Radiation Safety TrainingRadiation Safety Training

Module 1 – Basic Radiation PrinciplesModule 1 – Basic Radiation Principles

Chapter 7Radiological Postings

Radiation Postings / Labels

• Rule .03 (11) specifies requirements for:• posting or labeling

• Rooms

• Containers

• Machines

• exemptions to above

StandardStandardRadiationRadiationSymbolSymbol

Laboratory Postings Required“Notice to Workers” and Emergency Contact Information should be

posted at the entrance to your lab

Georgia DNR Notice to WorkersGeorgia DNR Notice to Workers

Lab Emergency Phone NumbersLab Emergency Phone Numbers

Caution Sign and HazardsCaution Sign and Hazards

Radioactive Materials Radioactive Materials PostingPosting

RSO Emergency Phone NumbersRSO Emergency Phone Numbers

Door SignDoor Sign

Waste Containers Waste Containers (every 180 (every 180 oo))

Radioactive MaterialsRadioactive Materials Use HoodsUse Hoods

RAM Use and StorageRAM Use and Storage AreasAreas Any location that Any location that contains RAMcontains RAM

Standards, Solutions and Sources

Required posting when an area exceeds 5 mrem/hr.

or exceeds 100 mrem in 5 consecutive days

containers are included, but surveyed at 6 inches for dose rate

Reach your yearly whole body limit of 5 rem in ~1000 hours (42 days)

Posted when decontamination of a large area is in progress.

Usually posted on a barricade

Authorized by RSO entry only

PPE is required for entry

Instructions accompany this posting.

Posted when airborne contamination fills a large contained area

Usually posted on a barricade

Authorized by RSO entry only

Respiration equipment and PPE is required for entry

Instructions accompany this posting.

Conspicuously posted in an area where an open x-ray beam is present

Usually applies to non- medical open beam x-ray equipment.

Emergency Warnings

• Temporary postings may be placed to warn of emergency procedures in progress• DO NOT CROSS DO NOT CROSS

MARKED MARKED BARRIERS or BARRIERS or

ENTER POSTED ENTER POSTED AREASAREAS

Follow Emergency Responder InstructionsFollow Emergency Responder Instructions

Read the Posting !!Read the Posting !!

• Radiation signs contain important information

• If you don’t know about the radiation or radioactive materials ASK !!ASK !!

• Be forewarned

Chp 12, “Radiation Producing Equipment”2003

Chp 1, “Radiation Safety Organization”

Chp 2, “Principles of Radiation Safety””

Chp 3, “Radiation Exposure Limits”

Chp 4, “Facilities and Equipment Considerations”

Chp 5, “Procurement and Transfer of Radioactive Materials”

Chp 6, “Radiological Surveys”

Chp 7, “Radiological Postings”

Chp 8, “Response to Radiological Incidents”

Chp 9, “Laboratory Procedures”

Chp 10, “Radioactive Waste Handling and Disposal”

Chp 11, “Radiological Improvement Program”

RADIATIONRADIATIONPHYSICAL FORMS –BASIC DEFINITIONSPHYSICAL FORMS –BASIC DEFINITIONS

+

+ +

NucleusNucleus

NeutronsNeutrons

ProtonsProtons

ElectronsElectrons(Electron Clouds)(Electron Clouds)

Structure of the AtomStructure of the Atom

Elements and IsotopesElements and Isotopes

Periodic Table of ElementsPeriodic Table of Elements Chart of the NuclidesChart of the Nuclides

Half-Life1 – 10 days

10-100 days

RadioactivityRadioactivity

alpha (alpha () particle emission (decay)) particle emission (decay)

beta (beta () particle emission () particle emission (--), ), positron emission (positron emission (++) and orbital ) and orbital electron capture (ec)electron capture (ec)

gamma (gamma () decay including internal ) decay including internal conversionconversion

DefinitionDefinitionAny spontaneous change in the state of the Any spontaneous change in the state of the

nucleus accompanied by the release of energy.nucleus accompanied by the release of energy.

Major TypesMajor Types

RadioactivityRadioactivity

Radioactivity and radioactive properties of nuclides are;Radioactivity and radioactive properties of nuclides are;

Determined by nuclear considerations only! Determined by nuclear considerations only!

Independent of the chemical and physical states of the Independent of the chemical and physical states of the radioisotoperadioisotope

Cannot be changed by any means except for decayCannot be changed by any means except for decay

Unique to the respective radionuclideUnique to the respective radionuclide

Ionizing RadiationIonizing RadiationDefinition - Any type of radiation possessing Definition - Any type of radiation possessing

enough enough energy to eject an electron from an atom, energy to eject an electron from an atom,

thus producing an ion.thus producing an ion.Major Types of Ionizing Radiation Alpha, Beta, Major Types of Ionizing Radiation Alpha, Beta,

GammaGammaAlpha ParticleAlpha Particle

Beta ParticleBeta Particle

Gamma PhotonGamma Photonand X-Raysand X-Rays

Large Mass (nuclei) – HeliumLarge Mass (nuclei) – HeliumAtom with a +2 chargeAtom with a +2 charge

Small Mass - ElectronSmall Mass - Electron(subatomic particle(subatomic particle))

No MassNo Mass(Electromagnetic(Electromagnetic Radiation)Radiation)

+

+

RADIOISOTOPE DATA

a) External radiation hazardTypical laboratory quantities of uranium salts do not

represent a significant external radiation hazard, as the alpha particles do not penetrate the external dead layer of skin. There are beta and gamma emitters in the 238U

decay chain, but the betas also do not have enough energy to penetrate the skin, and the amount of gamma

radiation is minimal.

b) Inhalation or ingestion hazardThe primary radiological hazard arises from inhalation or

ingestion of the uranium compound, which leads to irradiation of lung and bone cells causing an increased

risk of cancer. A chemical hazard also arises from inhalation or ingestion, as uranium is a heavy metal and can damage the kidneys. Absorption through the skin is not significant, but contact with the substance can cause

irritation and increases the risk of ingestion.Overall, there is a minimal external risk from the radiation

emitted by uranyl acetate and uranyl nitrate, and a relatively large risk arising from internal exposure

following inhalation or ingestion. It is therefore essential to adopt appropriate controls when handling unsealed

uranium salts to minimise this risk:reduce the amount being handled as much as possiblecontain the unsealed sources to prevent contamination

maintain a high level of cleanliness.

Hazard control and safe practiceWith the most serious hazard arising from inhalation or

ingestion, extra care should be taken to prevent any possibility of inhaling fine particles. Gloves must always

be worn when handling or weighing out the uranium salts. Under normal circumstances when using the compound infrequently and working with small quantities of up to

10g, respiratory protection is not necessary. Avoid contamination of bench surfaces by using spill trays (metal or plastic) with disposable coverings such as

benchcote and clean the surface after use. If an appropriate thin window GM tube survey meter is

available, then it can be used to monitor for contamination. Apply the same principles when working in

solution.

Units & Definitions Units & Definitions Used in RadiationUsed in Radiation

ActivityActivityDefinition – The rate of decay of a radioactive sample, i.e.Definition – The rate of decay of a radioactive sample, i.e.by the number of atoms that decay per unit time.by the number of atoms that decay per unit time.

Units of ActivityUnits of Activity

unitunit abbrevabbrev curiecurie dpsdps dpmdpm

curiecurie CiCi 11 3.7E+103.7E+10 2.22E+122.22E+12

millicuriemillicurie mCimCi 1E-31E-3 3.7E+73.7E+7 2.22E+92.22E+9

microcuriemicrocurie CiCi 1E-61E-6 3.7E+43.7E+4 2.22E+62.22E+6

nanocurienanocurie nCinCi 1E-91E-9 3.7E+13.7E+1 2.22E+32.22E+3

picocuriepicocurie pCipCi 1E-121E-12 3.7E-23.7E-2 2.22E+02.22E+0

International Unit of International Unit of ActivityActivity

Becquerel (Bq)Becquerel (Bq)

1.00 Bq = 1 dps1.00 Bq = 1 dps

60.00 Bq = 1 dpm60.00 Bq = 1 dpm

1.00 Ci = 3.7 x 101.00 Ci = 3.7 x 101010 Bq Bq

radiation energy in the form of particles or waves emitted

from a radiation source

Know the difference!!!!

contamination radioactive material in an undesirable location

Can radiation be contamination?

Can contamination be radiation?

HALF-LIFE (THALF-LIFE (T1/21/2))

The time required for a radioactive substance to loose 50 percent of its activity by decay. Each radionuclide has an unique half-life. Half-life is expressed by the followingExpression;

A =A0e-

(t)

Where; Ao = original activity

= .693/half-life of nuclide

t = difference between reference date and present time

Counts, Count Rate, Net Count Counts, Count Rate, Net Count Rate & BackgroundRate & Background

CountsCounts are the number of non-qualifiable radioactive are the number of non-qualifiable radioactive events seen by a detectorevents seen by a detector

Count rateCount rate is the number of counts seen per unit time as is the number of counts seen per unit time ascounts per second (cps) and counts per minute (cpm).counts per second (cps) and counts per minute (cpm).

Net count rateNet count rate is the number of counts seen per unit is the number of counts seen per unit time adjusted for the background count ratetime adjusted for the background count rate

BackgroundBackground is the ambient count rate is the ambient count rate

Counting EfficiencyCounting Efficiency

Counting efficiency is the calibration of count rate in aCounting efficiency is the calibration of count rate in a specific detector where to quantify and express thespecific detector where to quantify and express the

observed count rate in units of radioactivityobserved count rate in units of radioactivity

Cpm/dpm = efficiencyCpm/dpm = efficiency

Each isotope of interest has it own counting efficiencyEach isotope of interest has it own counting efficiency, ,

Liquid Efficiencies (LSC)H-3 (.35), C-14 (.85), P-32(.98), P-33(.85)

S-35(.85), I-125(.75), I-131(.85) P-32 Cerenkov(.30)

Liquids/Wastes Counting Calculations

Sample CPM – Background CPM2.22E+6 DPM/uCi X EFF X V(G)

=uCi/V(G)

Liquid Efficiencies (LSC)H-3 (.35), C-14 (.85), P-32(.98), P-33(.85)

S-35(.85), I-125(.75), I-131(.85) P-32 Cerenkov(.30)

Wipe Test Calculations

Results must be in DPM/100 cm2

DPM/ 100 cm2 = Wipe CPM – BKG CPM (Eff)

For all Isotopes Eff = 0.33

Therefore;

DPM/ 100 cm2 = (Wipe CPM – BKG CPM) X 3

Determination of Minimum Detectable Activity (MDA)

_________________ MDA in dpm = 2.71 + 4.66 √ bkg cpm x count time (eff) (count time)

MDA is the activity threshold for the counting instrument for a given background…

to decrease this value, increase your counting timeot increase your sample size.

Results less than this value are reported as <MDA

______________ MDA in uCi/ml = 2.71 + 4.66 √ bkg cpm x count time (2.22E+6 DPM/uCi)(Sample Vol.)(eff) (count time)

Radiation Dosimetry UnitsRadiation Dosimetry Units

Radiation Dosimetry UnitsRadiation Dosimetry UnitsExposure, X:Exposure, X:

amount of charge produced anywhere in air by amount of charge produced anywhere in air by the complete stoppage of all electrons liberated the complete stoppage of all electrons liberated by photons in an incremental volume of air per by photons in an incremental volume of air per

unit mass of air in that volumeunit mass of air in that volume..

Exposure definition applies only to photons of energy less Exposure definition applies only to photons of energy less than or equal to 3 MeV interacting in air.than or equal to 3 MeV interacting in air.

Standard International (SI) unit:Standard International (SI) unit: Coulomb/kilogram Coulomb/kilogram (C/kg)(C/kg)

Traditional unit: Traditional unit: roentgenroentgen ( R ) ( R ) 1 R1 R = 2.58x10 = 2.58x10-4-4 C/kg C/kg

Radiation Dosimetry UnitsRadiation Dosimetry UnitsAbsorbed dose:Absorbed dose:

is the energy deposited by any type of ionizing is the energy deposited by any type of ionizing radiation in a volume element of mass.radiation in a volume element of mass.

SI unit:SI unit: gray (Gy)gray (Gy)

Traditional unit:Traditional unit: radrad 1Gy = 100 1Gy = 100 radrad

Absorbed dose definition applies to Absorbed dose definition applies to allall forms of forms of ionizing radiation in any material.ionizing radiation in any material.

RADRAD

Relative Biological Relative Biological Effectiveness and Quality Effectiveness and Quality

FactorFactor

Quality factor (Q)Quality factor (Q)radiationradiation QQphoton, photon, 11proton, neutronproton, neutron 1010alphaalpha 2020

( )Biological effect of radiation Y at dose XBiological effect of radiation Y at dose XBiological effect of 250 kVp x-rays at dose XBiological effect of 250 kVp x-rays at dose X

Both produce the same biological effect.Both produce the same biological effect.

Relative Biological Effectiveness (RBE)Relative Biological Effectiveness (RBE)

Relative Biological Relative Biological EffectivenessEffectivenessLn (S)

EffectEffect

DosDosee

Neutrons

Gamma Photons

Gamma Photons

DDnn DDSame Biological EffectSame Biological Effect

Different DoseDifferent Dose from 2 from 2 types of radiationtypes of radiation

Shoulder of curve indicatesShoulder of curve indicatescell repair at low dosescell repair at low doses

No shoulder - no cell repairNo shoulder - no cell repair

Radiation Dosimetry UnitsRadiation Dosimetry UnitsDose EquivalentDose Equivalent

Dose equivalent: allows the description of the biological Dose equivalent: allows the description of the biological effect of an absorbed dose of a particular type of radiation or effect of an absorbed dose of a particular type of radiation or

mixed radiations for the Human Body.mixed radiations for the Human Body.

SI unit:SI unit: sievert (Sv)sievert (Sv)traditional unit: traditional unit: remrem 1 Sv = 100 rem 1 Sv = 100 rem

milliremmillirem

For photons: 1 R For photons: 1 R 1 rad = 1 rem 1 rad = 1 rem

Dose Equivalent (DE) in Rem = Dose in Rads x QDose Equivalent (DE) in Rem = Dose in Rads x Q

Chapter 8Chapter 8Response to Radiological IncidentsResponse to Radiological Incidents

UGA/RSM 2003UGA/RSM 2003

Precautions and Limitations

     Follow all University safety requirements and directions from emergency response personnel during the implementation of all aspects of this procedure.

In situations where personal safety is, or may become, in jeopardy, no radiation safety requirement shall be considered as limiting any action necessary to protect personal health and safety.

In the event of a fire or release of hazardous materials; warn personnel in the affected area, evacuate the area, call (9) 911, and follow the directions of emergency response personnel.

The Radiation Safety Officer and staff may be reached by calling the Environmental Safety Division (ESD) at 542-5801. During off-normal working hours, the campus police should be called at 542-2200. The campus police have responsibility for notifying the Environmental Safety Division’s Hazard Assessment Response Team (HART) in support of radiological emergencies and incidents.

Response to Personnel Injury in Radiological Areas

Document personnel survey on RSF and do follow up decon in the accident area

Medical considerations are primary importance

Notify and report time of accident, injury, initialsurvey readings on contact, isotope, etc. Police 2-2200, AU and RSO

Take measures to control the spread of contamination. Monitor for contaminated locations

With EMT’s consent, assist, monitor and remove contaminated PPE or clothing…bag and tag!

Radioactive Material SpillsRadioactive Material SpillsAll Disposable Spill Kit in Immediate Location All Disposable Spill Kit in Immediate Location

RequiredRequired

MaterialsMaterials

Survey Equipment On HandSurvey Equipment On Hand - Appropriate to Isotopes used - Appropriate to Isotopes used

Wipe Test SuppliesWipe Test Supplies - Filter paper to fit your system / Containers for - Filter paper to fit your system / Containers for filters / Envelopes / Planchets or vials / Wipe test forms / Marker for filters / Envelopes / Planchets or vials / Wipe test forms / Marker for containers / Sharpie / Grease Pencil / Tapecontainers / Sharpie / Grease Pencil / Tape

Waste ContainersWaste Containers - Clear plastic Bags - assorted sizes / Material to - Clear plastic Bags - assorted sizes / Material to seal bagsseal bags

Clean-Up SuppliesClean-Up Supplies - Small brush and dustpan / Detergent solution / - Small brush and dustpan / Detergent solution / Scrub pad / Paper towelsScrub pad / Paper towels

PPEPPE - Gloves / Lab coat / Apron / Booties / Eye wear / Respiratory - Gloves / Lab coat / Apron / Booties / Eye wear / Respiratory protection if trained and fit testedprotection if trained and fit tested

Barriers Barriers - “CAUTION” Tape / Rope / Signs- “CAUTION” Tape / Rope / Signs

AbsorbentsAbsorbents- Powder and/or Pads -Neutralizing Material- Powder and/or Pads -Neutralizing Material

Major Spills

Catastrophic malfunction of radiation

producing equipment

Millicurie Quantities

Potential for airborne contamination

Covers a large area

Uncontrollable spill

Response to a Major SpillTake no actions which could result in injury or unnecessary

contamination to yourself or others

Stop work. If necessary secure any immediate safety hazards

             Warn other individuals in the area. All personnel should leave the immediate area but take appropriate

measures not to spread contamination. Potentially contaminated individuals should gather in a location nearby

for monitoring prior to being released

Isolate the area to prevent the spill from spreading

Response to a Major Spill If any volatile materials are involved or if there is the potential for airborne radioactivity, make sure that fume

hoods are operating and that the sash is partially open. Close any available doors to control ventilation. If outdoors, stay

upwind

Notify the Authorized User (AU) or other individuals responsible for the area

           Secure the area to prevent personnel access. Lock doors, post warning signs, or post an individual trained in

radiation safety to control access to the affected area from a safe distance

  Notify the RSO or any member of the Radiation Safety staff. If they are not available, contact the campus police

Response to a Major Spill

Remain in a safe location until assistance arrives

          Personnel involved should not leave the scene until cleared by Radiation Safety or emergency response

personnel.

Response to Spilled Radioactive Materials on Skin or Personnel Clothing

If the radioactive material may have volatile characteristics (radioiodine, S-35, etc), place the

contaminated clothing in an operating fume hood or securely closed plastic bag.

1)    If the contamination is associated with a hazardous material, immediately remove the hazardous material using whatever means are necessary to ensure personal safety. Notify your lab safety representative as soon as possible.

1)   If the spill is on clothing, immediately remove the clothing and proceed with monitoring of the skin for contamination. When removing clothing use caution not spread contamination to other parts of the body, especially the facial area

Response to Spilled Radioactive Materials on Skin or Personnel Clothing

Pat the affected area dry with a disposable towel and proceed with contamination monitoring

If the radioactive material is spilled directly onto skin, immediately rinse the affected area with running water. It is

best to use water that is lukewarm. Cold water may cause the pores of the skin to close, trapping contamination within the

layers of skin. Hot water may cause the pores to open, causing a potential avenue for contamination to travel deeper

into layers of the skin

Promptly notify the RSO or a member of the Radiation Safety staff of any suspected or confirmed radioactive

contamination of the skin or personal clothing

Minor Spills

A minor spill involves a small quantity of radioactive materials and does not meet the criteria described for a major spill. Minor spills that are recognized and properly controlled

should not result in personnel contamination

Response to a Minor Spill Stop work. If necessary secure any immediate safety

hazards Warn other individuals in the area to stay out of the spill location. Notify the AU and/or Advanced Radworker, they

should perform/direct further activities

       If assistance is needed, promptly notify the Radiation Safety staff

Isolate the area to prevent the spill from spreading. Cover liquid spills with absorbent materials

Perform contamination monitoring of any individuals with the potential to have become contaminated as a result of the

spill.

Response to a Minor Spill Trained personnel wearing gloves, lab coats, and other appropriate PPE should carefully clean up the

spilled material. Remove absorbent materials and place in radioactive waste containers for disposal.

      Survey the affected area for contamination in accordance with Chapter 6 of this manual. Compare the survey results to the action levels specified in Chapter

6 and implement appropriate actions in accordance with that procedure.

  If contamination is indicated, decontaminate the affected area as described in section 3.4 or contact the

Radiation Safety staff for guidance

Response to a Minor Spill

When contamination is below limits, record the survey on a RSF. Document both the “as found” contamination levels

and the final levels following decontamination

      Provide copies of the survey results to the Radiation Safety Office

Decontamination of Areas and Equipment

Locate the approximate boundaries of the contaminated area by radiological survey (direct scans, wipe testing)

W Wear PPE (lab coat & gloves), control access to the area, and do not allow personal clothing or unprotected skin

surfaces to contact potentially contaminated surfaces during decontamination or when performing post-decon surveys.

Mark the boundaries with a temporary marking of tape or by a similar method

 Carefully clean the affected location using commercial cleaning materials and disposable wipes. Do not use volatile

solvents or larger than necessary quantities of water or cleaning solutions.

Decontamination of Areas and Equipment

When wiping with disposable towels, it is often useful to wipe the most highly contaminated section first, covering the

smallest practical area and immediately discarding that towel. Then wipe from the outer boundary (less

contaminated) toward the center (more contaminated) of the contaminated area. Make single passes when wiping and use a new surface of the towel for each wipe. An inward spiraling

circular motion is often effective. The method used should prevent spreading the contamination

W If using cleaners applied by spray, do not spray directly onto contaminated surfaces at a close proximity to the surface. Aggressive spray techniques may spread the

contamination

Decontamination of Areas and Equipment

Perform follow up surveys and continue decontamination efforts if needed.

Dispose of all waste properly. Wet contaminated towels should be placed in a dry radioactive waste container with sufficient absorbent material to prevent any visible liquid

from developing

Perform personnel contamination monitoring after each decon effort

If three attempts at decontamination are unsuccessful, you should use different decontamination agents or methods.

Contact the Radiation Safety staff for assistance as needed.

Decontamination of Areas and Equipment

Decontamination is considered complete when a radiological survey indicates that contamination is below

appropriate limits, waste materials have been properly disposed of, and surveys have been documented.

Personnel Contamination Monitoring

SLOWLY scan (approximately 2 inches per second) with the detector of the instrument at a distance of approximately

1/2 inch from the surface being monitored.

Turn the instrument scale to the lowest setting and allow the instrument to stabilize to area background. Personnel contamination monitoring should be performed in an area

with the lowest available background radiation levels.

Monitor your hands first to ensure that you do not spread contamination

Survey all other areas of the body and clothing with the potential for contamination. This should include, but is not

limited to, the front of the torso, elbows, arms, face, and shoes (top and bottom)

Personnel Contamination Monitoring

If contamination is indicated as in item 5 above, it is best to stay where you are to prevent the spread of contamination

and have someone assist you in notifying the RSO or a member of the Radiation Safety staff. While waiting for

assistance, avoid unnecessary contact between areas of suspected contamination and “clean” surfaces.

If an audible increase in the count rate is heard, or if the meter reading increases, hold the detector still over that

location for 5 to 10 seconds and determine if the reading is higher than the background level

1)               If no contamination is detected, evaluate the situation to determine if additional work area surveys or

monitoring of other personnel is indicated.

Hand and foot Survey when exiting the rad work area

TYPES OF CONTAMINATION SURVEYS

Glove Protocols

Survey your gloves at times while wearing them to reduce the spread of contamination

Glove Protocols

Know how to remove your gloves without touchingyour skin or clothing!

Questions ???If you have any questions while reading the Radiation Safety ProceduresIf you have any questions while reading the Radiation Safety Procedures

Please Feel Free to Please Feel Free to Contact: Contact:

The Radiation Safety The Radiation Safety OfficeOffice

Environmental Safety DivisionEnvironmental Safety Division

University of GeorgiaUniversity of Georgia

240A Riverbend Road240A Riverbend Road

Athens, Georgia 30602-8002Athens, Georgia 30602-8002

542-5801542-5801