredatorsȱsuchȱasȱtheȱferalȱpig,ȱredȱfoxȱandȱcat.ȱ

ȱReferencesȱBarrettȱG.,ȱ SilcocksȱA.,ȱ Barryȱ S.,ȱ Cunninghamȱ R.ȱ andȱ Poulterȱ R.ȱ (2003)ȱ Theȱ newȱ atlasȱ ofȱ

AustralianȱBirds.ȱRoyalȱAustralasianȱOrnithologistsȱUnion:ȱHawthornȱEast,ȱVic.ȱȱBlakersȱM.,ȱDaviesȱ S.J.J.F.ȱ andȱReillyȱ P.N.ȱ (1984)ȱ Theȱ atlasȱ ofȱAustralianȱ Birds.ȱMelbourneȱ

UniversityȱPress,ȱMelbourne.ȱȱMarchant,ȱS.ȱandȱHiggins,ȱP.J.ȱ(Eds)ȱ(1993).ȱHandbookȱofȱAustralian,ȱNewȱZealandȱandȱAntarcticȱ

Birds.ȱVolumeȱ2:ȱRaptorsȱtoȱLapwings.ȱOxfordȱUniversityȱPress,ȱMelbourne.ȱȱNSWȱScientificȱCommitteeȱ (2005)ȱRedȬbackedȱ buttonȬquailȱ Ȭȱvulnerableȱ speciesȱdeterminationȱ Ȭȱ

final.ȱDECȱ(NSW),ȱSydney.ȱ GiantȱBarredȱFrogȱȱ ȱȱ MixophyesȱiteratusȱConservationȱstatusȱinȱNSW:ȱEndangeredȱNationalȱconservationȱstatus:ȱEndangeredȱȱDescriptionȱGiantȱBarredȱFrogsȱareȱ largeȱ frogs,ȱupȱ toȱ115ȱmmȱ inȱ length.ȱTheyȱareȱoliveȱ toȱdarkȱbrownȱaboveȱwithȱpalerȱorȱdarkerȱblotches,ȱandȱcreamȱtoȱpaleȱyellowȱbelow.ȱTheȱskinȱisȱfinelyȱgranular.ȱTheȱpupilȱofȱ theȱeyeȱ isȱverticalȱandȱ theȱ irisȱ isȱpaleȱgoldenȱ inȱ theȱupperȱhalfȱandȱbrownȱinȱtheȱlowerȱhalf.ȱTheȱcallȱisȱaȱdeepȱ‘ork’ȱbreakingȱintoȱaȱseriesȱ ofȱ ‘orks’ȱ andȱ grunts.ȱ TheȱGiantȱ Barredȱ Frogȱ canȱ beȱmostȱeasilyȱ distinguishedȱ fromȱ otherȱ barredȱ frogȱ speciesȱ byȱ theȱ blackȱthighsȱwithȱ smallerȱ yellowȱ spots,ȱ distinctȱ barringȱ onȱ theȱ limbs,ȱdarkȱblotchesȱonȱtheȱsides,ȱabsenceȱofȱaȱcreamyȱstripeȱonȱtheȱupperȱlipȱandȱtheȱdistinctiveȱeyeȱcolour.ȱȱDistributionȱCoastȱandȱrangesȱfromȱsouthȬeasternȱQueenslandȱtoȱtheȱHawkesburyȱRiverȱinȱNSW.ȱNorthȬeasternȱNSW,ȱparticularlyȱtheȱCoffsȱHarbourȬDorrigoȱarea,ȱisȱnowȱaȱstronghold.ȱ

Image:ȱMichaelȱMurphyȱȱ©ȱMichaelȱMurphyȱ

ȱ


ȱHabitatȱandȱecologyȱȱ

x Giantȱ Barredȱ Frogsȱ forageȱ andȱ liveȱ amongstȱ deep,ȱdampȱ leafȱ litterȱ inȱ rainforests,ȱmoistȱ eucalyptȱ forestȱandȱ nearbyȱ dryȱ eucalyptȱ forest,ȱ atȱ elevationsȱ belowȱ1000ȱm.ȱȱ

x Theyȱ breedȱ aroundȱ shallow,ȱ flowingȱ rockyȱ streamsȱfromȱlateȱspringȱtoȱsummer.ȱȱ

x Femalesȱ layȱ eggsȱ ontoȱ moistȱ creekȱ banksȱ orȱ rocksȱaboveȱwaterȱlevel,ȱfromȱwhereȱtadpolesȱdropȱintoȱtheȱwaterȱwhenȱhatched.ȱȱ

x Tadpolesȱgrowȱ toȱaȱ lengthȱofȱ80ȱmmȱandȱ takeȱupȱ toȱ14ȱ monthsȱ beforeȱ changingȱ intoȱ frogs.ȱ Whenȱ notȱbreedingȱ theȱ frogsȱ disperseȱ hundredsȱ ofȱ metresȱ awayȱ fromȱ streams.ȱ Theyȱ feedȱprimarilyȱonȱlargeȱinsectsȱandȱspiders.ȱ

ȱThreatsȱ

x Reductionȱinȱwaterȱquality,ȱfromȱsedimentationȱorȱpollution.ȱȱx Changesȱinȱwaterȱflowȱpatterns,ȱeitherȱincreasedȱorȱdecreasedȱflows.ȱȱx ReductionȱofȱleafȬlitterȱandȱfallenȱlogȱcoverȱthroughȱburning.ȱȱx Timberȱharvestingȱandȱotherȱforestryȱpractices.ȱȱx Vegetationȱclearance.ȱȱx Predationȱonȱeggsȱandȱtadpolesȱbyȱintroducedȱfish.ȱȱx Weedȱsprayingȱcloseȱtoȱstreams.ȱȱx Chytridȱfungalȱdisease.ȱȱ

ReferencesȱCogger,ȱH.ȱG.ȱ(2000).ȱReptilesȱandȱAmphibiansȱofȱAustralia.ȱ6thȱed.ȱReedȱNewȱHolland,ȱSydney.ȱȱNPWSȱ(2000).ȱThreatenedȱSpeciesȱofȱtheȱLowerȱNorthȱCoastȱofȱNewȱSouthȱWales.ȱNPWS,ȱSydney.ȱȱNPWSȱ (2002).ȱ Threatenedȱ Speciesȱ ofȱ theȱ Upperȱ Northȱ Coastȱ ofȱ NSW:ȱ Fauna.ȱ NPWS,ȱ Coffsȱ

Harbour.ȱȱNSWȱScientificȱCommitteeȱ (1999)ȱGiantȱbarredȱ frogȱ ȬȱEndangeredȱspeciesȱdeterminationȱ Ȭȱ final.ȱ

DECȱ(NSW),ȱSydney.ȱ

BrushȬtailedȱPhascogaleȱ ȱPhascogaleȱtapoatafaȱConservationȱstatusȱinȱNSW:ȱVulnerableȱȱDescriptionȱTheȱBrushȬtailedȱPhascogaleȱisȱtreeȬdwellingȱmarsupialȱcarnivore.ȱItȱhasȱaȱcharacteristic,ȱblack,ȱbushyȱ‘bottlebrush’ȱtail,ȱwithȱhairsȱupȱtoȱ4ȱcmȱlong.ȱItsȱfurȱisȱgreyȱaboveȱandȱpaleȱcreamȱbelowȱandȱitȱhasȱconspicuousȱblackȱeyesȱandȱlargeȱnakedȱears.ȱAdultsȱhaveȱaȱheadȱandȱbodyȱlengthȱofȱaboutȱ20ȱcm,ȱaȱtailȱlengthȱofȱaboutȱ20ȱcmȱandȱweighȱ110ȱȬȱ235ȱgrams.ȱȱDistributionȱTheȱBrushȬtailedȱPhascogaleȱhasȱaȱpatchyȱdistributionȱaroundȱtheȱ

Distributionȱ inȱNSWȱ (©ȱNSWȱGovȱ2004)ȱ

Image:ȱ Lindaȱ Broomeȱ ©ȱLindaȱBroomeȱ

ȱ


coastȱofȱAustralia.ȱInȱNSWȱitȱisȱmoreȱfrequentlyȱfoundȱinȱforestȱonȱtheȱGreatȱDividingȱRangeȱinȱtheȱnorthȬeastȱandȱsouthȬeastȱofȱtheȱState.ȱThereȱareȱalsoȱaȱfewȱrecordsȱfromȱcentralȱNSW.ȱȱHabitatȱandȱecologyȱȱ

x Preferȱ dryȱ sclerophyllȱ openȱ forestȱ withȱ sparseȱgroundcoverȱofȱherbs,ȱgrasses,ȱshrubsȱorȱleafȱlitter.ȱȱ

x Alsoȱ inhabitȱ heath,ȱ swamps,ȱ rainforestȱ andȱ wetȱsclerophyllȱforest.ȱȱ

x Agileȱ climberȱ foragingȱpreferentiallyȱ inȱ roughȱbarkedȱtreesȱofȱ25ȱcmȱDBHȱorȱgreater.ȱȱ

x Feedsȱmostlyȱ onȱ arthropodsȱ butȱwillȱ alsoȱ eatȱ otherȱinvertebrates,ȱnectarȱandȱsometimesȱsmallȱvertebrates.ȱȱ

x Femalesȱhaveȱexclusiveȱterritoriesȱofȱapproximatelyȱ20ȱȬȱ60ȱha,ȱwhileȱmalesȱhaveȱoverlappingȱterritoriesȱofȱupȱtoȱ100ȱha.ȱȱ

x Nestȱ andȱ shelterȱ inȱ treeȱ hollowsȱwithȱ entrancesȱ 2.5ȱ Ȭȱ 4ȱ cmȱwideȱ andȱ useȱmanyȱdifferentȱhollowsȱoverȱaȱshortȱtimeȱspan.ȱȱ

x MatingȱoccursȱMayȱ ȬȱJuly;ȱmalesȱdieȱsoonȱafterȱtheȱmatingȱseasonȱwhereasȱfemalesȱcanȱliveȱforȱupȱtoȱthreeȱyearsȱbutȱgenerallyȱonlyȱproduceȱoneȱlitter.ȱ

ȱThreatsȱ

x Lossȱandȱfragmentationȱofȱhabitat.ȱȱx LossȱofȱhollowȬbearingȱtrees.ȱȱx Predationȱbyȱfoxesȱandȱcats.ȱȱx Competitionȱforȱnestingȱhollowsȱwithȱtheȱintroducedȱhoneybee.ȱ

ȱReferencesȱMenkhorstȱP.W.ȱ (1995).ȱBrushȬtailedȱPhascogaleȱ inȱTheȱMammalsȱ ofȱVictoriaȱ ȬȱDistribution,ȱ

EcologyȱandȱConservation.ȱOxfordȱUniversityȱPress,ȱAustralia.ȱȱMenkhorst,ȱP.ȱandȱKnight,ȱF.ȱ(2001).ȱAȱFieldȱGuideȱ toȱ theȱMammalsȱofȱAustralia.ȱOxfordȱUniȱ

Press,ȱMelbourne.ȱȱSodderquistȱT.ȱ (1995)ȱBrushȬtailedȱPhascogale,ȱ inȱ Strahan,ȱR.(ed.),ȱTheȱAustralianȱMuseumȱ

CompleteȱBookȱofȱAustralianȱMammals.ȱAngusȱ&ȱRobertson,ȱSydney.ȱ Koalaȱ PhascolarctosȱcinereusȱConservationȱstatusȱinȱNSW:ȱVulnerableȱȱDescriptionȱTheȱKoalaȱ isȱanȱarborealȱmarsupialȱwithȱfurȱrangingȱfromȱgreyȱtoȱbrownȱ above,ȱ andȱ isȱ whiteȱ below.ȱ Itȱ hasȱ largeȱ furryȱ ears,ȱ aȱprominentȱblackȱnoseȱandȱnoȱtail.ȱItȱspendsȱmostȱofȱitsȱtimeȱinȱtreesȱandȱ hasȱ long,ȱ sharpȱ claws,ȱ adaptedȱ forȱ climbing.ȱ Adultȱ malesȱweighȱ6ȱȬȱ12ȱkgȱandȱadultȱfemalesȱweighȱ5ȱȬȱ8ȱkg.ȱDuringȱbreeding,ȱmalesȱadvertiseȱwithȱloudȱsnarlingȱcoughsȱandȱbellows.ȱȱDistributionȱTheȱ Koalaȱ hasȱ aȱ fragmentedȱ distributionȱ throughoutȱ easternȱ Australiaȱ fromȱ northȬeastȱ


http://www.threatenedspecies.environment.nsw.gov.au/tsprofile/legislation.aspx#definitions

ȱ


Queenslandȱ toȱ theȱ Eyreȱ Peninsulaȱ inȱ SouthȱAustralia.ȱ InȱNSWȱ itȱmainlyȱ occursȱ onȱ theȱcentralȱandȱnorthȱ coastsȱwithȱ someȱpopulationsȱ inȱ theȱwesternȱ region.ȱ Itȱwasȱhistoricallyȱabundantȱ onȱ theȱ southȱ coastȱ ofȱNSW,ȱ butȱ nowȱ occursȱ inȱ sparseȱ andȱ possiblyȱ disjunctȱpopulations.ȱKoalasȱareȱalsoȱknownȱfromȱseveralȱsitesȱonȱtheȱsouthernȱtablelands.ȱȱȱHabitatȱandȱecologyȱȱ

x Spendȱmostȱ ofȱ theirȱ timeȱ inȱ trees,ȱ butȱwillȱdescendȱ andȱ traverseȱ openȱ groundȱ toȱmoveȱbetweenȱtrees.ȱȱ

x Homeȱ rangeȱ sizeȱvariesȱwithȱqualityȱofȱhabitat,ȱ rangingȱ fromȱ lessȱ thanȱ twoȱhaȱ toȱseveralȱhundredȱhectaresȱinȱsize.ȱȱ

x Generallyȱ solitary,ȱbutȱhaveȱcomplexȱ socialȱhierarchiesȱbasedȱonȱaȱdominantȱmaleȱwithȱ aȱ territoryȱ overlappingȱ severalȱ femalesȱ andȱ subȬordinateȱ malesȱ onȱ theȱperiphery.ȱȱ

x Femalesȱ breedȱ atȱ twoȱ yearsȱ ofȱ ageȱ andȱproduceȱoneȱyoungȱperȱyear.ȱȱ

x Inhabitȱeucalyptȱwoodlandsȱandȱforests.ȱȱx Feedȱonȱ theȱ foliageȱofȱmoreȱ thanȱ70ȱeucalyptȱ

speciesȱ andȱ 30ȱ nonȬeucalyptȱ species,ȱ butȱ inȱanyȱ oneȱ areaȱ willȱ selectȱ preferredȱ browseȱspecies.ȱȱ

x Inactiveȱ forȱ mostȱ ofȱ theȱ day,ȱ feedingȱ andȱmovingȱmostlyȱatȱnight.ȱ

ȱ DistributionȱinȱNSWȱ©ȱNSWȱGovȱ2004ȱȱThreatsȱ

x Loss,ȱmodificationȱandȱfragmentationȱofȱhabitat.ȱȱx Predationȱbyȱferalȱandȱdomesticȱdogs.ȱȱx Intenseȱfiresȱthatȱscorchȱorȱkillȱtheȱtreeȱcanopy.ȱȱx RoadȬkills.ȱ

ȱReferencesȱMartinȱR.W.ȱandȱHandasydeȱK.A.ȱ(1995).ȱKoalaȱ(pp.ȱ196Ȭ8)ȱinȱStrahan,ȱR.(ed.),ȱTheȱAustralianȱ

MuseumȱCompleteȱBookȱofȱAustralianȱMammals.ȱAngusȱ&ȱRobertson,ȱSydney.ȱȱMartin,ȱR.ȱ&ȱHandasyde,ȱK.ȱ 1999.ȱTheȱKoala:ȱ naturalȱ history,ȱ conservationȱ andȱmanagement.ȱ

UniversityȱofȱNewȱSouthȱWalesȱPressȱLtd,ȱSydney.ȱȱMenkhorstȱ P.W.ȱ (1995).ȱ Koala,ȱ Inȱ Theȱ Mammalsȱ ofȱ Victoriaȱ Ȭȱ Distribution,ȱ Ecologyȱ andȱ

Conservation.ȱOxfordȱUniversityȱPress,ȱAustralia.ȱ(pp.85Ȭ8)ȱMenkhorst,ȱP.ȱandȱKnight,ȱF.ȱ(2001).ȱAȱFieldȱGuideȱtoȱ theȱMammalsȱofȱAustralia.ȱOxfordȱUniȱ

Press,ȱMelbourne.ȱȱNSWȱ Nationalȱ Parksȱ andȱ Wildlifeȱ Serviceȱ (2003)ȱ Draftȱ Recoveryȱ Planȱ forȱ theȱ Koalaȱ

(Phascolarctosȱcinereus).ȱNSWȱNPWS,ȱSydney.ȱȱReed,ȱP.C.,ȱLunney,ȱD.ȱandȱWalker,ȱP.ȱ1990.ȱAȱ1986Ȭ1987ȱsurveyȱofȱ theȱkoalaȱPhascolarctosȱ

cinereusȱ (Goldfuss)ȱ inȱ Newȱ Southȱ Walesȱ andȱ anȱ ecologicalȱ interpretationȱ ofȱ itsȱdistribution.ȱInȱBiologyȱofȱtheȱKoala.ȱEds.ȱLee,ȱA.K.,ȱHandasyde,ȱK.A.ȱandȱSanson,ȱG.D.ȱ

ȱȱȱ

ȱ


SquirrelȱGliderȱȱ ȱ ȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱPetaurusȱnorfolcensisȱConservationȱstatusȱinȱNSW:ȱVulnerableȱȱDescriptionȱAdultȱSquirrelȱGlidersȱhaveȱaȱheadȱandȱbodyȱlengthȱofȱaboutȱ20ȱcm.ȱTheyȱhaveȱblueȬgreyȱtoȱbrownȬgreyȱ furȱabove,ȱwhiteȱonȱ theȱbellyȱandȱ theȱendȱ thirdȱofȱ theȱ tailȱ isȱblack.ȱThereȱ isȱaȱdarkȱstripeȱfromȱbetweenȱtheȱeyesȱtoȱtheȱmidȬbackȱandȱtheȱtailȱisȱsoftȱandȱbushyȱaveragingȱaboutȱ27ȱcmȱinȱlength.ȱSquirrelȱGlidersȱareȱupȱtoȱtwiceȱtheȱsizeȱofȱSugarȱGliders,ȱtheirȱfacialȱmarkingsȱareȱmoreȱdistinctȱandȱ theyȱnestȱ inȱbowlȬshaped,ȱ leafȱ linedȱnestsȱ inȱ treeȱhollows.ȱSquirrelȱGlidersȱareȱalsoȱlessȱvocalȱthanȱSugarȱGliders.ȱȱDistributionȱTheȱ speciesȱ isȱ widelyȱ thoughȱ sparselyȱ distributedȱ inȱ easternȱ Australia,ȱ fromȱ northernȱQueenslandȱtoȱwesternȱVictoria.ȱȱHabitatȱandȱecologyȱȱ

x Inhabitsȱ matureȱ orȱ oldȱ growthȱ Box,ȱ BoxȬIronbarkȱwoodlandsȱ andȱ Riverȱ Redȱ Gumȱ forestȱ westȱ ofȱ theȱGreatȱ Dividingȱ Rangeȱ andȱ BlackbuttȬBloodwoodȱforestȱwithȱheathȱunderstoreyȱinȱcoastalȱareas.ȱȱ

x Prefersȱmixedȱ speciesȱ standsȱwithȱaȱ shrubȱorȱAcaciaȱmidstorey.ȱȱ

x Liveȱ inȱ familyȱ groupsȱ ofȱ aȱ singleȱ adultȱmaleȱ oneȱ orȱmoreȱadultȱfemalesȱandȱoffspring.ȱȱ

x Requireȱ abundantȱ treeȱ hollowsȱ forȱ refugeȱ andȱ nestȱsites.ȱȱ

x Dietȱ variesȱ seasonallyȱ andȱ consistsȱ ofȱ Acaciaȱ gum,ȱeucalyptȱsap,ȱnectar,ȱhoneydewȱandȱmanna,ȱwithȱinvertebratesȱandȱpollenȱprovidingȱprotein.ȱ

ȱThreatsȱ

x Lossȱandȱfragmentationȱofȱhabitat.ȱȱx LossȱofȱhollowȬbearingȱtrees.ȱȱx Lossȱofȱfloweringȱunderstoreyȱandȱmidstoreyȱshrubsȱinȱforests.ȱȱx Individualsȱcanȱgetȱcaughtȱinȱbarbedȱwireȱfencesȱwhileȱgliding.ȱ

ȱReferencesȱDavyȱ S.ȱ (1984).ȱ Habitatȱ preferencesȱ ofȱ arborealȱ marsupialsȱ withinȱ aȱ coastalȱ forestȱ inȱ

southernȱNSW.ȱPossumsȱ andȱGlidersȱ (ed.ȱA.P.ȱ Smithȱ andȱ I.D.ȱHume):ȱ 509Ȭ16.ȱ SurreyȱBeattyȱandȱSons,ȱSydney.ȱȱ

Menkhorst,ȱP.ȱandȱKnight,ȱF.ȱ(2001).ȱAȱFieldȱGuideȱ toȱ theȱMammalsȱofȱAustralia.ȱOxfordȱUniȱPress,ȱMelbourne.ȱȱ

SucklingȱG.C.ȱ1995ȱSquirrelȱGliderȱ inȱRȱStrahanȱ(Ed.)ȱTheȱMammalsȱofȱAustralia.ȱPp234Ȭ235.ȱReedȱBooks,ȱChatswood.ȱ


ȱ


YellowȬbelliedȱGliderȱ ȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱȱPetaurusȱaustralisȱȱȱConservationȱstatusȱinȱNSW:ȱVulnerableȱȱDescriptionȱTheȱYellowȬbelliedȱGliderȱisȱaȱlarge,ȱactive,ȱsociableȱandȱvocalȱglider.ȱAdultsȱweighȱ450ȱȬȱ700ȱgrams,ȱhaveȱaȱheadȱandȱbodyȱlengthȱofȱaboutȱ30ȱcmȱandȱaȱlargeȱbushyȱtailȱthatȱisȱaboutȱ45ȱcmȱ long.ȱ Itȱ hasȱ greyȱ toȱ brownȱ furȱ aboveȱwithȱ aȱ creamȱ toȱyellowȱ belly,ȱ whichȱ isȱ palerȱ inȱ youngȱ animals.ȱ Theȱ darkȱstripeȱdownȱ theȱbackȱ isȱ characteristicȱofȱ theȱgroup.ȱ Itȱhasȱaȱlargeȱ glidingȱmembraneȱ thatȱ extendsȱ fromȱ theȱwristȱ toȱ theȱankle.ȱ Itȱhasȱaȱ loud,ȱdistinctiveȱ call,ȱbeginningȱwithȱaȱhighȬpitchedȱshriekȱandȱsubsidingȱintoȱaȱthroatyȱrattle.ȱ

Image:ȱJoelȱWinterȱ©ȱDECȱDistributionȱTheȱYellowȬbelliedȱGliderȱisȱfoundȱalongȱtheȱeasternȱcoastȱtoȱtheȱwesternȱslopesȱofȱtheȱGreatȱDividingȱRange,ȱfromȱsouthernȱQueenslandȱtoȱVictoria.ȱȱȱHabitatȱandȱecologyȱȱYellowȬbelliedȱ glidersȱ occurȱ inȱ tallȱmatureȱ eucalyptȱ forestȱ generallyȱ inȱ areasȱwithȱ highȱrainfallȱ andȱ nutrientȱ richȱ soils.ȱ Forestȱ typeȱ preferencesȱ varyȱwithȱ latitudeȱ andȱ elevation;ȱmixedȱcoastalȱforestsȱtoȱdryȱescarpmentȱforestsȱinȱtheȱnorth;ȱmoistȱcoastalȱgulliesȱandȱcreekȱflatsȱtoȱtallȱmontaneȱforestsȱinȱtheȱsouth.ȱTheyȱfeedȱprimarilyȱonȱplantȱandȱinsectȱexudates,ȱincludingȱ nectar,ȱ sap,ȱ honeydewȱ andȱmannaȱwithȱ pollenȱ andȱ insectsȱ providingȱ protein.ȱTheyȱ extractȱ sapȱbyȱ incisingȱ (orȱbitingȱ into)ȱ theȱ trunksȱ andȱbranchesȱ ofȱ favouredȱ foodȱ trees,ȱ oftenȱ leavingȱ aȱdistinctiveȱ‘V’Ȭshapedȱscar.ȱTheyȱliveȱinȱsmallȱfamilyȱgroupsȱofȱtwoȱȬȱsixȱindividualsȱandȱareȱnocturnal.ȱDen,ȱoftenȱinȱfamilyȱgroups,ȱinȱhollowsȱofȱ largeȱ trees.ȱVeryȱmobileȱandȱoccupyȱ largeȱhomeȱrangesȱ betweenȱ 20ȱ toȱ 85ȱ haȱ toȱ encompassȱ dispersedȱ andȱseasonallyȱvariableȱfoodȱresources.ȱ

Feedȱtreeȱscars,ȱImage:ȱShaneȱRumingȱ

ȱ©ȱShaneȱRumingȱȱȱȱȱȱDistributionȱinȱNSWȱȱ©ȱNSWȱGovȱ2004ȱȱ

Threatsȱx Lossȱandȱfragmentationȱofȱhabitat.ȱȱx LossȱofȱhollowȬbearingȱtrees.ȱȱx Lossȱofȱfeedȱtrees.ȱ

ȱȱ

http://www.threatenedspecies.environment.nsw.gov.au/tsprofile/legislation.aspx#definitions

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ȱReferencesȱGoldingayȱR.L.ȱandȱKavanaghȱR.P.ȱ(1991).ȱTheȱYellowȬbelliedȱGlider:ȱaȱreviewȱofȱitsȱecologyȱ

andȱmanagementȱ considerations.ȱ Inȱ Conservationȱ ofȱ Australiaȇsȱ Forestȱ Faunaȱ (ed.ȱ D.ȱLunney):ȱ365Ȭ75.ȱRoyalȱZoologicalȱSocietyȱofȱNSW.ȱȱ

Menkhorst,ȱP.ȱandȱKnight,ȱF.ȱ(2001).ȱAȱFieldȱGuideȱ toȱ theȱMammalsȱofȱAustralia.ȱOxfordȱUniȱPress,ȱMelbourne.ȱȱ

NSWȱ Nationalȱ Parksȱ andȱ Wildlifeȱ Serviceȱ (2003)ȱ Recoveryȱ Planȱ forȱ YellowȬbelliedȱ Gliderȱ(Petaurusȱaustralis).ȱNSWȱNPWS,ȱHurstvilleȱNSW.ȱȱ

Russell,ȱ R.ȱ (1995).ȱ YellowȬbelliedȱ Gliderȱ (pp.ȱ 226Ȭ8)ȱ inȱ Strahan,ȱ R.ȱ (ed.),ȱ Theȱ AustralianȱMuseumȱCompleteȱBookȱofȱAustralianȱMammals.ȱAngusȱ&ȱRobertson,ȱSydney.ȱ

ȱ

GreyȬheadedȱFlyingȬfoxȱ ȱȱPteropusȱpoliocephalusȱConservationȱstatusȱinȱNSW:ȱVulnerableȱNationalȱconservationȱstatus:ȱVulnerableȱȱDescriptionȱTheȱ GreyȬheadedȱ FlyingȬfoxȱ isȱ theȱ largestȱ Australianȱ bat,ȱwithȱaȱheadȱandȱbodyȱ lengthȱofȱ23ȱ Ȭȱ29ȱcm.ȱItȱhasȱdarkȱgreyȱfurȱ onȱ theȱ body,ȱ lighterȱ greyȱ furȱ onȱ theȱ headȱ andȱ aȱ russetȱcollarȱencirclingȱtheȱneck.ȱTheȱwingȱmembranesȱareȱblackȱandȱtheȱwingspanȱcanȱbeȱupȱtoȱ1ȱm.ȱItȱcanȱbeȱdistinguishedȱfromȱotherȱflyingȬfoxesȱbyȱtheȱlegȱfur,ȱwhichȱextendsȱtoȱtheȱankle.ȱȱDistributionȱGreyȬheadedȱ FlyingȬfoxesȱ areȱ foundȱwithinȱ 200ȱ kmȱ ofȱ theȱeasternȱcoastȱofȱAustralia,ȱfromȱBundabergȱinȱQueenslandȱtoȱMelbourneȱinȱVictoria.ȱ

ȱȱImage:ȱLindaȱBroomeȱ©ȱLindaȱBroomeȱ

Habitatȱandȱecologyȱȱx Occurȱ inȱ subtropicalȱ andȱ temperateȱ rainforests,ȱ tallȱ sclerophyllȱ forestsȱ andȱ

woodlands,ȱheathsȱandȱswampsȱasȱwellȱasȱurbanȱgardensȱandȱcultivatedȱfruitȱcrops.ȱȱx Roostingȱcampsȱareȱgenerallyȱlocatedȱwithinȱ20ȱkmȱofȱaȱregularȱfoodȱsourceȱandȱareȱ

commonlyȱfoundȱinȱgullies,ȱcloseȱtoȱwater,ȱinȱvegetationȱwithȱaȱdenseȱcanopy.ȱȱx Individualȱcampsȱmayȱhaveȱtensȱofȱthousandsȱofȱanimalsȱandȱareȱusedȱforȱmating,ȱ

birthȱandȱtheȱrearingȱofȱyoung.ȱȱx Annualȱmatingȱ commencesȱ inȱ Januaryȱ andȱ aȱ singleȱ

youngȱisȱbornȱeachȱOctoberȱorȱNovember.ȱȱx Siteȱfidelityȱtoȱcampsȱisȱhighȱwithȱsomeȱcampsȱbeingȱ

usedȱforȱoverȱaȱcentury.ȱȱx Travelȱupȱtoȱ50ȱkmȱtoȱforage.ȱȱx Feedȱ onȱ theȱ nectarȱ andȱ pollenȱ ofȱ nativeȱ trees,ȱ inȱ

particularȱ Eucalyptus,ȱMelaleucaȱ andȱ Banksia,ȱ andȱfruitsȱofȱrainforestȱtreesȱandȱvines.ȱȱ

x Alsoȱforageȱinȱcultivatedȱgardensȱandȱfruitȱcropsȱandȱcanȱinflictȱsevereȱcropȱdamage.ȱ

ȱ

Distributionȱ inȱNSWȱ©ȱNSWȱGovȱ2004ȱ

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Threatsȱx Lossȱofȱforagingȱhabitat.ȱȱx Disturbanceȱofȱroostingȱsites.ȱȱx Unregulatedȱshooting.ȱȱx Electrocutionȱonȱpowerlines.ȱ

ȱReferencesȱChurchill,ȱS.ȱ(1998)ȱAustralianȱBats.ȱNewȱHolland,ȱSydney.ȱȱConder,ȱP.ȱ(1994).ȱWithȱWingsȱonȱtheirȱFingers.ȱAngusȱandȱRobertson,ȱSydney.ȱȱHall,ȱL.ȱandȱRichards,ȱG.ȱ(2000).ȱFlyingȱFoxes;ȱfruitȱandȱblossomȱbatsȱofȱAustralia.ȱUNSWȱPress,ȱ

Sydney.ȱȱNSWȱ ScientificȱCommitteeȱ (2001)ȱGreyȬheadedȱ flyingȱ foxȱ ȬȱVulnerableȱ speciesȱ determinationȱ Ȭȱ

final.ȱDECȱ(NSW),ȱSydney.ȱȱTidemann,ȱC.R.ȱ (1995).ȱGreyȬheadedȱFlyingȬfoxȱPteropusȱ poliocephalusȱTemminck,ȱ 1925.ȱ Inȱ

TheȱAustralianȱMuseumȱCompleteȱ Bookȱ ofȱAustralianȱMammals.ȱ Strahan,ȱR.ȱ (ed.)ȱReedȱBooks,ȱSydney.ȱ

ȱEmuȱ(population)ȱȱ DromaiusȱnovaehollandiaeȱConservationȱstatusȱinȱNSW:ȱEndangeredȱPopulationȱȱDescriptionȱTheȱEmuȱ isȱaȱ largeȱ flightlessȱbirdȱupȱ toȱ2ȱmȱ tall.ȱTheȱ feathersȱareȱsparseȱaroundȱtheȱupperȱneckȱrevealingȱblueȱskin,ȱwhichȱisȱdarkerȱinȱfemales.ȱMalesȱhatchȱtheȱeggsȱandȱcareȱforȱtheȱchicks,ȱwhichȱareȱdarkȱbrownȱwithȱcreamȱstripes.ȱImmatureȱbirdsȱhaveȱaȱdarkȱheadȱandȱneck.ȱTheȱEmu’sȱcallȱisȱaȱdeepȱgruntingȱorȱbooming.ȱȱDistributionȱȱThroughoutȱmainlandȱ Australiaȱ butȱ nowȱ generallyȱ absentȱ fromȱsouthȬeastȱ coastalȱ regions.ȱ Previouslyȱ widespreadȱ onȱ theȱ NSWȱnorthȱcoast,ȱbutȱnowȱ largelyȱrestrictedȱ toȱcoastalȱandȱnearȱcoastalȱareasȱ betweenȱ Evansȱ Headȱ andȱ Redȱ Rockȱ andȱ westȱ toȱ theȱBungawalbinȱarea.ȱThereȱhaveȱalsoȱbeenȱsomeȱrecentȱrecordsȱfromȱtheȱPortȱStephensȱarea.ȱTheȱEmuȱpopulationȱinȱtheȱNSWȱnorthȱcoastȱbioregionȱandȱPortȱStephensȱLocalȱGovernmentȱAreaȱhasȱbeenȱlistedȱasȱ anȱ endangeredȱ populationȱ underȱ theȱ Threatenedȱ SpeciesȱConservationȱAct.ȱȱHabitatȱandȱecologyȱȱOnȱtheȱNSWȱnorthȱcoastȱEmusȱoccurȱinȱopenȱforest,ȱwoodland,ȱcoastalȱheath,ȱcoastalȱdunes,ȱwetlandȱ areas,ȱ teaȱ treeȱ plantationsȱ andȱ openȱ farmland,ȱ andȱ occasionallyȱ inȱ littoralȱrainforest.ȱȱThreatsȱ

x Riskȱofȱlocalȱextinctionȱdueȱtoȱsmallȱpopulationȱsizeȱandȱisolation.ȱȱx Clearingȱ andȱ fragmentationȱ ofȱ areasȱ ofȱ habitatȱ forȱ agricultureȱ andȱ urbanȱ

development.ȱȱ

Image:ȱ Shaneȱ Rumingȱ ©ȱShaneȱRumingȱ

ȱ


x Burningȱofȱsuitableȱhabitatȱatȱtooȱfrequentȱintervals.ȱȱx Predationȱofȱyoungȱandȱeggsȱbyȱfoxes,ȱferalȱandȱdomesticȱdogsȱandȱferalȱpigs.ȱȱx Beingȱhitȱbyȱvehicles.ȱȱx Deliberateȱkillingȱthroughȱpoisoningȱorȱshooting.ȱ

ȱReferencesȱMcGrath,ȱR.ȱJ.ȱandȱBass,ȱD.ȱ(1999).ȱSeedȱdispersalȱbyȱEmusȱonȱtheȱNewȱSouthȱWalesȱNorthȬ

eastȱCoast.ȱEmuȱ99:ȱ248Ȭ52.ȱȱNSWȱScientificȱCommitteeȱ(2002)ȱEmuȱpopulationȱinȱtheȱNSWȱNorthȱCoastȱBioregionȱandȱPortȱ

StephensȱLGAȱȬȱEndangeredȱpopulationȱdeterminationȱȬȱfinal.ȱDECȱ(NSW),ȱSydney.ȱȱ

ȱ

rainforest on floodplain - south endeavour · nsw 1scientific 1committee 1(1999) 1lowland...

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