radiation protection manual

8/14/2019 Radiation Protection Manual

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CESO

Engineer

Manual

385-1-80

Department of the Army

U.S. Army Corps of EngineersWashington, DC 20314-1000

EM 385-1-80

30 May 1997

Safety

RADIATION PROTECTION MANUAL

Distribution Restriction Statement

Approved for public release; distribution is

unlimited.


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DEPARTMENT OF THE ARMY EM 385-1-80U.S. Army Corps of Engineers

CESO Washington, D.C. 20314-1000

Manual 30 May 1997No. 385-1-80

SafetyRADIATION PROTECTION MANUAL

Table of Contents

Subject Para. Page Subject Para. Page

Chapter 1. Organization of USACE

Radiation Protection Program.

Purpose 1-1 1-1

Applicability 1-2 1-1

Policy 1-3 1-1

Management Commitment,Involvement, andLeadership 1-4 1-2

Scope 1-5 1-2

Overview of thisManual 1-6 1-3

Chapter 2. USACE PersonnelResponsibilities and Qualifications.

The Chief, Safety andOccupational HealthOffice, HQUSACE 2-1 2-1

Radiation ProtectionStaff Officer 2-2 2-1

USACE Commanders 2-3 2-2

Radiation ProtectionOfficer 2-4 2-3

Laser Safety Officer 2-5 2-4

Qualified HealthPhysics Personnel 2-6 2-5

Authorized Users 2-7 2-5

Authorized UsersAssistants 2-8 2-7

Site Supervisors 2-9 2-7

Project/Plan/ProcedureOriginators andReviewers 2-10 2-8

Radiation ProtectionCommittee 2-11 2-9

Hazardous, Toxic andRadioactive Waste(HTRW), Center ofExpertise 2-12 2-9Refresher Training 2-13 2-10

Additional Training/Special Applications 2-14 2-10

All Personnel includingVisitors at a RadiationSite 2-15 2-10

Chapter 3. Introduction to

Radiation.

Atomic Structure 3-1 3-1

Radioactive Decay 3-2 3-1

Activity 3-3 3-2

Decay Law 3-4 3-3

Types of IonizingRadiation 3-5 3-4


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Interaction ofRadiation With Matter 3-6 3-6

Human Health Effects 3-7 3-8

Determinants of Dose 3-8 3-9

Background Radiation 3-9 3-11

Radiation Quantities 3-10 3-12

Biological Effectsof Ionizing Radiation 3-11 3-16

Ways to MinimizeExposure 3-12 3-18

Standing Operating

Procedures 3-13 3-21

Monitoring andSurveying Equipment 3-14 3-21

Chapter 4. Licensing.

Overview ofRegulatory Agencies 4-1 4-1

Types of NRCRadioactive MaterialLicenses 4-2 4-1

'Storage Only'Licensing 4-3 4-4

Radiation GeneratingDevices 4-4 4-4

ReciprocityRequirements 4-5 4-4

Army RadiationAuthorization 4-6 4-5

Army Radiation Permitsand Other ServiceInstallation Permits 4-7 4-5

Applying for an NRCLicense 4-8 4-7

Applying for an ARA 4-9 4-9

Amendment Requests 4-10 4-9

Renewing Licenses orARAs 4-11 4-10

Transfer of RadioactiveMaterials 4-12 4-10

Terminating aRadioactive MaterialLicense or ARAs 4-13 4-11

Information Flowthrough ApplicableUSACE Channels 4-14 4-11

Chapter 5. Dose Limits and ALARA.

Occupational DoseLimit Structure 5-1 5-1

USACE Dose Limits 5-2 5-1

NRC and Agreement StateDose Limits 5-3 5-3

OSHA Dose Limits 5-4 5-4

Monitoring requirements 5-5 5-4

Doses to the Public 5-6 5-4

Chapter 6. Working with Radiation.

Caution Signs andLabels 6-1 6-1

Airborne Radioactivity 6-2 6-3

Rooms/Areas in WhichRadioactive Material isNo Longer Usedor Stored 6-3 6-3

Receiving RadioactiveMaterial 6-4 6-3

Radioactive Materialand Radiation

Generating DeviceInventory 6-5 6-6

Storing RadioactiveMaterial 6-6 6-6


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Contamination Control 6-7 6-7

Wipe Tests 6-8 6-8

Leak Testing 6-9 6-9

Exposure Rate Surveys 6-10 6-10

Accident/IncidentResponse 6-11 6-11

Accident/IncidentReporting 6-12 6-11

Audits and Reviews 6-13 6-13

Chapter 7. Personnel Monitoring.

External Monitoring 7-1 7-1

Internal Monitoring 7-2 7-2

Advanced Monitoring 7-3 7-4

Exposure Reporting 7-4 7-5

Chapter 8. Transportation of

Radioactive Material.

Purpose 8-1 8-1

Applicability 8-2 8-1

Regulations 8-3 8-1

Procedures 8-4 8-2

Packaging 8-5 8-2

Marking 8-6 8-3

Labeling 8-7 8-4

Placarding 8-8 8-5

Manifesting 8-9 8-5

Hazardous WasteManifesting 8-10 8-6

Emergency ResponseInformation 8-11 8-7

Hazmat EmployeeTraining 8-12 8-7

Exceptions 8-13 8-8

Chapter 9. Waste Management.

Regulation ofRadioactive Wastes 9-1 9-1

Low Level RadioactiveWaste (LLRW) 9-2 9-2

Elements of a WasteManagement Program 9-3 9-4

Material Tracking 9-4 9-4

Waste Minimization 9-5 9-4

Waste Recycling 9-6 9-4

Waste Storage 9-7 9-5

Waste Disposal 9-8 9-5

RadionuclideConcentrations 9-9 9-7

Chapter 10. Laser Safety.

Classifications of

Lasers 10-1 10-1

Safety features andLabeling Requirements 10-2 10-1

Laser ProtectionProgram 10-3 10-2

OSHA Standards 10-4 10-3

USACE Standards 10-5 10-3

Protective Eyewear 10-6 10-3

Chapter 11. Radio Frequency (RF) and

Microwave Safety.

DA Limits 11-1 11-1

USACE Limits 11-2 11-1

OSHA Regulations 11-3 11-1


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General Guidance 11-4 11-1

Warning Signs 11-5 11-2

RF Safety Training 11-6 11-2

Appendix A.

References A-1

Appendix B.

Definitions B-1

Appendix C.

Sample Standing OperatingProcedures C-1

Appendix D.

X-Ray Fluorescence Lead AnalysisDevices D-1

Appendix E.

Rules of Thumb and Conversions E-1

Appendix F.

Signs, Labels and Postings F-1

Appendix G.

Radon G-1

Appendix H.

Applications and License Examples,Applicable Forms and Statements H-1

Appendix I.

USACHPPM Survey ProtocolChecklist I-1

Appendix J.

Acronyms Used in this EM J-1


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Chapter 1. Organization of

USACE Radiation ProtectionProgram.

1-1. Purpose.

This guidance manual prescribesthe requirements of theRadiation Protection Program ofthe US Army Corps of Engineers(USACE) contained in EngineerRegulation (ER) 385-1-80,Ionizing Radiation Protection,and Engineer Manual (EM)385-1-1, Safety and Health

Requirements Manual. It is tobe used when activities utilizeor handle radioactive material(which includes radioactivewastes) or a radiationgenerating device. Radiationgenerating devices include X-ray equipment, accelerators,lasers, radio-frequency andelectromagnetic fieldgenerators. Authoritativeguidance and regulations are

contained in 10 CFR (Energy)and the NRC Regulatory Guides,29 CFR (Labor) 1910 and 1926OSHA regulations, and 40 CFR( P r o t ec t i o n o f t h eEnvironment). This manual isintended to assist USACECommands in integratingessential requirementscontained in Federal, DA andUSACE radiation protectionregulations to ensure that the

safety and health requirementsof all agencies are met.

1-2. Applicability.

This manual is applicable toUSACE personnel and visitors toa worksite under the

jurisdiction of USACE whereradioactive material or aradiation generating device may be present. It shall be usedin conjunction with ER 385-1-80and EM 385-1-1. Contractorrequirements concerningionizing and non-ionizing

radiation protection issues arecontained in EM 385-1-1.

1-3. Policy.

a. USACE will work toensure that all personnelradiation exposure is kept aslow as is reasonably achievable(ALARA) taking technologicaland socioeconomic factors intoaccount. Radiation exposure toUSACE personnel, visitors andcontractors, as well as to thegeneral public, will be con-trolled so that exposures are

held well below regulatorylimits. There shall be noradiation exposure without acommensurate benefit.

b. All personnel involvedwith ionizing radiation work ofany kind will be knowledgeableof the programs, policies, andprocedures contained in ER 385-1-80 and this manual. Personnelworking with non-ionizing

radiation should beknowledgeable of the specificinformation concerning thesetopics presented in this manual. They shoulddemonstrate responsibility and


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accountability through aninformed, disciplined, andcautious attitude toward

radiation and radioactivity.

c. Continuing improvementin radiation (ionizing and non-ionizing) protection isessential to USACE operationsinvolving radiation. All personnel working withradiation are expected to lookfor ways to improve radiation protection and make USACEprojects more efficient.

1-4. Management Commitment,Involvement, and Leadership.

S u p e r i o r , c o n s i s t e n t performance is achieved whenqualified personnel useapproved procedures and when management actively monitorsthe work place and assessesongoing activities. To achievesuch performance requires

constant review, informedinvolvement and leadership bysenior management. All levelsof management must emphasizethe need for high standards ofradiation safety through directc o m m u n i c a t i o n , c l e a rinstruction, and frequentinspections of the work area.

1-5. Scope.

a. This manual fullydescribes policies andprocedures for the safe use ofradioactive material andradiation generating devices atall USACE sites. It should beused to evaluate the

acceptability of health andsafety practices by USACE personnel and contractors on

USACE controlled sites.

b. The manual is alsointended to be consistent withall Federal (NRC, OSHA, EPA,DOE, and DOT) DA, USACE, State,and local statutes andregulations (that is,applicable regulations), andintegrate the variousregulations into one coherent publication for USACE

operations. It will be revisedwhenever necessary to achieveconsistency with statutes andregulations.

c. For all contracts andactivities that requireFederal, State, or locallicensure or permitting, suchlicenses or permits shall besecured, and all license or permit conditions shall be

adhered to. If the statedlicense or permit conditionsvary from applicable sectionsof this manual, such license or permit conditions prevail.Contractors will be required tosecure proper licensure orpermitting (for activities thatrequire it) within specifiedtime frames and before the datethat they are scheduled to begin the work. All USACE

Commands and contractors using Army radioactive materialswill meet requirements of

Nuclear Regulatory Commission(NRC) licenses and ArmyRadiation Authorizations (ARAs)


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issued to USACE and the US Army Materiel Command, and ofapplicable Army technical

publications.

e. Alternatives to procedures addressed in this manual may be acceptable provided the alternativesachieve the same, or higher,level of radiation protection.Alternative procedures must beapproved by the RadiationProtection Officer, or LaserSafety Officer, as appropriate,

and for specific conditions,higher level authorities priorto implementation.

1-6. Overview of this Manual.

This manual is designed toaddress all health and safetyaspects of work with radiation

within USACE. Most personnelwithin USACE will not need theentire manual but will need toselect the chapters andsections applicable to theirwork requirements. Somegeneric classifications ofradiation work are listed inTable 1-1 with reference to theapplicable chapters of thismanual. It is recommended thatall personnel working with

radioactive material andradiation generating devicesread Chapters 1, 2 and 3 ofthis manual. Depending on thetype of work being performed,portions of other chapters maybe applicable.


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USACE Radiation ProtectionProgram and the record keepingrequirements for work with

radioactive material andradiation generating devices.

(5) a working knowledgeof US Nuclear RegulatoryCommission (NRC), USEnvironmental Protection Agency(EPA), US Department of Energy(DOE), US Department ofTransportation (DOT), and USDepartment of Labor (DOL) whichis the responsible for the US

Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA), and USArmy regulations pertaining toradioactive material andradiation generating devices.

b. Duties of the RPSO areas follows:

(1) Serve as the primaryliaison between USACE, DA and NRC in matters concerning

radioactive materials orradiation generating devices.

(2) All NRC licenseactions will be submittedthrough, reviewed, and acceptedby the RPSO.

(3) Provide a copy of allcorrespondence relating to NRCapplications to DA as required.The RPSO will retain copies of

all NRC radioactive materiallicenses and correspondence(originals will be retained by

the licensee).

(4) Ensure that each USACE

Command possessing an NRCradioactive material license isaudited at least triennially to

ensure compliance with theUSACE Radiation ProtectionProgram. The RPSO, ordesignee, will check forcompliance with the USACERadiation Protection Programand the NRC radioactivematerial license. The RPSO, orhis designee will document allinspection findings and submitthem to the audited USACECommand for review and action.

2-3. USACE Commanders.

USACE Commanders shall:

a. Ensure a RadiationProtection Committee (RPC)shall be formed when theCommand possesses an NRClicense with a conditionstating that the licensee shallhave a RPC, or if the Commander

considers an RPC necessary.The RPC will consist ofpersonnel and duties describedin subparagraph 2-11.

b. Designate, in writing,a qualified person to serve asUSACE Radiation ProtectionOfficer (RPO) when any of thefollowing is true:

(1) an NRC License, Army

Reactor Permit, ARA ora p p l i c a b l e t e c h n i c a lpublication requires it,

(2) personnel are requiredto wear dosimetry,


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(3) personnel are requiredto participate in a bioassayprogram.

c. Fund, maintain andsupport the RPO and theRadiation Protection Program.The RPO shall meet thequalifications and provide theservices described in paragraph2-4.

d. Fund, maintain andsupport the Laser SafetyOfficer (LSO) and the Laser

Safety Program when a USACECommand operates, maintains orservices a non-type-classifiedclass IIIb or class IV lasersystem as defined in section1.3, ANSI Z136.1. The RPO maybe designated as the LSO. TheLSO shall meet thequalifications and provide theservices described in paragraph2-5.

2-4. Radiation ProtectionOfficer (RPO).

a. The RPO (also known asa Radiation Safety Officer(RSO) in other documents) is aperson, designated by the USACECommand, and tasked with thesupervision of the USACERadiation Protection Programfor that command. The RPOshall have direct access to

the Commander for radiation protection purposes. The RPOensures compliance with current

directives (ARs, ER 385-1-80,EM 385-1-1, etc.) for radiation protection and with this

manual. The RPO may limit orcease operations within theirCommand where there is an

eminent and legitimateradiation safety issue.

b. The RPO shall beresponsible for:

(1) Establishing written policies and procedures toassure compliance withapplicable Federal, DOD, and Army radiation protectionregulations and directives.

These documents will includeemergency reaction plans asnecessary and procedures forinvestigating and reportingradiation accidents, incidents,and overexposures.

(2) Assuring that all personnel occupationallyexposed to radiation receiveappropriate radiation p r o t e c t i o n t r a i n i n g

commensurate with potentialhazards from radiation sourcesthey may encounter.

(3) Maintaining aninventory of radiation sourcesas higher headquarters directsand IAW with requirements of NRC licenses, Army reactor permits, ARAs, and technicalpublications.

(4) Approving and filingrecords noting all AuthorizedUsers, Authorized Users

Assistants and site supervisorsworking with radioactive materials or radiation


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generating devices within theCommand.

(6) Providing or securingan acceptable source for allrequired initial and annualrefresher training for allindividuals within the Command.

c. The RPO will reviewthe USACE Radiation ProtectionProgram for their Commandannually for content andimplementation. The RPO willassure that the quality and

timeliness of the program meetthe radiation safety standardsoutlined in this manual. TheRPO will review work withradiation within the Command.The RPO will write and/orreview Standing OperatingProcedures to ensure thesafety, timeliness, andcompatibility with existingradiation regulations.

d. The RPO will betechnically qualified, meetingthe experience, training, andeducation requirements listedbelow:

(1) A working knowledgeof NRC, EPA, DOE, DOT, and USArmy regulations pertaining toradioactive material, radiationg e n e r a t i ng d e v i c e s ,radioactive and mixed waste

used within their Command.

(2) Forty hours of formal

training covering:

(a) the physics of

radiation, radiation'sinteraction with matter, andthe mathematics necessary to

understand the above subjects;

(b) the biological effectsof radiation;

(c) the instrumentationnecessary to detect, monitor,and survey radiation, and theuse of such instrumentation;and

(d) radiation safety

techniques and procedures.This training will include theuse of time, distance,shielding, engineeringcontrols, and PPE to reduceexposure to radiation.

(3) Practical, hands-onexperience using radiationinstrumentation, procedures,and theory.

(4) A working knowledgeof the Army RadiationProtection Program and theUSACE Radiation ProtectionProgram, and the record keepingrequirements for work withradioactive material andradiation generating devicesused within their Command.

2-5. Laser Safety Officer(LSO).

a. The LSO is a persondesignated by the USACE Command

tasked with the supervision ofthe Laser Sections of the USACERadiation Protection Program


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also directly supervise Authorized Users Assistantsworking with radioactive

material. All AUs must beapproved by the facility RPC,if one exists. If the facilitydoes not require an RPC, the AUs must be approved by theRPO. All AUs must meet thefollowing training andexperience requirements:

a. A working knowledge ofapplicable regulations pertaining to radioactive

material, radiation generatingdevices, and radioactive andmixed waste with which they maybe working;

b. Unless differentrequirements are stated in thelicense, authorization orpermit conditions, eight clockhours of formal trainingcovering:

(1) the physics ofradiation, radiation'sinteraction with matter, andthe mathematics necessary tounderstand the above subjects;

(2) the biologicaleffects of radiation;

(3) the instrumentationnecessary to detect, monitor,and survey radiation, and the

use of such instrumentation;and

(4) radiation safetytechniques and procedures.This training will include the

use of time, distance,shielding, engineeringcontrols, and PPE to reduce

exposure to radiation.

c. Practical, hands-onexperience using radiationinstrumentation and procedures.The level of training will becommensurate with the hazard presented by the radioactive material or radiationgenerating device; and

d. A working knowledge of

the USACE and his or her USACECommand Radiation ProtectionProgram, and the record keepingrequirements for theradioactive material andradiation generating devicesused in their work.

e. Instruction in theirr i g h t s a n d t h e i rresponsibilities under theUSACE Command NRC license, or

Army Radiation Authorization(ARA). This includes:

(1) the employers duty to provide safe workingconditions;

(2) a report of allradiation exposure to theindividual;

(3) the individual's

responsibility to adhere to the NRCs regulations and theCommands's radiation material

license, or ARA; and



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responsibility to report anyviolation or other occurrenceto the RPO.

f. Authorized users of portable gauges will alsoreceive 8 hours training in thesafety and use of the gaugefrom the manufacturer.

2-8. Authorized UsersAssistants (AUAs).

AUAs are individuals allowed towork with radioactive material

only under the directsupervision of an AU (that is,in the physical presence of the AU). All AUAs must benominated by the AU andapproved by the RPO. AUAs willhave the training andexperience described below:

a. A total of at leastfour hours instruction in thefollowing:

(1) the health effectsassociated with exposure to theradioactive material orradiation they work with;

(2) ways to minimizeexposure;

(3) the purpose and use of protective equipment used intheir work; and

(4) the applicableregulations to their work.

b. Practical, hands-onexperience using radiationinstrumentation and procedures.

c. Instruction in theirr i g h t s a n d t h e i rresponsibilities under the

USACE Command NRC license, orARA. This includes:

(1) the employers duty to provide safe workingconditions;

(2) a report of allradiation exposure to theindividual;


responsibility to adhere to the NRCs regulations and theCommand's radioactive materiallicense, or ARA; and

(4) the individual'sresponsibility to report anyviolation or other occurrenceto the RPO.

2-9. Site Supervisors/Construction Quality Assurance

Personnel.

a. Individuals working assite supervisors orconstruction quality assurancerepresentatives on projectsinvolving radioactive materialor radiation generating devicesmust be knowledgeable of: the principles of radiation protection; applicableregulations pertaining to

radioactive material andradiation generating devices,

and the application of these principles and regulations toworker and public health andsafety at project sites.


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b. Individuals whosupervise work or act asconstruction quality assurance

representatives at sitesinvolving radioactive materialor radiation generating deviceswill have a minimum of eighthours of radiation safetytraining covering thefollowing:

(1) physics of radiation,radiation's interaction with matter, and the mathematicsnecessary to understand the

above subjects;

(2) biological effects ofradiation;

(3) instrumentationnecessary to detect, monitor,and survey radiation, and theuse of such instrumentation;and

(4) radiation safety

techniques and procedures.This training will include theuse of time, distance,shielding, engineeringcontrols, and PPE to reduceexposure to radiation.

2-10. Project/Plan/ProcedureOriginators and Reviewers.

a. Individuals whooriginate or review projects,

plans, or procedures involving

radioactive material orradiation generating devices must be knowledgeable of the principles of radiation protection, the applicable

regulations pertaining toradioactive material andradiation generating devices,

and the application of these principles and regulations toworker and public health andsafety.

b. Originators andreviewers of plans, projects or procedures for work at sitesusing radioactive material orradiation generating deviceswill have a minimum of eighthours of radiation safety

training covering thefollowing:

(1) physics of radiation,radiation's interaction with matter, and the mathematicsnecessary to understand theabove subjects;

(2) biological effects ofradiation;

(3) instrumentationnecessary to detect, monitor,and survey radiation, and theuse of such instrumentation;and

(4) radiation safetytechniques and procedures.This training will include theuse of time, distance,shielding, engineeringcontrols, and PPE to reduce

exposure to radiation.

2-11. Radiation ProtectionCommittee (RPC).

a. Each Command possessingan NRC license or an ARA with a


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condition stating that thelicensee shall have an RPC, orwhere the Commander deems

necessary, shall form an RPC. At a minimum, the RPC willconsist of:

(1) The Commanding Officer(CO) or deputy;

(2) The RPO, who will actas recorder for all meetings;

(3) The Chief; Safety andOccupational Health Office; and

(4) A representativeAuthorized User from each groupusing radioactive material orradiation generating devices inthe Command.

b. The RPC is accountableto its USACE Commander. The COor his/her deputy chairs theRPC. The RPC will meet at leastonce each six-month period and

at the call of the chair. TheRPC will continually evaluateradiological work activities,and make recommendations to theRPO and management. Ina d d i t i o n t o i t sresponsibilities establishedin the Army RadiationProtection Program, the RPCr e s p o n s i b i l i t i e sinclude:

(1) Annual review of USACE

Command personnel exposure

records;

(2) Establishing criteriafor determining the appropriatelevel of review and

authorization for workinvolving radiation exposure;and,

(3) Evaluating health andsafety aspects of theconstruction and design offacilities and systems andplanned major modifications orwork activities involvingradioactive material orradiation generating devices.

c. The RPO will furnishthe installation commander and

RPSO with copies of the minutes of all RPC meetings,within 30 days of the meeting.

2-12. Hazardous, Toxic andRadioactive Waste (HTRW),Center of Expertise (CX).

a. The HTRW-CX providestechnical assistance to USACEheadquarters, and designdistricts as requested on all

areas of HTRW and environmentalremediation. The CX has a staffthat includes Technical Liaison Managers (TLMs), Chemists,Regulatory Specialists,Geotechnical, Process, and CostEngineers, Risk Assessment,Industrial Hygiene and HealthPhysics personnel.

b. The HTRW-CX can providetechnical assistance to the

RPSO as requested, including:

(1) licensing,

(2) inspecting,

(3) product development,


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(4) and advice andguidance on radiation safetyand protection issues.

c. The HTRW-CX can providesupport to other Commands onradiation safety issues,including radon, X-rayfluorescence devices for leadmonitoring, etc.

2-13. Refresher Training.

USACE personnel who havecompleted their initial

training, shall receive annualrefresher training on the material described for each person in this chapter. Therefresher training may becomprised of an update of SOPs,review of dosimetry results,changes in standards orguidance, equipment changes,and any other pertinentradiation safety informationthat needs review. The length

of this training is dependenton the specific material beingcovered, it does not have toequal the time requirementsneeded for initial training.Personnel who have completedtheir initial training and anysubsequent refresher training,but currently are not and willnot be assigned to workinvolving radiation, are notrequired to be up-to-date

regarding the refreshertraining requirement.Personnel whose refreshertraining has lapsed may notwork with radiation until aftercompletion of refresher

training. Personnel who havenot received refresher trainingfor over two years may be

required, at the RPOsdiscretion, to repeat theirinitial training.

2-14. Additional Training -Special Applications.

Additional training may berequired for work involvingspecial applications (forexample, plutonium, fissileuranium, tritium, and accelera-

tor facilities). Personnelworking with specialapplications should consultwith the HTRW-CX for additionaltraining requirements.

2-15. All Personnel includingVisitors, at a Radiation Site.

a. Regulations requirethat all individuals who arelikely to receive 100 mrem

above background in one yearshall be kept informed of the presence of radioactive material or radiation in thearea and shall be instructedannually in the following:

(1) The health effectsassociated with exposure to theradioactive material orradiation;

(2) Ways to minimizeexposure;

(3) The purpose and use ofprotective equipment and surveyinstruments used in the area;


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(4) The regulationsapplicable to the area.

b. The extent of

instruction shall becommensurate with the extent ofthe hazard in the area.


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Chapter 3. Introduction toRadiation.

3-1. Atomic Structure.

a. The atom, which hasbeen referred to as the"fundamental building block ofmatter," is itself composed ofthree primary particles: theproton, the neutron, and theelectron. Protons and neutronsare relatively massive comparedto electrons and occupy thedense core of the atom known as

the nucleus. Protons arepositively charged whileneutrons are neutral. Thenegatively charged electronsare found in a cloudsurrounding the nucleus.

b. The number of protonswithin the nucleus defines the

atomic number, designated bythe symbol Z. In anelectrically neutral atom (that

is, one with equal numbers ofprotons and electrons), Z alsoindicates the number ofelectrons within the atom. Thenumber of protons plus neutronsin the nucleus is termed theatomic mass, symbol A.

c. The atomic number of anatom designates its specificelemental identity. Forexample, an atom with a Z=l is

hydrogen, an atom with Z=2 ishelium, and Z=3 identifies anatom of lithium. Atomscharacterized by a particularatomic number and atomic massare called nuclides. A

specific nuclide is representedby its chemical symbol with theatomic mass in a superscript

(for example, H, C, U) or3 14 238by spelling out the chemicalsymbol and using a dash toindicate atomic mass (forexample, radium-222, uranium-238). Nuclides with the samenumber of protons (that is,same Z) but different number ofneutrons (that is, different A)are called isotopes. Isotopesof a particular element havenearly identical chemical

properties, but may have vastlydifferent radiologicalproperties.

3-2. Radioactive Decay.

a. Depending upon theratio of neutrons to protonswithin its nucleus, an isotopeof a particular element may bestable or unstable. Over time,the nuclei of unstable isotopes

spontaneously disintegrate ortransform in a process known asradioactive decay orradioactivity. As part of thisprocess, various types ofionizing radiation may beemitted from the nucleus.Nuclides which undergoradioactive decay are calledradionuclides. This is ageneral term as opposed to theterm radioisotope which is used

to describe an isotopicrelationship. For example, H,3

C, and I are radionuclides.14 125

Tritium ( H), on the other3

hand, is a radioisotope ofhydrogen.


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b. Many radionuclides suchas radium-226, potassium-40,thorium-232 and uranium-238

occur naturally in theenvironment while others suchas phosphorus-32 or sodium-22are primarily produced innuclear reactors or particleaccelerators. Any materialwhich contains measurableamounts of one or moreradionuclides is referred to asa radioactive material. As anyhandful of soil or plantmaterial will contain some

measurable amount ofradionuclides, we mustdistinguish between backgroundradioactive materials and man-made or enhanced concentrationsof radioactive materials.

c. Uranium, thorium andtheir progeny, including radiumand radon are NaturallyOccurring Radioactive Materials(NORM). Along with an isotope

of potassium (K-40) these makeup the majority of NORMmaterials and are found in mostall soil and water, and areeven found in significantquantities within the humanbody.

d. Another group ofradionuclides are referred toas transuranics. These aremerely elements with Z numbers

greater than that of uranium(92). All transuranics areradioactive. Transuranics areproduced in spent fuelreprocessing facilities andnuclear weapons detonations.

3-3. Activity.

a. The quantity which

expresses the degree ofradioactivity or radiationproducing potential of a givenamount of radioactive materialis activity. The activity maybe considered the rate at whicha number of atoms of a materialdisintegrate, or transform fromone isotope to another which isaccompanied by the emission ofradiation. The most commonlyused unit of activity is the

curie (Ci) which was originallydefined as that amount of anyradioactive material whichdisintegrates at the same rateas one gram of pure radium.That is, 3.7 x 1010

disintegrations per second(dps). A millicurie (mCi) =3.7 x 10 dps. A microcurie7

(Ci) = 3.7 x 10 dps. A4

picocurie (pCi) = 3.7 x 10-2

dps.

b . T h e S y s t e m eInternationale (SI) unit ofactivity is the becquerel (Bq)which equals 1 dps. SystemeInternationale units, such asmeters and grams, are in usethroughout the rest of theworld. Only the United Statesstill uses units of curies foractivity.

c. The activity of a givenamount of radioactive materialis not directly related to themass of the material. Forexample, two one-curie sourcescontaining cesium-137 might


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have very different masses,depending upon the relativeproportion of non-radioactive

atoms present in each source.for example, 1 curie of purecesium-137 would weigh 87grams, and 50 billion kilograms(100 million tons) of seawaterwould contain about 1 curie ofCs-137 from fallout.

3-4. Decay Law.

a. The rate at which aquantity of radioactive

material decays is proportionalto the number of radioactiveatoms present. This can beexpressed by the equation(Eq.):

N=N e Eq. 1o-t

Where N equals the number of

atoms present at time t, N isothe initial number ofradioactive atoms present attime 0, is the decay constantfor the radionuclide present,(this can be calculated fromthe half-life of the materialas shown below),and e is thebase of the natural logarithms.Table 3-1 indicates half-livesand other characteristics ofseveral common radionuclides.

b. Since activity A isproportional to N, the equationis often expressed as:

A = A e Eq. 2o-t

Table 3-1. Characteristics of Selected Radionuclides

Radionuclide Half-life (Type and max. energy in MeV)

hydrogen-3 12.3 years , 0.0186

carbon-14 5370 years , 0.155phosphorus-32 14.3 days , 1.71sulfur-35 87.2 days , 0.167potassium-40 1.3E09 years , 1.310iodine-125 59.7 days /X, 0.035cesium-137 30.2 years /X, 0.51/.662thorium-232 1.4E10 years /X, 4.081uranium-238 4.4E09 years /X, 4.147americium-241 432 years /X, 5.49/.059

-alpha particle, -beta particle, X-gamma or X-ray

c. Half-life. When halfof the radioactive atoms in agiven quantity of radioactivematerial have decayed, theactivity is also decreased by

half. The time required for theactivity of a quantity of aparticular radionuclide todecrease to half its originalvalue is called the half-life


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Eq. 3

(T )for the radionuclide.1/2

d. It can be shown

mathematically that thehalf-life (T ) of a particular1/2radionuclide is related to thedecay constant () as follows:

Substituting this value of into Equation 2, one gets:

e. Example 1: You have 5mCi of phosphorus-32 (T =1/214.3 days). How much activitywill remain after 10 days?

A = ?

A = 5 mCio

t = 10 d

= .69314.3 d

A = A eo

-t

A = 3.1 mCi

f. An alternative method

of determining the activity ofa radionuclide remaining aftera given time is through the use

of the equation:

f = () Eq. 4n

where f equals the fraction ofthe initial activity remainingafter time t and n equals thenumber of half-lives which haveelapsed. In Example 1 above,

n = t/T1/2

n = 10/14.3

= 0.69

f = ()0.69

= 0.62

A = fAo

= (0.62)(5)

= 3.10 mCi

Both methods may be used tocalculate activities at a priordate, that is "t" in theequations may be negative.

g. The activity of anyradionuclide is reduced to lessthan 1% after 7 half-lives andless than 0.1% after 10 half-lives.

3-5. Types of IonizingRadiation.

a. Ionizing radiation maybe electromagnetic or may


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consist of high speed subatomicparticles of various masses andcharges.

(1) Alpha Particles.

Certain radionuclides of highatomic mass (for example,,Ra-226, U-238, Pu-239) decay bythe emission of alphaparticles. These are tightlybound units of two neutrons andtwo protons each (a heliumnucleus). Emission of an alphaparticle results in a decrease

of two units of atomic number(Z) and four units of atomicmass (A). Alpha particles areemitted with discrete energiescharacteristic of theparticular transformation fromwhich they originate.

(2) Beta Particles.

A nucleus with a slightlyunstable ratio of neutrons to

protons may decay by changing aneutron into a proton, or aproton into a neutron throughthe emission of either a highspeed electron or positroncalled a beta particle. Thisresults in a net change of oneunit of atomic number (Z), upone for a beta minus and downone for a beta plus. The betaparticles emitted by a specificradionuclide range in energy

from near zero to up to amaximum value characteristic ofthe particular transformation.

(3) Gamma-rays.

(a) A nucleus which has

disintegrated is left in anexcited state with more energythan it can contain. Thisexcited nucleus may emit one ormore photons (that is,particles of electromagneticradiation) of discrete energiesto rid itself of this energy.The emission of these gamma-rays does not alter the numberof protons or neutrons in thenucleus but instead has the

effect of moving the nucleusfrom a higher to a lower energystate. Gamma-ray emissionfrequently follows beta decay,alpha decay, and other nucleardecay processes.

(b) X-rays and gamma-raysare electromagnetic radiation,as is visible light. Thefrequencies of X- and gammarays are much higher than that

of visible light and so eachcarries much more energy.Gamma- and X-rays cannot becompletely shielded. They canbe attenuated by shielding butnot stopped completely. A gammaemitting nuclide may yieldmultiple gamma- and X-rays,each with its own discreteenergy. It is possible toidentify a gamma emittingnuclide by its spectrum.

(4) X-rays.

X-rays are also part of theelectromagnetic spectrum andare indistinguishable from


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gamma-rays. The onlydifference is their source(that is, orbital electrons

rather than the nucleus). X-rays are emitted with discreteenergies by electrons as theyshift orbits and lose energyfollowing certain types ofnuclear excitement or decayprocesses.

(5) Bremsstrahlungradiation.

When a charged particle passes

near the nucleus of an atom,it deviates from its originalpath and is slowed down by thecoulombic interaction with thenucleus. When this occurs, thecharged particle will emit aphoton to balance the energy.These photons are calledbremsstrahlung radiation.Bremsstrahlung radiation onlybecomes a significant source ofexposure from high energy beta

particles. The amount ofbremsstrahlung radiationemitted is proportional to theZ number of the nucleus thebeta interacted with, and theenergy of the beta particle.

(6) Neutrons.

(a) Neutrons are unchargedparticles released duringfission of heavy atoms

(uranium) or released from somenon-radioactive material afterbombardment by alpha particles(americium-beryllium [Am-Be]sources). Because neutrons areuncharged particles, they

travel further in matter. Whenneutrons are sufficientlyslowed down in matter

(thermalized) they are absorbedby matter with an accompanyingburst of gamma radiation. Thenature of production of theneutron determines whether itis emitted in a spectrum (as infission) or at a discreteenergy (as from Am-Be sources).

(b) A single radioactivedecay event may generate alarge number of radiations as

illustrated in Table 3-2, forexample:

Table 3-2I-125 Radiations

RADIATION ENERGY(keV) DECAY%Gamma 35 6.7Ka X-ray 27.4 114Kb X-ray 31 25.6L X-ray 3.9 12K Conv.

Elec. 3.7 80

L Conv.Elec. 31 11.8

M+ Conv.Elec. 35 2.5

K AugerElec. 23 20

L AugerElec. 3-4 160

KeV: kiloelectron volt

3-6. Interaction of Radiation

With Matter.

a. Excitation/Ionization.

The various types of radiation(for example, alpha particles,


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beta particles, and gamma-rays) impart their energy tomatter primarily through

excitation and ionization oforbital electrons. The term"excitation" is used todescribe an interaction whereelectrons acquire energy from apassing charged particle butare not removed completely fromtheir atom. Excited electronsmay subsequently emit energy inthe form of X-rays during theprocess of returning to a lowerenergy state. The term

"ionization" refers to thecomplete removal of an electronfrom an atom following thetransfer of energy from apassing charged particle. Anytype of radiation havingsufficient energy to causeionization is referred to asionizing radiation. Indescribing the intensity ofionization, the term "specificionization" is often used.

This is defined as the numberof ion pairs formed per unitpath length for a given type ofradiation.

b. Characteristics ofDifferent Types of IonizingRadiation.

(1) Alpha particles have ahigh specific ionization and arelatively short range. Alpha

particles are massive and carrya double positive charge. Thiscombination allows alphaparticles to carry a largeamount of energy but to easilytransfer that energy and be

stopped. In air, alphaparticles travel only a fewcentimeters, while in tissue,

only fractions of a millimeter.For example, an alpha particlecannot penetrate the dead celllayer of human skin.

(2) Beta particles have amuch lower specific ionizationthan alpha particles and aconsiderably longer range. Therelatively energetic beta'sfrom P-32 have a range of 6meters in air or 8 millimeters

in tissue. The low-energybeta's from H-3, on the otherhand, are stopped by only 6millimeters of air or 5micrometers of tissue.

(3) Gamma- and X-rays arereferred to as indirectlyionizing radiation since,having no charge, they do notdirectly apply impulses toorbital electrons as do alpha

and beta particles. A gamma-ray or X-ray instead proceedsthrough matter until itundergoes a chance interactionwith a particle. If theparticle is an electron, it mayreceive enough energy to beionized whereupon it causesfurther ionization by directinteractions with otherelectrons. The net result isthat indirectly ionizing

particles liberate directlyionizing particles deep insidea medium, much deeper than thedirectly ionizing particlescould reach from the outside.Because gamma rays and X-rays


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undergo only chance encounterswith matter, they do not have afinite range. In other words,

a given gamma ray has adefinite probability of passingthrough any medium of anydepth.

(4) Neutrons are alsoindirectly ionizing. Whenstriking massive particlessuch as the nuclei of atoms,the neutron undergoes elasticscattering losing very littleenergy to the target nucleus.

But when a neutron strikes anhydrogen nuclei (a singleproton, about the same mass asa neutron) the energy is sharednearly equally between theneutron and the protonresulting in a loss of abouthalf of the neutron's energybefore the interaction. Theproton now is a charged,directly ionizing particlemoving through matter until all

of its energy is transferred tothe matter.

3-7. Human Health Effects.

The effects of ionizingradiation described at thelevel of the human organism canbe divided broadly into twocategories: stochastic (effectsthat occur by chance) ordeterministic (non-stochastic)

effects (characterized by athreshold dose below whicheffects do not occur).

a. Stochastic Effects.

Stochastic effects are thosethat occur by chance.Stochastic effects caused by

ionizing radiation consistprimarily of genetic effectsand cancer. As the dose to anindividual increases, theprobability that cancer or agenetic effect will occur alsoincreases. However, at notime, even for high doses, isit certain that cancer orgenetic damage will result.Similarly, for stochasticeffects, there is no threshold

dose below which it isrelatively certain that anadverse effect cannot occur.In addition, because stochasticeffects can occur in unexposedindividuals, one can never becertain that the occurrence ofcancer or genetic damage in anexposed individual is due toradiation.

b . D e t e r m i ni s t i c

(Non-Stochastic) Effects.

(1) Unlike stochasticeffects, deterministic effectsare characterized by athreshold dose below which theydo not occur. In addition, themagnitude of the effect isdirectly proportional to thesize of the dose. Furthermore,for deterministic effects,there is a clear causal

relationship between radiationexposure and the effect.Examples of deterministiceffects include sterility,erythema (skin reddening), andcataract formation. Each of


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these effects differs from theother in both its thresholddose and in the time over which

this dose must be received tocause the effect (that is acutevs. chronic exposure).

(2) The range ofdeterministic effects resultingfrom an acute exposure toradiation is collectivelytermed "radiation syndrome."This syndrome may be subdividedas follows:

(a) hemopoietic syndrome -characterized by depression ordestruction of bone marrowactivity with resultant anemiaand susceptibility to infection(whole body dose of about 200rads);

(b) gastrointestinalsyndrome - characterized bydestruction of the intestinalepithelium with resultant

nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea(whole body dose of about 1000rads); and

(c) central nervous systemsyndrome - direct damage tonervous system with loss ofconsciousness within minutes(whole body doses in excess of2000 rads).

(3) The LD (that is, dose5O

that would cause death in halfof the exposed population) foracute whole body exposure toradiation in humans is about450 rads.

3-8. Determinants of Dose.

The effect of ionizing

radiation upon humans or otherorganisms is directly dependentupon the size of the dosereceived and the rate at whichthe dose is received (forexample, 100 mrem in an hourversus 100 mrem in a year).The dose, in turn, is dependentupon a number of factorsincluding the strength of thesource, the distance from thesource to the affected tissue,

and the time over which thetissue is irradiated. Themanner in which these factorsoperate to determine the dosefrom a given exposure differssignificantly for exposureswhich are "external" (that is,resulting from a radiationsource located outside thebody) and those which are"internal" (that is, resultingfrom a radiation source located

within the body).

a. External Exposures.

(1) Exposure to sources ofradiation located outside thebody are of concern primarilyfor sources emitting gamma-rays, X-rays, or high energybeta particles. Externalexposures from radioactivesources which emit alpha or

beta particles with energiesless than 70 keV are notsignificant since theseradiations do not penetrate thedead outer cell layer of theskin.


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(2) As with all radiationexposures, the size of the doseresulting from an external

exposure is a function of:

(a) the strength of thesource;

(b) the distance from thesource to the tissue beingirradiated; and

(c) the duration of theexposure.

In contrast to the situationfor internal exposures,however, these factors can bealtered (either intentionallyor inadvertently) for aparticular external exposuresituation, changing the dosereceived.

(3) The effectiveness of agiven dose of externalradiation in causing biological

damage is dependent upon theportion of the body irradiated.For example, because ofd i f f e re n c e s i n t h eradiosensitivity of constituenttissues, the hand is far lesslikely to suffer biologicaldamage from a given dose ofradiation than are the gonads.Similarly, a given dose to thewhole body has a greaterpotential for causing adverse

health effects than does thesame dose to only a portion ofthe body.

b. Internal Exposures.

(1) Exposure to ionizingradiation from sources locatedwithin the body are of concern

for sources emitting any andall types of ionizingradiation. Of particularconcern are internally emittedalpha particles which causesignificant damage to tissuewhen depositing their energyalong highly localized paths.

(2) In contrast to thesituation for externalexposures, the source-to-tissue

distance, exposure duration,and source strength cannot bealtered for internal radiationsources. Instead, once aquantity of radioactivematerial is taken up by thebody (for example, byinhalation, ingestion, orabsorption) an individual is"committed" to the dose whichwill result from the quantitieso f t h e p a r t i c u l a r

radionuclide(s) involved. Somemedical treatments areavailable to increase excretionrates of certain radionuclidesin some circumstances andthereby reduce the committedeffective dose equivalent.

(3) In general,radionuclides taken up by thebody do not distribute equallythroughout the body's tissues.

Often, a radionuclideconcentrates in an organ. Forexample, I-131 and I-125, bothisotopes of iodine, concentratein the thyroid, radium andplutonium in the bone, and


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uranium in the kidney.

(4) The dose committed to

a particular organ or portionof the body depends, in part,upon the time over which theseareas of the body areirradiated by the radionuclide.This, in turn, is determined bythe radionuclide's physical andbiological half-lives (that is,the effective half-life). Thebiological half-life of aradionuclide is defined as thetime required for one half of a

given amount of radionuclide tobe removed from the body bynormal biological turnover (inurine, feces, sweat).

3-9. Background Radiation.

a. All individuals arecontinuously exposed toionizing radiation from variousnatural sources. These sourcesinclude cosmic radiation and

n a t u r a l ly o c c u r r i n gradionuclides within theenvironment and within thehuman body. The radiationlevels resulting from naturalsources are collectivelyreferred to as "naturalbackground". Naturallyoccurring radioactive material(NORM) can be detected invirtually everything. Naturalpotassium contains about 0.01%

potassium-40, a powerful betaemitter with an associatedgamma ray. Uranium, thoriumand their associated decayproducts, which are alsoradioactive, are common trace

elements found in soilsthroughout the world. Naturalbackground and the associated

dose it imparts variesconsiderably from one locationto another in the U.S. andranges from 5 to 80microroentgens per hour. It isestimated that the averagetotal effective dose equivalentfrom natural background in theU.S. is about 250mrem/person/year. This doseequivalent is composed of about166 mrem/person/year from

radon, 34 mrem/person/year fromnatural radioactive materialwithin the body, 25mrem/person/year from cosmicr a d i a t i o n , a n d 2 5mrem/person/year fromterrestrial radiation.

b. The primary source ofman-made non-occupationalexposures is medicalirradiation, particularly

diagnostic procedures (forexample, X-ray and nuclearmedicine examinations). Suchprocedures, on average,contribute an additional 100mrem/person/year in the U.S.All other sources of man-made,non-occupational exposures suchas nuclear weapons fallout,nuclear power plant operations,and the use of radiationsources in industry and

universities contribute anaverage of less than onemrem/person/year in the U.S.


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3-10. Radiation Quantities.

a. Exposure (roentgen).

Exposure is a measure of thestrength of a radiation fieldat some point. It is usuallydefined as the amount of charge(that is, sum of all ions ofone sign) produced in a unitmass of air when theinteracting photons arecompletely absorbed in thatmass. The most commonly usedunit of exposure is the

roentgen (R) which is definedas that amount of X or gammaradiation which produces 2.58E-4 coulombs per kilogram (C/kg)of dry air. In cases whereexposure is to be expressed asa rate, the unit would beroentgens per hour (R/hr) ormore commonly, milliroentgenper hour (mR/hr). A roentgenrefers only to the ability ofPHOTONS to ionize AIR.

Roentgens are very limited intheir use. They apply only tophotons, only in air, and onlywith an energy under 3 mega-electron-volts (MeV). Becauseof their limited use, no newunit in the SI system has beenchosen to replace it.

b. Absorbed Dose (rad).

Whereas exposure is defined for

air, the absorbed dose is theamount of energy imparted byradiation to a given mass ofany material. The most commonunit of absorbed dose is therad (Radiation Absorbed Dose)

which is defined as a dose of0.01 joule per kilogram of thematerial in question. One

common conversion factor isfrom roentgens (in air) to radsin tissue. An exposure of 1 Rtypically gives an absorbeddose of 0.97 rad to tissue.Absorbed dose may also beexpressed as a rate with unitsof rad/hr or millirad/hr. TheSI unit of absorbed dose is thegray (Gy) which is equal to 1joule/kg which is equal to 100rads.

c. Dose Equivalent (rem).

(1) Although thebiological effects of radiationare dependent upon the absorbeddose, some types of particlesproduce greater effects thanothers for the same amount ofenergy imparted. For example,for equal absorbed doses, alphaparticles may be 20 times as

damaging as beta particles. Inorder to account for thesevariations when describinghuman health risk fromradiation exposure, thequantity, dose equivalent, isused. This is the absorbeddose multiplied by certain"quality" and "modifying"factors (Q) indicative of therelative biological-damagepotential of the particular

type of radiation. The unit ofdose equivalent is the rem(Radiation Equivalent in Man)or, more commonly, millirem.For beta, gamma- or X-rayexposures, the numerical value


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of the rem is essentially equalto that of the rad. The SIUnit of dose equivalent is the

sievert (Sv) which is equal to:1 Gy X Q; where Q is thequality factor. Q values arelisted in Table 3-3 (Note thatthere is quite a bit ofdiscrepancy between differentagency's values).

Table 3-3Q Values

Radiation Type NRC ICRU NCRPX & Gamma Rays 1 1 1

Beta Particles(Except H) 1 1 13

Tritium Betas 1 2 1Thermal Neutrons 2 - 5Fast Neutrons 10 25 20Alpha particles 20 25 20

(2) Example: An individualworking at a Corps lab with I-125 measures the exposure at awork station as 2 mR/hr. TheNRC licenses and regulates the

lab. What is the doseequivalent to a person sittingat the work station for sixhours?

DE = Exposure x 0.97 rad/R x Q

Exposure = Exposure Rate xTime

Q for gamma-radiation = 1

DE = Rate x Time x 0.97 x Q

DE = 2 mR/hr x 6 hr X 0.97rad/R x 1 = 11.64 mrem.

d. Deep Dose Equivalent

(DDE).

(1) The DDE is the dose to

the whole body tissue at 1centimeter (cm) beneath theskin surface from externalradiation. The DDE can beconsidered to be thecontribution to the totaleffective dose equivalent(TEDE) from external radiation.

(2) Example: A worker isexposed to 2 R of penetratinggamma radiation. What is

his/her DDE?

DDE = exposure x 0.97 rad/R x QQ for gamma radiation = 1DDE = 2 R x 0.97 rad/R x 1 =1.94 rem.

e. Effective DoseEquivalent (EDE).

(1) Multiplying the doseequivalent by a weighting

factor that relates to theradiosensitivity of each organand summing these weighted doseequivalents produces theeffective dose equivalent.Weighting Factors are shown inTable 3-4. The EDE is used indosimetry to account fordifferent organs havingdifferent sensitivities toradiation.

Table 3-4Weighting FactorsGonads 0.25Breast 0.15Lung 0.12Thyroid 0.03


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Bone 0.03Marrow 0.12Remainder 0.30

(2) Example: A person isexposed to 3 mR/hr of gamma-radiation to the whole body forsix hours. What is theeffective dose equivalent toeach organ and to the wholebody?

EDE = (DE x WF)DE = R x QR = Rate x Time

Q for gamma = 1R = 3 mR/hr x 6 hrs. = 18 mR18 mR x 0.97 mrad/mR = 17 mradDE = 17 mrad x 1 = 17 mremEDE for:Gonads = 17 mrem x 0.25 =4.25 mrem

Breast = 17 mrem x 0.15 =2.55 mremLung = 17 mrem x 0.12 =2.04 mremThyroid = 17 mrem x 0.03 =

0.51 mremBone = 17 mrem x 0.03 =0.51 mrem

Marrow = 17 mrem x 0.12 =2.04 mrem

Remainder = 17 mrem x 0.30 =5.10 mrem---------EDE for whole body: 17 mrem.

(note that the weightingfactor for the whole body isone)

f. Committed DoseEquivalent (CDE).

(1) The CDE is the doseequivalent to organs from the

intake of a radionuclide overthe 50-year period followingthe intake. Radioactive

material inside the body willact according to its chemicalform and be deposited in thebody, emitting radiation overthe entire time they are in thebody. For purposes of doserecording, the entire doseequivalent organs will receiveover the 50-years following theintake of the radionuclides isassigned to the individualduring the year that the

radionuclide intake took place.The CDE is usually derived froma table or computer program, asthe value is dependent upon theradionuclide, its chemicalform, the distribution of thatchemical within the body, themass of the organs and thebiological clearance time forthe chemical. Two commondatabases are MIRD and DOSEFACTthat contain CDEs for various

radionuclides. The CDE can becalculated from the data in 10CFR 20 Appendix B, or from theEPA Federal Guidance Report #11if there is only one targetorgan, otherwise the dose mustbe calculated from thecontribution of theradionuclide in every organ tothe organ of interest.

(2) Example: An individual

ingests 40 microcuries of I-131. What is the CDE? Becausethe dose to the thyroid fromiodine-131 is 100 times greaterthan the dose to any otherorgan we can assume that the


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thyroid is the only organreceiving a significant doseand can use the 10 CFR 20

approach, from 10 CFR 20,Appendix B. The non-stochastic(deterministic) Annual Limit ofIntake (ALI) is 30 Ci. A non-stochastic ALI is the activityof a radionuclide that, ifingested or inhaled, will givethe organ a committed doseequivalent of 50 rem.DE/ALI x 50 rem = committeddose equivalent to the organ.40 Ci/30 Ci x 50 rem = 67

rem.

(3) An example of the CDEderived from a table ispresented in Table 3-5 forinhalation of Co-60.

g. Committed EffectiveDose Equivalent (CEDE).

(1) Multiplying thecommitted dose equivalent by aweighting factor that relates

to the radiosensitivity of eachorgan and summing theseweighted dose equivalentsproduces the committedeffective dose equivalent. TheCEDE can be considered to bethe contribution from internalradionuclides to the TEDE.

(2) Example: A male workerinhales 10 Ci Co-60. What ishis CEDE?

Using the CDE above for Co-60,and the weighting factorsabove, we get the following:EDE for:

Gonads = 10 Ci x 6.29E+00mrem/Ci x 0.25 =

15.73 mrem

Table 3-5Inhalation Coefficients (H ) in mrem/Ci50,T

Co-60 (T = 5.271 year) Class Y F1 = 5.0E-02 AMAD = 1.0 m

organ (H ) organ (H )50,T 50,T-----------------------------------------------------------------Adrenals 1.11E+02 Lungs 1.27E+03Bladder Wall 1.09E+01 Ovaries 1.76E+01Bone surface 4.99E+01 Pancreas 1.17E+02Breast 6.80E+01 Red Marrow 6.36E+01Stomach Wall 1.01E+02 Skin 3.77E+01Small Intestine 2.60E+01 Spleen 9.99E+01Up lg Intestine 3.59E+01 Testes 6.29E+00

Lw lg intestine 2.93E+01 Thymus 2.12E+02Kidneys 5.77E+01 Thyroid 5.99E+01Liver 1.23E+02 Uterus 1.70E+01-----------------------------------------------------------------H = 1.33E+02 H = 2.19E+02rem,50 E,50

ICRP 30 ALI = 30 Ci


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Breast= 10 Ci x 6.80E+01mrem/Ci x 0.15 =102.00 mrem

Lung = 10 Ci x 1.27E+03mrem/Ci x 0.12 =1524.00 mrem

Thyroid= 10 Ci x 5.99E+01mrem/Ci x 0.03 =

17.97 mrem

Bone = 10 Ci x 4.99E+01mrem/Ci x 0.03 =

14.97 mrem

Marrow = 10 Ci x 6.36E+01mrem/Ci x 0.12 =

76.32 mrem

Remainder = 10 Ci x 1.33E+02mrem/Ci x 0.30 =399.00 mrem

-----------CEDE for whole body: 2149 mrem

h. Total Effective Dose

Equivalent (TEDE).

(1) The sum of the DDE andthe CEDE. Dose from internalradiation is no different fromdose from external radiation.Regulations are designed tolimit TEDE to the whole body to5 rem per year, and to limitthe sum of the DDE and the CDEto any one organ to 50 rem peryear.

(2) Example: The personworking in example d. alsoinhales 10 Ci Co-60 as inexample g. What is his or herTEDE?

TEDE = DDE + CEDEFrom Example d his DDE is 1.74rem = 1,740.00 mrem

From example g his CEDE is2,149.00 mrem-------------

TEDE 3,889.00 mrem

3-11. Biological Effects ofIonizing Radiation.

Biological effects of radiationhave been studied at differentlevels; the effects on cells,the effects on tissues (groups

of cells), the effects onorganisms, and the effects onhumans. Some of the majorpoints are reviewed below.

a. Cellular Effects.

(1) The energy depositedby ionizing radiation as itinteracts with matter mayresult in the breaking ofchemical bonds. If the

irradiated matter is livingtissue, such chemical changesmay result in altered structureor function of constituentcells.

(2) Because the cell iscomposed mostly of water, lessthan 20% of the energydeposited by ionizing radiationis absorbed directly bymacromolecules (for example,

Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA).More than 80% of the energydeposited in the cell isabsorbed by water moleculeswhere it may form highlyreactive free radicals.


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(3) These radicals andtheir products (for example,hydrogen peroxide) may initiate

numerous chemical reactionswhich can result in damage tomacromolecules and/orcorresponding damage to cells.Damage produced within a cellby the radiation inducedformation of free radicals isdescribed as being by indirectaction of radiation.

(4) The cell nucleus isthe major site of radiation

damage leading to cell death.This is due to theimportance

of the DNA within the nucleusin controlling all cellularfunction. Damage to the DNA

molecule may prevent it fromproviding the proper templatefor the production ofadditional DNA or RibonucleicAcid (RNA). In general, it hasbeen found that cellradiosensitivity is directlyproportional to reproductivecapacity and inverselyproportional to the degree ofcell differentiation. Table 3-6 presents a list of cells

which generally follow thisprinciple.

Table 3-6. List of Cells in Order of Decreasing Radiosensitivity

Veryradiosensitive

Moderatelyradiosensitive

Relativelyradioresistant

Vegetativeintermitotic cells,mature lymphocytes,erythroblasts andspermatogonia,basal cells,endothelial cells.

Blood vessels andinterconnectivetissue,osteoblasts,granulocytes andosteocytes,sperm erythrocytes.

Fixed postmitoticcells,fibrocytes,chondrocytes,muscle and nervecells.

(5) The considerablev a r i a t i o n i n t h eradiosensitivities of varioustissues is due, in part, to thed i f f e re n c e s i n t h esensitivities of the cells thatcompose the tissues. Also

important in determining tissuesensitivity are such factors asthe state of nourishment of thecells, interactions betweenvarious cell types within thetissue, and the ability of thetissue to repair itself.

(6) The relatively highradiosensitivity of tissuesconsisting of undifferentiated,rapidly dividing cells suggestthat, at the level of the humanorganism, a greater potentialexists for damage to the fetus

or young child than to an adultfor a given dose. This has, infact, been observed in the formof increased birth defectsfollowing irradiation of thefetus and an increasedincidence of certain cancers in


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individuals who were irradiatedas children.

3-12. Ways to MinimizeExposure.

a. There are three factorsused to minimize externalexposure to radiation; time,distance, and shielding.Projects involving the use ofradioactive material orradiation generating devicesneed to be designed so as tominimize exposure to external

radiation, and accomplish theproject. A proper balance ofways to minimize exposure andthe needs of the project needto be considered from theearliest design stages. Forexample, if a lead apronprotects a worker from theradiation, but slows him or herdown so that it requires threetimes as many hours to completethe job, the exposure is not

minimized. Additionally,placing a worker in fullprotective equipment andsubjecting the worker to theaccompanying physical stressesto prevent a total exposure ofa few millirems does not servethe needs of the project or ofthe worker.

(1) Time.

Dose is directly proportionalto the time a individual isexposed to the radiation. Lesstime of exposure means lessdose. Time spent around asource of radiation can be

minimized by good design,planning the operation,performing dry-runs to practice

the operation, and contentiouswork practices.

(2) Distance.

Dose is inversely proportionalto the distance from theradiation source. The furtheraway, the less dose received.Dose is related to distance bythe equation:

Where:I = Intensity at Distance 1,1D = Distance 1,1I = Intensity at Distance 2,2D = Distance 2.2

Doubling the distance from asource will quarter the dose

(see Figure 3-1).

Figure 3-1.

Distance from a radiationsource can be maximized by good


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design, planning the operation,using extended handling toolsor remote handling tools as

n e c e s s a r y , a n d b yconscienscious work practices.

(3) Shielding

(a) Dose can be reduced bythe use of shielding. Virtuallyany material will shieldagainst radiation but itsshielding effectiveness dependson many factors. These factorsinclude material density,

material thickness and type,the radiation energy, and thegeometry of the radiation beingshielded. Consult a qualifiedexpert to determine shieldingrequirements.

Cost considerations often comeinto play. The shieldingprovided by a few centimeters

of lead may be equaled by theshielding provided by a fewinches of concrete, and theprice may be lower for theconcrete. Table 3-7 lists half-value layers for severalmaterials at different gammaray energies.

(b) Shielding can be usedto reduce dose by placingradiation sources in shields

when not in use, placingshielding between the sourceand yourself, good design ofthe operation, and contentiouswork practices.

Table 3-7Half-value layers (cm) for gamma rays

-----------------------------------------------------------------E (MeV) Lead Concrete Water Iron Air-----------------------------------------------------------------

0.1 0.4 3.0 7.0 0.3 36220.5 0.7 7.0 15.0 1.6 61751.0 1.2 8.5 17.0 2.0 84281.5 1.3 10.0 18.5 2.2 10389-----------------------------------------------------------------

b. Personnel ProtectiveEquipment (PPE).

PPE is a last resort method forradiation exposure control.When engineering controls using

time, distance, shielding, dustsuppression, or contaminationcontrol cannot adequately lowerthe exposure to ionizingradiation or radioactivematerial, PPE may be used. PPE

may include such items as:

(1) full-face, air-purifying respirators (APRs)with appropriate cartridges;

(2) self-containedbreathing apparatus (SCBA);

(3) supplied air; and


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(4) shielded gloves,aprons, and other clothing.

c. Selection of PPE isbased on unique conditions ateach job site. The PPE may berequired in the followingcircumstances:

(1) when handlingcontaminated materials withremovable contamination;

(2) when working inc o n t a m i na t i o n , h i g h

contamination, and AirborneRadioactivity Areas; or

(3) when required by anNRC license or ARA.

d. Specific PPErequirements for each job siteshould be obtained from USACEor a USACE contractor HP orindustrial hygienist.Respirator use must meet the

requirements of 29 CFR 1910 or1926 and USACE respiratoryprotection requirements of EM385-1-1. The respiratoryprotection factors fordifferent types of respiratorsare listed in 10 CFR 20,Appendix A.

*NOTE* Half-face APRs will notbe used for any USACE workinvolving radioactive material,

unless there is no otherpractical solution. Anyspecial use of half-face APRswill first be approved by theRPO.

e. Cartridges forradionuclides must be selectedwith consideration for the

radionuclide's chemical form.Respirator filters approved foruse under 30 CFR 11 may stillbe used until July 1998. Bythat time, all respiratorcartridges must be classifiedaccording to the new NationalInstitute of OccupationalSafety and Health (NIOSH)modular approach described in42 CFR 84. With the newmodular approach to respirator

certification, cartridgesapproved by NIOSH, will nolonger be labeled fordusts/mists/fumes/radioactivedusts. The color coding hasalso changed. Dust/mist/fumefilters will now be labeled asN95, N99, N100, R95, R99, R100,P95, P99, and P100. The numberrelates to the filteringefficiency, and the letterrelates to the type of aerosol,

with P100 being the mostprotective over the widestrange of aerosol types.Dust/mist and dust/mist/fumecartridges do not provide anyprotection against radioactivevapors or radioactive noblegases. Consider the use ofcombination cartridges tocontrol dust and vapors, andactivated charcoal cartridgesto control noble gasses. When

selecting APRs, consider thebuildup of radioactive materialin the cartridges. A highconcentration of gammaradiation-emitting particles orvapor in cartridges may produce


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a radiation field positionedvery close to the face andchest of the person wearing the

APR.

f. Any PPE will slow downthe working speed of personnel,and extend the time needed forentry and exit. The increasein dose due to the increasedtime in the radiation fieldmust be weighed against theradiation dose reduction causedby the use of PPE. The use ofwhole body personal protective

equipment, particularly theimpermeable type can cause heatstress problems. A heat stressmonitoring program shall beimplemented to evaluate andcontrol heat stress hazardswhenever PPE is used.

3-13. Standing OperatingProcedures.

Where a project or operation

uses radiation in a method thatis amenable to written standingoperating procedures (SOPs),the RPO overseeing theoperations shall assist in thepreparation of SOPs. Mostmanufacturers of instrumentsand articles containingradioactive material or thatgenerate ionizing radiation,include SOPs in their operatingmanuals. The RPO shall review

these SOPs and ensure that theymeet USACE safety guidelinesoutlined in this manual and therequirements of ER 385-1-80 andEM 385-1-1 before use.

3-14. Monitoring and SurveyingEquipment.

a. Anytime personnel areworking with radioactivematerial or radiationgenerating devices, radiationmonitoring procedures will beused. Equipment needs to beselected that can detect theradiation or radiations inquestion. Table 3-8 is ageneral guide to types ofdetectors and the range andtypes of radiations they

detect. Some radiations areextremely difficult to detectin the field. Weak betaemitters such as tritium(maximum beta energy of 18.6kilo-electron volts (keV) andweak gamma emitters such asiodine-125 present monitoringproblems. Prior to workinvolving radioactivematerials, consult the RPO andHP to select appropriate

instruments and procedures fort h e d e t e c t i o n a n dquantification of the specificradiation in question.

b. Radiation MonitoringInstruments.

(1) Gas-filled Detectors.

Gas-filled detectors consist ofa gas-filled chamber with a

voltage applied such that acentral wire becomes the anodeand the chamber wall thecathode. Any ion pairsproduced by radiationinteracting with the chamber


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move to the electrodes wherethey are collected to form anelectronic pulse which can be

measured and quantified.Depending upon the voltageapplied to the chamber, thedetector may be considered anionization chamber, aproportional counter or aGeiger-Muller (GM) detector.

(a) An ionization chamberis a gas-filled chambercontaining an anode and acathode. As radiation passes

through the gas it ionizes someof the gas molecules. Theseion pairs are attracted to theanode and cathode and create anelectrical pulse. The pulsesare counted and integrated anddisplayed on the meter face inroentgens per hour. Because ofits design, an ionizationchamber has a very linearresponse to radiations ofdifferent energies. For this

reason, an ionization chamberis the preferred instrument forquantifying personnel externalradiation exposures.

(b) Because of itsversatility and dependability,the GM detector is the mostwidely used portable surveyinstrument. A GM detector witha thin window can detect alpha,beta and gamma radiation. It

is particularly sensitive tomedium-to-high energy betaparticles (for example, as fromP-32) and X-and gamma-rays aswell. The GM detector isfairly insensitive to low

energy X or gamma rays; that isbelow 50 keV, to low energybeta particles such as those

emitted by S-35 and C-14, andcannot detect the weak betasfrom H-3 at all. Unlike theionization chamber, the GMdetector does not actually"measure" exposure rate. Itinstead "detects" the number ofparticles interacting in itssensitive volume per unit time.The GM should thus read-out incounts per minute (cpm)although it can be calibrated

to approximate mR/hr forcertain situations. With theseadvantages and limitations aGeiger-Muller detector on arugged survey meter is theinstrument of choice forinitial entry and survey ofradiation sources andradioactive contamination inthe field.

(2) Scintillation

Detectors.

(a) Scintillationdetectors are based upon theuse of various phosphors (orscintillators) which emit lightin proportion to the quantityand energy of the radiationthey absorb. The light flashesare converted to photoelectrons which are multipliedin a series of diodes (that is,

a photomultiplier) to produce alarge electrical pulse.Because the light output andresultant electrical pulse froma scintillator is proportionalto the amount of energy


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deposited by the radiation,scintillators are useful inidentifying the amount of

specific radionuclides present(that is, scintillationspectrometry).

(b) Portable scintillationdetectors are widely used forconducting various types ofradiation surveys. Ofparticular use to workersworking with low energy gammaradiation, as from radioiodine,is the thin crystal sodium

iodide (NaI) detector which iscapable of detecting theemissions from I-125 withefficiencies nearing 20% (a GMdetector is less than 1%efficient for I-125).

c. Assaying Instruments.

(1) The most common meansof quantifying the presence ofbeta-emitting radionuclides is

through the use of liquidscintillation counting. Inthese systems, the sample andphosphor are combined in asolvent within the countingvial. The vial is then loweredinto a well between twophotomultiplier tubes forcounting.

(2) Solid scintillationdetectors are particularlyuseful in identifying and

quantifying gamma-emittingradionuclides. The common gammawell-counter employs a large(for example, 2" x 2" or 3" x3") crystal of NaI within alead shielded well. The samplevial is lowered directly into ahollow chamber within thecrystal for counting. Suchsystems are extremely sensitivebut do not have the resolutionof more recently developed

semiconductor counting systems,such as high-purity germaniumdetectors.

d. Neutron detectors,sometimes called 'neutronballs' or 'rem balls' are usedfor detection of neutrons.Neutron detectors use ahydrogenous moderator to slowdown the neutrons which willallow the neutrons to interact

with charged particles. Thesecharged particles then aredetected using a conventionalradiation detector. Borontrifluoride (BF ) is a common3detector gas used for neutrondetection.

e. Semiconductor diodedetectors or solid state

Table 3-8

Radiation Detection Instruments

Detector type RadiationDetected

DetectionLimit

Comments

GM-thick walled >50 keV 100 dpm Limited use.

GM-thin window >35 keV >35 keV

100 dpm Good for detectingcontamination, not goodfor quantifying.


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Detector type RadiationDetected

DetectionLimit

Comments

3-24

NaI- 2" x 2"crystal

>50 keV 500 dpm Good for detection andquantification.

NaI-thincrystal

>50 keV >25 keV

500 dpm Good for detecting low-energy gamma radiation.

IonizationChamber

>50 keV >50 keV

0.2 mR/hr Most accurate forexposure measurement.

PressurizedIonizationChamber

>50 keV .01 mR/hr Good for environmentalsurveys.

Micro R meter >50 keV .01 mR/hr Good for environmentalsurveys.

HPGe >40 keV variable Lab equipment, canquantify trace amounts.Field models available.

LiquidScintillation

, , variable Lab equipment, canquantify trace amounts.Field models available.

GasProportional

, , variable Lab equipment, canquantify trace amounts

field models available.

detectors use a solid materialwith a charge applied to it todetect the energy deposited byradiation. These detectors canbe designed to provide gooddetection of most allradiation, but particular typesof radiation and energy ranges,each call for a differentconfiguration.

f. One type of solid statedetector that is finding

widespread use is the highpurity germanium detector(HPGe). The HPGe, like itspredecessor the germanium-lithium (GE(Li)) detector, hasexcellent energy resolution andis commonly used inlaboratories for identificationand quantification of gammaemitting radionuclides. A

primary drawback of the HPGedetector is the requirement tosupercool the detector. This


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is done by attaching a Dewarflask containing liquidnitrogen to the detector. HPGe

systems are being made that arefield portable, using smallDewar flasks and laptopcomputers, and can providelaboratory quality analysis inthe field.

g. Energy proportionaldetectors such as scintillationdetectors, semiconductor diodedetectors and HPGe detectorsare often coupled with a multi-

channel analyzer (MCA) to allowfor determination of the energyof the radiation detected, andthrough reference, to determinethe radioisotope that emittedthe radiation and the quantityof that isotope in the samplemeasured. Most modern MCAs areused in conjunction withcomputers which process theinformation, contain thelibrary of radionuclides

referenced by energy ofradiation, and display softwarefor digital and graphic output.

h. Instrument Calibration.

(1) Radiation surveymeters are calibrated with aradioactive source and anelectronic pulser. When anelectronic calibration isperformed, the instrument is

checked for response to aradioactive source. In mostsituations, survey meters mustbe calibrated at least annuallyand after servicing. (Batterychanges are not considered

"servicing".)

(2) Survey meters will be

function tested with a checksource or other dedicatedsource before each use. If thesurvey meter is not respondingproperly, it may not be usedfor surveys until it isrepaired. There is no need tokeep a record of the functionchecks, but a record must bekept of the discovery of theimproper response and theservice of the meter to correct

the problem, as well as of therecalibration of the meter.

I. Quality Control.

Q u a l i t y c o n t r ol o finstrumentation is essential ina radiation protection program.All instruments used formonitoring safety and healthshould be subjected to aquality control (QC) program.

Two tracking/trending methodsare commonly used in instrumentQC. The general principle isapplicable to both field andlab instruments. The twomethods are background trendingand check source trending.

(1) Background trending isdone by plotting the dailybackground reading versus dayssince last calibration.

Background trending canindicate when instrument probesbecome contaminated, by showinga rise in the background rate.Care must be taken in measuringthe background daily to assure


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that the instrument is inapproximately the same locationand that the location is

contaminant free.

(2) Check-source trackingis a method of assuring thatthe instrument is respondingproperly, and remaining incalibration. Check-sourcetracking is performed byplotting a daily check source

reading of a dedicated checksource against the days sincecalibration. Check-source

tracking can indicate damage tothe instrument or probe,variance of the electronics orchanges in the meter response.Figure 3-2 is an example ofbackground tracking and check-source tracking.

x-background count

Figure 3-2


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Chapter 4. Licensing.

4-1. Overview of RegulatoryAgencies.

a. Nuclear RegulatoryCommission (NRC).

(1) The Atomic Energy Actof 1954 charges the NRC withthe responsibility of writingand enforcing regulationsconcerning the use ofradioactive material. A

license is required forpossession of source, byproductor special nuclear material andlicense holders are inspectedby NRC to determine ifregulations are being followedby the licensee. If serious orrepeated violations occur, alicense may be revoked and ther a d i o a c t i v e m a t e r i a lconfiscated. Table 4-1 listsNRC regional offices, NRC Form

3, attached at Appendix H,indicates what NRC regionstates fall under.

(2) Although the NRC isthe federal agency responsiblefor adopting and enforcingrules and regulations thatapply to users of radioactivematerial, broad administrativeresponsibilities have beentransferred to some state

governments. In 1959 the NRCwas permitted to makeagreements with those statesthat could operate a suitableradiological health program forthe radioactive material usersin their states. States that

have such agreements with theNRC are called Agreement

States. Table 4-2 lists theAgreement States and eachstate's radiological healthprogram office and emergencyphone numbers.

b. Agreement States.

Agreement states have their ownstate regulations and theyprovide personnel to licenseand inspect users of

radioactive material.Agreement state regulationsmust be as stringent as NRCregulations and, usually, aremore stringent. The primarydifference in most Agreementstate regulations is theinclusion of NORM and Naturallyoccurring and Acceleratorproduced Radioactive Material(NARM) materials (such asradium, thorium, and cobalt-57)

as well as source, byproductand special nuclear material asregulated materials. The NRCdoes not regulate NORM or NARM(only source, byproduct, andspecial nuclear material).Agreement states do not issuelicenses to Federal agencies,including the US Army; only theNRC may do so.

c . E n v i r o n me n t a l

Protection Agency (EPA).

The Atomic Energy Act andReorganization Plan No. 3authorized the EPA to establish


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standards to protect humanhealth and the environment from

the effects of radiation. TheEPA does not licenseradioactive materials, butregulates their release to theenvironment and the exposure ofthe public to radiation.

d. Occupational Safety andHealth Administration (OSHA).OSHA is authorized to protectworker health and safety. OSHA

does not license radioactivematerials, but regulates theiruse in the workplace. Toprotect workers from radiation,OSHA, in 1984, adopted the NRCregulations specified in 10 CFR20, as it stood in 1984. 10 CFR20 was amended by the NRC in1994. Consequently, there aretwo sets of regulationsgoverning Authorized UsersAssistants with NRC licensable

materials; the NRC regulationsand OSHA regulations. This isexplained more thoroughly inChapter 5; Dose Limits andALARA.

4-2. Types of NRC RadioactiveMaterial Licenses. NuclearRegulatory Commission lic

radiation protection manual

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