Psychology ‘A2’ Hand book

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Overview of the year 2015-2016

Autumn Term Spring Term Summer Term

Unit 4 – Anomalistic Psychology Research methods

(6 weeks)

Unit 3 – RelationshipsIssues, debates & approaches (IDA)

(6 weeks)

Unit 3 – Aggression Eating Behaviour or

biological rhythms/sleep(7 weeks)

Half term Half term Half term

Unit 4 – Psychopathology Schizophrenia (6 weeks)

Unit 3 – Aggression (4 weeks)

Exam – Unit 3 8th June Unit 4 14th June

Christmas Easter

The vote for the final unit 3 option was split between those who wanted to do the ‘sleep’ option and those who wanted to do the ‘eating’ option.

For the year after yours, there will be no ‘sleep’ option as this topic has been dropped from the new specification. For that reason I will ‘teach’ eating – this makes more sense for my long term planning purposes.

Last year, I allowed those students who wanted to do sleep to do so, provided they were up to date with all assignments and I felt I could trust them to do their own research. I assume I will be able to do the same again this year.

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pre-reading pre-lesson

prep

lesson time make it

count - be active

prep do you

understand why?

post session reading, 'you

tubing' to consolidate

Cycle of Learning

What will you do to secure the best possible grade for yourself?

Summary of the specification: For unit 3 you will be expected to demonstrate:

• Knowledge, understanding and skills of analysis and evaluation in relation to three topics selected from the following.

Biological rhythms and sleepPerceptionRelationshipsAggressionEating behaviourGenderIntelligence and learningCognition and development

• Knowledge, understanding and skills of analysis and evaluation in relation to relevant theories, explanations and studies in each of the three topics studied

• An understanding of the major approaches in psychology: cognitive, biological, behavioural and psychodynamic.

• An appreciation of issues and debates as relevant to each topic studied: for example, KNOWN AS IDA’S

issues of bias, including gender and culture, the role of animals in research, ethical issues, the nature/nurture debate, free will and determinism and reductionism.

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Past exam questions on Relationships

Specimen Paper: Outline one or more theories relating to the formation and/or maintenance of relationships. (9 marks)Evaluate one of the theories outlined with particular emphasis on the nature of relationships in different cultures. (16 marks)

January 2010:‘To put it at its most basic, women want resources and men want to spread their genes.’Discuss the evolutionary approach to explaining parental investment in humans (e.g. sex differences, parent-offspring conflict). (25 marks)

June 2010: Discuss research into the nature of relationships in different cultures.(9 marks + 16 marks)

January 2011: Describe and evaluate two or more theories of the formation of romantic relationships.(9 marks + 16 marks)

June 2011: Discuss the influence of childhood and/or adolescent experiences on adult relationships.(9 marks + 16 marks)

January 2012:Discuss research into the breakdown of romantic relationships. (8 marks + 16 marks)

June 2012:Discuss the relationship between sexual selection and human reproductive behaviour (8+16)

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Jan 2013:

Outline and evaluate ONE theory of the maintenance of romantic relationships (4+8)Discuss research into the influence of childhood on adult relationships (4+8)

June 2013:Outline and evaluate ONE theory of the formation of romantic relationships (4+8)Discuss research into the influence of culture on adult relationships (4+8)

June 2014:Discuss sex differences in parental investment (8+16)

June 2015: Discuss the influence of childhood on adult relationships (8+16)

Past exam questions on Aggression

Jan 2010: Discuss explanations of institutional aggression (25)

June 2010: Outline the role of genetic factors in aggressive behaviour (4) Outline & evaluate one social psychological theory of aggression (5 +16)

Jan 2011: Discuss evolutionary explanations of human aggression (9 + 16)

June 2011: Discuss the role of neural and/or hormonal mechanisms in aggression (9 + 16)

Jan 2012: Outline research into institutional aggression (4) Discuss one or more evolutionary explanations of group display in humans (4 & 16)

June 2012: Outline and evaluate one or more social psychological theories of aggression (8 & 16)

Jan 2013: Discuss evolutionary explanations of aggression including infidelity and/or jealousy (8 & 16)

June 2013: Outline an evolutionary explanation of one example of group display in humans (4) Discuss genetic factors involved in aggressive behaviours (4 & 16) Jan 2014 : Outline neural and/or hormonal mechanisms in aggression (4) Outline and evaluate one social psychological theory of aggression (4 & 16)

June 2015: Discuss research into institutional aggression (8 +16)

Past exam questions on EatingSpecimen paper

Outline factors influencing attitudes to food and eating behaviour (5 marks)

Outline and evaluate one or more psychological explanations of one eating disorder (4 marks +16 marks)

Jan 2010

‘Dieting often fails because people are trying to go against their biological drive to eat’.

Discuss explanations for the success and/or failure of dieting (25 marks)

June 2010

Discuss explanations of one eating disorder (9 marks and 16 marks)

Jan 2011

Discuss the role of one or more factors that influence attitudes to food.(4 marks + 8 marks)

Outline and evaluate the role of neural mechanisms in controlling eating.(5 marks + 8 marks)

June 2011

Outline one psychological explanation of one eating disorder (5)Outline and evaluate evolutionary explanations of food preferences (4 + 16)

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Jan 2012

Discuss neural mechanisms involved in the control of eating behaviour (8+16)

June 2012

Identify an eating disorder. Outline one explanation for this eating disorder (4)Discuss explanations for the success and/or failure of dieting (4+16)

Jan 2013

‘Attitudes to food and eating behaviours are influenced by a range of factors such as culture, mood and health concerns’

Discuss research into factors influencing attitudes to food and/or eating behaviour. (8 + 16)

June 2013

Outline and evaluate one psychological explanation and one biological explanation of one eating disorder (8 + 16)

June 2014

Discuss evolutionary explanations of food preference (8 + 16)

June 2015

Outline one or more psychological explanation for either anorexia or bulimia (4)

Outline and evaluate one or more explanation for the success and/or failure of dieting (4+16)

Past exam questions on Biological Rhythms and sleepSpecimen Paper:

Discuss the role of endogenous pacemakers and exogenous zeitgebers in the sleep/waking cycle and at least one other biological rhythm. (9 marks +16 marks)

January 2010:

(a) Outline one example of a circadian rhythm. (4 marks)(b) (i) Outline one or more explanations for sleep disorders (e.g. insomnia, sleep walking, narcolepsy). (5

marks)(ii) Evaluate one or more explanations for sleep disorders. (16 marks)

June 2010:

01 Outline lifespan changes in sleep. (4 marks)

02 Outline and evaluate one explanation for the functions of sleep. (5 marks + 16 marks)

January 2011:

01 Discuss the role of endogenous pacemakers in the control of one or more biological rhythms. (9 marks + 16 marks)

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June 2011:

01 Outline the nature of sleep. (9 marks)

02 Consider the consequences of disrupting biological rhythms. (16 marks)

January 2012:

01 Outline one explanation for narcolepsy. (4 marks)

02 Outline and evaluate one or more evolutionary explanations for the functions of sleep. (4 marks + 16 marks)

June 2012:

01 Outline one or more examples of ultradian rhythms (4 marks)

02 Out line and evaluate restoration explanations of the function of sleep (4 + 16 marks)

January 2013:

01 Discuss explanations of insomnia and/or narcolepsy (8+16 marks)

June 2013:

01 Discuss research into the disruption of biological rhythms (e.g. shift work, jet lag) 8+16 marks

June 2014:

01 Outline lifespan changes in sleep (4 marks)

02 Outline and evaluate one or more restoration explanations for the function of sleep (4 + 16 marks)

June 2015:

Outline one explanation for narcolepsy (4 marks)

Outline and evaluate the evolutionary functions of sleep (4 + 16 marks)

Why don’t you colour code this one - can you work out what is due in 2016?For unit 4 you will be expected to:

• Develop knowledge and understanding of theories and studies relevant to the content for each area of psychology in this unit

• Analyse and evaluate theories, explanations and studies relevant to the content for each area of psychology in this unit

• undertake practical research activities involving collection, analysis and interpretation of qualitative and quantitative data.

Unit 4 is divided into three sections.

Section A

Psychopathology

You will be expected to develop knowledge and understanding of one of the following disorders:

schizophrenia depression phobic disorders

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obsessive compulsive disorder

You will be expected to apply knowledge and understanding of models, classification and diagnosis to your chosen disorder.

Section B

Section C

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For more detail on what is required look at the>>>>>> actual specification

You obviously need to know what kind of answers the examiners are looking for – so look at the mark scheme for each question – if

the mark scheme mentions specific studies then it is worth learning those studies, it’s kinda obvious isn’t it?

The examiners’ reports give insight into what students did well in each paper and where common mistakes were made. By using the

examiners reports we are learning vicariously – we are learning from other peoples’ mistakes.

Previous Schizophrenia Questions (unit 4)Jan 2010

Outline and evaluate 2 or more therapies used in the treatment of schizophrenia (9+16)

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June 2010

‘In an important and influential criticism of the diagnosis of mental illness, Rosenhan (1973) showed that healthy ‘pseudopatients’ could gain admission to psychiatric hospital by pretending to have auditory hallucinations. Although systems of classification and diagnosis have changed considerably since the 1970s, many people still have concerns about their accuracy and appropriateness.’

Discuss issues surrounding the classification and diagnosis of schizophrenia. (9 marks + 16 marks)

Jan 2011

0 1 Outline clinical characteristics of schizophrenia. (5 marks)0 2 Outline one psychological explanation of schizophrenia. (4 marks)0 3 Evaluate psychological explanations of schizophrenia. (16 marks)

June 2011

‘There is considerable evidence that schizophrenia is caused by biological factors. These can be genetic, neuroanatomical, biochemical, viral or a combination of such factors.’

Discuss biological explanations of schizophrenia. (9 marks + 16 marks)

Jan 2012

Discuss issues associated with the classification and/or diagnosis of schizophrenia.(8 marks + 16 marks)

June 2012

Outline and evaluate one biological therapy for schizophrenia and one psychologicaltherapy for schizophrenia. (8 marks + 16 marks)

Jan 2013

Outline and evaluate one biological therapy for schizophrenia. (4 marks + 8 marks)Outline and evaluate one psychological therapy for schizophrenia. (4 marks + 8 marks)

June 2013

Discuss biological explanations for schizophrenia. (8 marks + 16 marks)

June 2014

Discuss psychological explanations for schizophrenia. [8 marks + 16 marks]

June 2015 – Outline one issue relating to the classification and/or diagnosis of schizophrenia (4 marks) Outline and evaluate one or more biological explanation for schizophrenia (4 & 16 marks)

Previous Anomalistic Exam Questions (Unit 4)

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Jan 2010 (a) A researcher wanted to test the ability of a known ‘psychic healer’. Ten volunteers suffering from chronic back pain were selected through newspaper adverts. The volunteers were all given a questionnaire which rated their belief in psychic healing and another questionnaire which rated their levels of pain. They were then randomly assigned to either a treatment group or a control group. Afterwards, all the volunteers filled in the pain questionnaire again. The researcher found that there was no significant effect on pain relief as a result of psychic healing.

Answer the following questions, using your knowledge about research into psychic healing.

(i) The researcher wanted to know whether there was a correlation between belief in psychic healing and improvement in pain ratings. What statistical test could the researcher use? Justify your answer. (2 marks)

(ii) Outline one ethical issue in this study and suggest how the researcher could have been dealt with it. (3 marks)

(iii) ‘It is interesting why, even today in the modern age of science and technology, some people still believe in psychic healing.’

Discuss factors underlying belief in psychic healing. (5 marks + 5 marks)

(b) Outline and evaluate psychological research into belief in out-of-body experiences and/or near-death experiences. (4 marks + 6 marks)

June 2010Explain what is meant by pseudoscience. (5 marks)

During a public demonstration of ‘psychic powers’, a psychologist witnessed what appeared to be the ability of one person to read the thoughts of another.

Explain how the psychologist could use the Ganzfeld procedure to investigate this apparent ability. (6 marks)

At the same event, the psychologist observed that many audience members appeared impressed by, and expressed a belief in, the abilities of a psychic medium.

Outline two or more factors underlying belief in anomalous experience. (4 marks)

Consider how such factors can be used to understand belief in psychic mediumship. (10 marks)

Jan 2011What has research shown about personality factors underlying anomalous experience? (5 marks)

Some researchers consider that there is a link between poor reasoning skills and belief in the paranormal.

Using your knowledge of research in this area, explain why some researchers might think there is a link between poor reasoning and strong belief in the paranormal. (3 marks)

To investigate this, a researcher asked participants to complete a reliable and well-validated scale measuring belief in the paranormal. Each participant was then scored on their attempt to solve a set of reasoning problems.

What is meant by a ‘reliable and well-validated’ scale? Explain why it is important to use such a scale when measuring paranormal beliefs. (2 marks + 2 marks)

Apart from poor reasoning skills, explain how one other cognitive factor is linked to belief in the paranormal. (3 marks)Discuss methodological issues in the study of psychokinesis. (4 marks + 6 marks)

June 2011

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Explain issues surrounding scientific fraud in the study of anomalous experience. (5 marks)

Leon wore a green T-shirt when he sat a mock GCSE exam and got an unexpectedly good result. Since then he has always worn the same T-shirt when he has had to sit an exam. This morning he is feeling distressed because he cannot find his T-shirt and he has an A-level psychology exam today.

How might a psychologist explain Leon’s superstitious behaviour? (5 marks)

Abbie, Leon’s friend, cannot understand why he is so upset. She has worked hard and revised thoroughly and does not feel that she needs a T-shirt or anything else to get her through the exam.

Suggest how personality and/or cognitive factors might explain why Abbie does not have anomalous beliefs. (5 marks)

Discuss what research into exceptional experience has shown us about out-of-body experience. (4 marks + 6 marks)

Jan 2012Jo and Frankie are watching a television programme about paranormal action. A stage performer is apparently using the power of his mind to influence dice thrown by another person. The person rolls a pair of dice three times and rolls a double six each time.Jo gets very excited. Jo shouts: “Wow! That is amazing. I think I could train myself to use the power of mymind to make things happen.”Frankie replies: “Calm down. It’s just a coincidence. Nobody can use the power of their mind to influence events like that.” Frankie thinks that it is just a coincidence. Jo does not agree.

Explain what is meant by coincidence in this context. (2 marks)

Jo and Frankie interpret the same experience differently. Use your knowledge of personality factors to explain why people interpret anomalous experiences differently. (4 marks)

Outline and evaluate the Ganzfeld technique as a way of investigating ESP. (4 marks + 4 marks)

Discuss what research into exceptional experience has shown us about psychic mediumship. (4 marks + 6 marks)

June 2012Describe one way in which researchers have studied psychokinesis. (4 marks)

Harry had a dream last night about his aunt Susan. She emigrated to Canada years ago and he has not heard from her for three years. This morning, he received a letter from his aunt saying that she was going to visit. He thinks that he might have psychic powers.

How might psychologists explain Harry’s experience? Use your knowledge of the psychology of coincidence in your answer. (4 marks)

Discuss how Harry’s anomalous experience can be explained by personality factors. (6 marks)

Outline and evaluate research into out-of-body experience and/or near-death experience. (4 marks + 6 marks)

Don’t forget you can colour code these questions too – work out what hasn’t been asked for a while – the topic that is missing is the one which is most likely to come up on your paper

Jan 2013Outline two differences between science and pseudoscience. (4 marks)

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Magical thinking is a common type of anomalistic experience. Estate agents have great difficulty selling houses where a murder or other tragedy has occurred, even when the asking price is below what the house is worth. Workers in dangerous occupations, such as deep-sea fishermen, often engage in elaborate rituals before going to sea.How would a psychologist explain the examples of magical thinking shown in the extract above? (10 marks)Discuss one or more explanations of psychic mediumship. (4 marks + 6 marks)

June 2013Outline two methodological issues involved in the study of psychokinesis. (4 marks)

Most people have several dreams each night, and a small number of these dreams come true a week or so later. Former American president, Abraham Lincoln, is believed to have dreamt of his assassination, two weeks before it happened. Some people interpret dreams coming true as evidence for the paranormal. However, others assume that probability or coincidence can explain this anomalous experience.

Explain why some people see dreams which later come true as evidence for the paranormal, whereas other people do not. Use your knowledge of probability judgements and/or coincidence in your answer. (10 marks)

Discuss what research has shown about psychic healing. (4 marks + 6 marks)

June 2014Identical twins often report that they share a special connection with each other. Many twins claim that this connection extends to the ability to read each other’s minds. A study was carried out to test this claim. One member of the twin pair was asked to choose a picture from four images and think about this picture. Their twin partner had to guess which picture they had chosen. The twins were in the same room but separated by a screen.

What criticisms would a scientist make of this study of paranormal cognition? [4 marks]

Explain how this study would need to be changed to make it more scientific. You should refer to the criticisms that you identified in your answer to question above. [6 marks]

Outline one explanation for superstitious behaviour. [4 marks]

Discuss research into out of body experiences. [4 marks + 6 marks]2015 – Fresh from the most recent paper

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Using the anomalistic psychology mark schemes (available on the shared area) I cut and pasted this revision crib sheet. Physically doing this activity enabled me to understand very quickly the content of this topic area. You could do the same for a topic you are revising. It is a way of focusing your revision and ensuring you are ready for the exam – it also gives you insight into EXACTLY what the examiners require.

HOW? I took a topic like ‘pseudoscience’ and then looked at which papers contained a question about it. I went to those mark schemes and copied and pasted all the suggested answers. I then went onto the next topic and did the same again. You could do this for anything we study in year 2.

Pseudoscience actually means ‘false science’. Pseudoscientific explanations can be difficult to identify because they are presented as being scientific even though they do not meet the criteria for true science.Some of the main characteristics of pseudoscience are as follows:• Pseudoscience is not published in peer-reviewed journals but often appears in magazines, newspapers or on the internet• Investigations, where they are carried out at all, are often methodologically flawed and not replicable• Specialist terms such as ‘energy’ or ‘aura’ are often used vaguely with no clearly operationalised definition• Theories are usually unfalsifiable• There is no obvious progress in the accumulation of knowledge• Evidence is not sound and arguments are frequently based on emotion or intuition rather than logical reasoning• Counter-evidence presented by sceptics is usually dismissed• Practitioners of pseudoscience often promote products such as ‘cures’ or self-help books which have no support from scientific research.

On the other hand Scientific findings are subjected to peer review before publication. Results of pseudoscience are published without

peer review often in newspapers Science requires that experiments should be replicable but the results of many pseudoscientific studies cannot be

replicated In science, hypotheses are formulated then data is gathered to test the hypothesis. In pseudoscience, data is

collected first then explanations are formulated to fit observations In science, key terms are defined precisely but in pseudoscience, specialist terms (e.g. ‘aura’) are used vaguely and

not clearly operationalised.

Scientific fraud occurs where researchers deliberately manipulate data in order to support their hypothesis or theory. It can happen in any area of science but it is thought by critics to be particularly prevalent in the field of parapsychology.There are several issues involved with Soals' research into ESP in the 1930s, and 40s research into pre-cognition in rats in the 1970s. For example:• Ethical issues focus on the dishonesty of researchers who are deceiving not just their participants but also their colleagues and the wider public• Credibility issues focus on the damage done to the reputation of academic psychology by this kind of fraudulent research.• some researchers might risk cheating e.g. they might be so convinced by their own theory and frustrated that they have not been able to demonstrate it empirically that they feel justified in 'tweaking' the data; they are under pressure to get their work published in scientific journals in order to get more funding/ prestige/ career advancement.

Why do people believe though?

Psychological explanations are based around the idea that humans have a deep-seated need to seek causality. This leads us to see causes for random events which are the product of chance. Basically, people have a poor understanding of probability.

Intellectual ability: people who believe in psychic abilities often have reduced intellectual ability and do not appreciate the role of coincidence. Coincidence is where two or more events happen by chance to occur at the same time or in close succession leading to an assumption that they are linked.

Probability misjudgement: people who believe in the paranormal are poorer at estimating chance and coincidence than non-believers.

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The law of truly large numbers: with a large enough sample, the most improbable things happen. Because we all dream at night, this is a sufficiently large sample to ensure that at some point someone’s dream will appear to come true. Since people believe that extreme events are unlikely to happen causality is misattributed to something paranormal.

Subjective validation: this is a cognitive bias in which people tend to remember the affirming ‘hits’ and overlook the far more frequent ‘misses’.

Locus of control: may be related to certain kinds of paranormal belief, e.g. an external locus of control is associated with more superstitious belief and behaviour. Some aspects of paranormal belief do not seem to be related to locus of control at all however,

Extroversion – introversion: extroverts generally have higher beliefs in ESP (Honorton et al 1998)

Neuroticism – significant correlations between neuroticism and superstition have been found (e.g. Wiseman 2004) but other studies (e.g. MacDonald 2000) have contradicted this.

Sensation seeking personality traits: paranormal belief offers a source of excitement. Some research suggests that people with greater paranormal belief are more likely to score high on measures of sensation-seeking. (Kumar et al 1993)

Creativity and fantasy proneness: Research has indicated a positive correlation with paranormal belief. Other research suggests that highly artistic people tend to have a greater belief in the paranormal and score higher on tests of ESP - positive correlation between creative personality traits and beliefs in paranormal (Gianotti et al 2001)

Systematic errors in deductive reasoning• Weak probabilistic reasoning• Biased concepts of randomness and meaningfulness• Memory bias for apparent paranormal experiences• Non-conscious processing of information which is later perceived to stem from precognition• Heightened sensitivity to environmental cues (e.g. changes in light, temperature, magnetic field etc.) which might then be interpreted as paranormal phenomena• Perceptual bias e.g. misinterpreting stimuli seen in less than optimal viewing conditions It has even been suggested that ‘believers’ have over-activated right hemisphere processing compared to non-believers.

Tobacyk et al (1988) have found a link between locus of control, superstitious behaviour and paranormal belief; Kumar et al (1993) found that sensation seeking personality scores were related to both a greater paranormal belief and a greaternumber of reported paranormal experiences; Gianotti et al (2001) found a high positive correlation between belief in the paranormal and creative personality (specifically, they found that people with high paranormal belief generated more original words in word task than other people).Fantasy proneness has been shown to correlate with paranormal belief (e.g. Irwin, 1991).Ramakrishna (2001), in a study of adolescents, found a link between certain personality characteristics and good performance on ESP tasks. Also, extroverts scored better at ESP than introverts. A number of studies have shown a link between schizotypy and paranormal beliefs (e.g. Goulding 2005).

Poor reasoning skills There is considerable evidence (e.g. review by French (1992) that belief in the paranormal is higher in people with some sort of 'cognitive deficit'. One particular cognitive ability to attract attention in this context is syllogistic reasoning (e.g. Wierzerbiki (1985)). Although, findings are mixed, there has been general support for the idea that people who believe in the paranormal do worse on such tasks than other people. There is also some evidence that believers are less familiar with scientific principles and are less able to see the flaws in poorly designed experiments than others. There are many cognitive factors for example, confirmation bias, causal attributions, false probability.

So why do some people not believe?Some people are less vulnerable to anomalistic beliefs in this scenario. For example, some people do not suffer from fantasy proneness where they muddle up reality and imagination; they probably have good reasoning skills (particularly on syllogistic reasoning tasks); they may also have a good understanding of scientific principles and understands how to differentiate between 'good' and 'bad' science; they are probably able to assess the likelihood of coincidences accurately; they probably have an internal locus of control and believes that they are responsible for outcomes like exam success

Magical thinking refers to a type of reasoning in which causal relationships are found between events and/or objects which are not logically related, and it is intrinsically linked to superstitious behaviour. One of the most fundamental explanations of magical thinking is the law of contagion proposed originally by James Frazer. This is the idea that an object which has been in contact with a person comes to possess the ‘essence’ of that individual. This would help to explain why people are unwilling to buy houses where a tragedy has happened. The law of contagion has been demonstrated experimentally (e.g. Nemeroff and Rozin 1994). Why do people develop magical thinking?

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Reduction of anxiety: magical thinking is prevalent in times and places of uncertainty and danger. Malinowski argued that magical thinking helps people reduce their anxiety, to cope with uncertainty and gives a sense of control over an unpredictable world. This would help to explain why people in dangerous occupations (such as deep sea fishing) are likely to resort to magical thinking. It has been demonstrated that magical thinking is more prevalent in war zones (Keinan 1994). It has also been demonstrated experimentally with pre-operative patients awaiting major surgery (Shrimali and Broota 1987).

There are other explanations of magical thinking which could be applied here, for example magical thinking is more prevalent in some cultures than others, especially those where war is common (Blaisdell and Denniston 2002).

Mediumship - Psychic mediumship refers to the process in which a medium contacts a deceased person, on behalf of a ‘sitter’, generally in a trance state. There are a range of explanations for psychic mediumship. Generally, biological explanations seek underlying physiological correlates of trance states whereas cognitive explanations focus on the cognitive tendencies of believers and the techniques used by mediums to convince them:

Biological explanations focus on mediumship as an altered state of consciousness and explore the psychophysiology behind trance states. Emphasis is placed on the role played by the limbic system in the trance like state

Personality/mental health explanations: some researchers argue that mediumship an extreme form of dissociative identity disorder, eg Braude (1995)

Cognitive explanations focus on the ways that believers interpret the information provided by psychic mediums. They assume that believers find connections between unrelated events and see patterns where none really exist. This is sometimes known as the tendency to make the Type I error (eg Brugger, 2001)

Roe (1991) focusses on strategies employed by mediums (often called cold reading) to convince sitters about the validity of information provided to them

Evaluation There is some evidence to support the claim that mediumship is an altered state of consciousness, eg Winkelman (2000) argues that the trance state is characterised by a shift toward right hemispheric dominance, along with a dominance of the parasympathetic nervous system

Studies show that biological indicators are not consistent across mediums Cognitive explanations point to the prevalence of ‘Barnum’ statements used by mediums which can apply to most

people Roe (1991) has provided extensive evidence of the hierarchy of strategies used by mediums including cold reading

(using non-verbal information) and warm reading (direct ‘ fishing’ for information) Studies comparing DID and mediumship have found superficial similarities only: generally mediums display good

mental health, in contrast to those suffering from DID (Riesel, 2003). There are some impressive scientific trials of mediumship, for example Beischel and Schwartz (2007) which

demonstrated mediumship using a triple blind procedure

The basic Ganzfeld ESP procedure. The sensory deprivation of a subject (the receiver) via headphones with white noise, translucent goggles or halved

ping-pong balls over the eyes The sender, who is in another room, chooses one of a selection of (usually) 4 images to send telepathically. The

choice of image to send should be random The receiver attempts to ‘read’ the image At the end of the session the receiver is shown a set of images and asked to select the target image from several or

to describe the image If the receiver is really able to read the thoughts of others, he/she should be able to pick the target at greater than

chance level over several trials Auto-Ganzfeld procedure has greater control, including sound-proofing and computerised selection of images.

Evaluation Issues1. possible cheating and lack of control in early studies eg sensory leakage, insecure storage of images2. possible researcher bias eg sceptical researchers v psi believers can influence the amount of elaboration by the

receiver3. influence of the receivers’ beliefs (the sheep-goat effect)

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Methodological issues with research

Paranormal explanations are based mainly on anecdote. There are issues such as non-falsifiability and the nature of scientific investigation eg generating testable hypotheses. Consider the strengths/weaknesses of methods used (including case studies) Possible issues/debates/approaches include cultural issues; reliability/validity; reductionism.

There is no obvious way of testing belief in the paranormal There is some evidence that the beliefs of the experimenter can be important in influencing the outcome of studies into the paranormal it is, therefore, important that measuring tools are independently assessed to apply a scientific approach to investigate an areas whose scientific status has been questioned.A wide range of issues include, the problem of experimental control, the role of the experimenter (for, example, the problem of experimenter bias or psi inhibition), differences in analysis and reporting.

Methodological issues involved in the study of psychokinesis. Psychokinesis refers to the (disputed) ability to move objects by the mind. PK was initially accessed via eye only (macro PK) then by the ability to influence the fall of dice. Latterly, it has been superseded by micro PK in which technology is used. Relevant methodological issues include: • bias/sleight of hand in dice rolling studies • experimenter bias in recording macro PK results • lack of validity of micro PK studies • problems of replication in all of the above. Psychic healing. Some studies have demonstrated significant benefits from psychic healing, whereas others have shown a lack of benefit: • Krieger (2000) found higher haemoglobin levels in a group who had received psychic healing than a control group. • Bener’s (2000) meta-analysis identified positive effects in 197 studies of psychic healers. • Keller et al (1986) double blind trial found significant benefits to tension headaches.

Tang (1998) suggests that psychic healing increases relaxation and activates self-healing.

contradictory findings of studies on healing • lack of controlled, double blind trials • use of small volunteer samples • ethical issues (e.g. vulnerability, exploitation of those seeking healing).

Anomalistic psychology contains lots of different elements. Once we have covered all the different aspects of the unit why don’t you

create a tick list of all the things you need to know for the exam – like the one for the research unit below

Remember - If you have saved this document into your own area you can go into each section and add notes or additional detail

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Research Methods Also known as: What you need to revise!

You will need to be familiar with different techniques for collecting/analysing data: self-report experiment (repeated measures and independent measures); observation Correlation Interview Case study

The examination will require you to respond to source material (the scenario given) by being able to do the following:

Topic: A brief outline of a piece of researchYou could be asked to: identify strengths and weaknesses of the research method in general; identify strengths and weaknesses of the specific research described in the source material; suggest improvements to the research and their likely effects (improve validity/reliability/ethics/sample/data collection/design) consider issues such as reliability and validity of measurements consider ethical issues raised by the source material.

Topic: The data produced by a piece of a researchYou could be asked to: suggest appropriate descriptive statistics/graphical representations of data Mean, Median, Mode, Scatter graphs, Bar charts draw conclusions from data/graphs; Sketch summary tables/graphs.

Topic: An outline of a proposed piece of researchYou could be asked to: suggest appropriate hypotheses (null/alternate, one-tailed/two-tailed); suggest how variables might be operationalised/measured; suggest appropriate samples/sampling methods (opportunity, self-selected, random) outline possible procedures evaluate the suggestions they have made.

You should be able to: Confident Need to develop

Describe research techniques: self-report, including questionnaire and interview; experiment, including lab, field and natural; observation, overt, covert and correlation.Self-report: this should include a knowledge and understanding of rating scales and open and closed questions and the strengths and weaknesses of eachExperiments: this should include a knowledge and understanding of experimental design (independent measures and repeated measures) and the strengths and weaknesses of each

Observations: this should include a knowledge and understanding of participant and structured observation, time sampling and event sampling and the strengths and weaknesses of eachCorrelations: this should include a knowledge and understanding of positive and negative correlations and the interpretation of scatter graphs;You also need to know how to do the following (which is not specific to a particular research technique):

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Confident Need to develop

identify strengths and weaknesses of the various research techniques, both in general terms and in relation to source material (CONTEXT); frame hypotheses (null and alternate, one- and two-tailed); identify variables (for experiment – identify and explain the difference between independent and dependent variables); suggest how variables might be operationalised/measured; suggest (in CONTEXT) strengths and weaknesses of how the DV has been measured and other ways that it may be measured and the reliability, validity and method of this testing comment on the reliability and validity of measurement; describe opportunity sampling, random sampling and self-selected sampling techniques; identify strengths and weaknesses of opportunity, random and self-selected sampling techniques identify strengths and weaknesses of sampling techniques described in source material; suggest the most appropriate samples/sampling techniques in relation to source material; suggest appropriate procedures in relation to source material; identify and describe the differences between qualitative and quantitative data; identify strengths and weaknesses of qualitative and quantitative data; suggest appropriate descriptive statistics for data in source material (mean, median, mode); why may one be better than another in certain scenarios sketch appropriate summary tables/graphs from data in source material (bar charts, scatter graphs); including fully labelled axis draw conclusions from data/graphs; describe ethical issues relating to psychological research with human participants; identify ethical issues in source material and suggest ways of dealing with/solving ethical issues. Be able to identify which statistical test is most appropriate for each research design and be able to explain why Explain if a result is significant or not. Write a statement of significance and explain what it means P<0.05

By now, I hope you are familiar with the different types of research methods psychologists’ use.

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We will be doing different research projects over the course of the A2 year, and you will be using a variety of statistical tests.

Past Research Questions

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Ordinal level data Correlation Spearman’s Rho

Independent measures design experiment

Mann Whitney U test

Repeated measures design experiment

Wilcoxon T test

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June 2014Read this information very carefully as you will need to refer to it in later questions.154 patients who suffered from panic attacks were asked by a psychologist to take part in

a clinicaltrial to assess the effectiveness of cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT). In order to select suitableparticipants for the trial, each patient completed a questionnaire which measured the severity of their symptoms on a scale of 1 (mild) to 10 (severe).60 patients who had moderate symptoms with scores of 7 or 8 were selected to take part. They were randomly allocated to one of three conditions.● Condition 1: Traditional cognitive behavioural therapy – this consisted of 12 one-hour sessionsover a 12-week period.● Condition 2: Brief cognitive behavioural therapy – this consisted of 5 one-hour sessions over a5-week period with homework assessments.● Condition 3: Control condition – patients were placed on a 12-week waiting list for traditionalcognitive behavioural therapy. This group did not receive any form of treatment during the 12 weeks.One week after finishing the course of therapy, patients in condition 1 and condition 2 completed the questionnaire for a second time. Patients in condition 3 completed the questionnaire for a second time at the end of the 12-week period. The three scores from this questionnaire were compared to see if there were differences in the severity of symptoms.1 6 What were the aims in this study? [2 marks]1 7 Identify one variable which does not appear to have been controlled in this trial.Explain how this may have influenced the outcome. [3 marks]1 8 What is meant by ‘validity’? How could the psychologist have assessed the validity ofthe questionnaire used to measure the severity of symptoms? [4 marks]1 9 The psychologist asked the 60 patients for fully informed consent to take part in this trial.What should the psychologist have told the patients so that they were able to give theirconsent? [5 marks]

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The psychologist used a statistical test to assess the differences in severity of symptoms betweenpatients in Condition 1 and Condition 2. The difference between traditional CBT and brief CBT wasfound to be non-significant (p >0.05).

2 0 What do the data show about the effectiveness of the therapies for panic attacks? Referto mean scores, standard deviations and the results of the statistical test in your answer. [6 marks]2 1 Imagine that you are writing up the report for this experiment. What is the purpose of the abstract in a psychological report? [2 marks]In the discussion section of a report, researchers are expected to consider possible practicalapplications and implications of their research.2 2 Discuss applications and/or implications that might arise from this piece of research.[5 marks]The psychologist wished to investigate which aspects of therapy were most useful. She decided tointerview a sample of the patients. The purpose of the interviews was to encourage patients to talkfreely and in detail about their experiences of therapy. Two of the questions used by the psychologist were:● ‘Please tell me about the most important aspects of the therapy which helped you to improve’ and● ‘Please tell me about any aspects of the therapy which were less helpful to you in dealing withyour symptoms’.2 3 Explain how you would record the data from these interviews and your reason forchoosing this method. [3 marks]2 4 Explain how you would analyse the qualitative data from the interviews. [5 marks]

JUNE 2013In an observational study, 100 cars were fitted with video cameras to record the driver’s behaviour. Two psychologists used content analysis to analyse the data from the films. They found that 75% of accidents involved a lack of attention by the driver. The most common distractions were using a hands-free phone or talking to a passenger. Other distractions included looking at the scenery, smoking, eating, personal grooming and trying to reach something within the car.1 8 What is content analysis? (2 marks)

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1 9 Explain how the psychologists might have carried out content analysis to analyse the film clips of driver behaviour. (4 marks)

2 0 Explain how the two psychologists might have assessed the reliability of their content analysis. (3 marks)

The psychologists then designed an experiment to test the effects of using a hands-free phone on drivers’ attention. They recruited a sample of 30 experienced police drivers and asked them to take part in two computer simulated driving tests. Both tests involved watching a three-minute film of a road. Participants were instructed to click the mouse as quickly as possible, when a potential hazard (such as a car pulling out ahead) was spotted.

Each participant completed two computer-simulated driving tests: Test A, whilst chatting with one of the psychologists on a hands-free phone Test B, in silence, with no distractionsThe order in which they completed the computer tests was counterbalanced.

2 1 Explain why the psychologists chose to use a repeated measures design in this experiment. (3 marks)

2 2 Identify one possible extraneous variable in this experiment. Explain how this variable may have influenced the results of this experiment. (3 marks)

2 3 Explain how one factor in this experiment might affect its external validity. (3 marks)

2 4 Explain one or more ethical issues that the psychologists should have considered in this experiment. (4 marks)

2 5 Write a set of standardised instructions that would be suitable to read out to participants before they carry out Test A, chatting on a hands-free phone. (5 marks)

The computer simulator measured two aspects of driver behaviour: The number of hazards detected by each driver The time taken to respond to each hazard, in secondsThe mean scores for each of these measures is shown in Table 1

Table 1 Table to show the mean number of hazards detected and mean reaction Times in seconds for Test A and Test B

Mean scores Test A: with hands-free phone

Test B: in silence

Number of hazards detected

26.0 23.0

Reaction time in seconds

0.45 0.27

The psychologists then used an inferential statistical test to assess whether there was a difference in the two conditions.2 6 identify an appropriate statistical test to analyse the difference in the number of hazards detected in the two conditions of this experiment. Explain why this test of difference would be appropriate. (3 marks)

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They found no significant difference in the number of hazards detected (p > 0.05) but there was a significant difference in reaction time (p ≤ 0.01).2 7 Explain why the psychologists did not think they had made a Type 1 error in relation to the difference in reaction times. (2 marks)

2 8 replication is one feature of the scientific method. The psychologists decided to replicate this experiment using a larger sample of 250 inexperienced drivers.Explain why replication of the study would be useful. (3 marks)

Some studies have suggested that there may be a relationship between intelligence and happiness. To investigate this claim, a psychologist used a standardised test to measure intelligence in a sample of 30 children aged 11 years, who were chosen from a local secondary school. He also asked the children to complete a self-report questionnaire designed to measure happiness. The score from the intelligence test was correlated with the score from the happiness questionnaire. The psychologist used a Spearman’s rho test to analyse the data. He found that the correlation between intelligence and happiness at age 11 was +0.42

1 7 Write an operationalised non-directional hypothesis for this study. (2 marks)

1 8 Identify an alternative method which could have been used to collect data about happiness in this study. Explain why this method might be better than using a questionnaire. (4 marks)

1 9 What is meant by internal validity? (1 mark)

2 0 Describe how the internal validity of the happiness questionnaire could be assessed. (3 marks)

2 1 A spearman’s rho test was used to analyse the data. Give two reasons why this test was used. (2 marks)

Table 1: Extract from table of critical values for Spearman’s rho (rs) test

N (number of participants)

Level of significance for a two-tailed test

0.10 0.05

Level of significance for a one-tailed test

0.5 0.25

29 0.312 0.36830 0.306 0.36231 0.301 0.356

Calculated rs must equal to or exceed the table (critical) value for significance at the level shown.

2 2 The psychologist used a non-directional hypothesis. Using Table 1, state whether or not the correlation between intelligence and happiness at age 11 (+0.42) was significant. Explain your answer. (3 marks)

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JANUARY 2013

2 3 Five years later, the same young people were asked to complete the intelligence test and the happiness questionnaire for a second time. This time the correlation was -0.29.With reference to both correlation scores, outline what these findings seem to show about the link between intelligence and happiness. (4 marks)

The report was subjected to peer review before it was published in a journal.2 4 what is meant by peer review? (2 marks)

2 5 Explain why peer review is an important aspect of the scientific process. (4 marks)

2 6 A psychology student was asked to design an investigation to see whether taking exercise could increase feelings of happiness. She proposed to do an experiment. She decided to recruit a sample of volunteers who had just joined a gym, by putting up a poster in the gym. She planned to carry out a short interview with each volunteer and to give each one a happiness score. She intended to interview the volunteers again after they had attended the gym for six weeks and to reassess their happiness scores to see if it had changed.

The psychology student’s teacher identified a number of limitations of the proposed experiment.Explain one or more limitations of the student’s proposal and suggest how the investigation could be improved. (10 marks)

1 6 Explain what is meant by replicability. Why is replicability an important feature of science? (5 marks)

A maths teacher wondered whether there was a relationship between mathematical ability and musical ability. She decided to test this out on the GCSE students in the school. From 210 students, she randomly selected 10 and gave each of them two tests. She used part of a GCSE exam paper to test their mathematical ability. The higher the mark, the better the mathematical ability. She could not find a musical ability test so she devised her own. She asked each student to sing a song of their choice. She then rated their performance on a scale of 1-10, where 1 is completely tuneless and 10 is in perfect tune.1 7 Suggest a suitable non-directional hypothesis for this study. (3 marks)

1 8 Why might the measure of musical ability used by the teacher lack validity? (3 marks)

1 9 Explain how the teacher could have checked the reliability of the mathematical ability test. (3 marks)

2 0 Explain why the teacher chose to use a random sample for this study. (2 marks)

The results of the study are given in Table 1 belowTable 1: Mathematical ability test scores and musical ability ratings for 10 students

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JUNE 2012

Student Mathematical ability

test score

Musical abilityrating

1 10 102 2 93 9 34 6 65 3 96 10 27 2 18 1 89 8 4

10 4 7

2 1 In your answer book, sketch a graph to show the data in Table 1. Give the graph an appropriate title and label the axes. (3 marks)

2 2 Discuss what the data in Table 1 and the graph that you have sketched seem to show about the relationship between mathematical ability and musical ability. (3 marks)

2 3 The teacher noticed that most of the students who were rated highly on musical ability were left-handed. The teacher is aware that her previous definition of musical ability lacked validity.Design a study to test whether there is a difference in the musical ability of left-handed students and right-handed students. You have access to a sixth form of 200 students.You should:

Identify the design that you would use Explain an appropriate sampling method and justify your choice Describe the procedure that you would use, including details of how you would

assess musical ability Write a suitable debrief for these participants.

(10 marks)

2 4 In your answer book, draw a table to show how you would record your results. Identify an appropriate statistical test to analyse the data that you would collect. Justify your choice. (3 marks)

Two psychologists investigated the relationship between age and recall of medical advice. Previous research had shown that recall of medical advice tended to be poorer in older patients. The study was conducted at a doctor’s surgery and involved a sample of 30 patients aged between 18 and 78 years. They all saw the same doctor, who made notes of the advice that she gave during the consultation.

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JANUARY 2012

One of the psychologists interviewed each of the patients individually, immediately after they had seen the doctor. The psychologist asked each patient a set of questions about what the doctor had said about their diagnosis and treatment. The patients’ responses were recorded and then typed out. Working independently the psychologists compared each typed account with the doctor’s written notes in order to rate the accuracy of the accounts on a scale of 1 – 10. A high rating indicated that the patient’s recall was very accurate and a low rating indicated that the patient’s recall was very inaccurate.

1 6 The psychologists decided to propose a directional hypothesis. Why was a directional hypothesis appropriate in this case? (1 mark)

1 7 Write a suitable directional hypothesis for this investigation. (3 marks)

1 8 The psychologists were careful to consider the issue of reliability during the study. What is meant by reliability? (1 mark)

1 9 Explain how the psychologists might have assessed the reliability of their ratings. (3 marks)

2 0 This study collected both qualitative and quantitative data. From the description of the study above, identify the qualitative data and the quantitative data. (2 marks)

The psychologists used Spearman’s rho to analyse the data from their investigation.They chose to use the 0.05 level of significance. The result gave a correlation coefficient of - 0.52.2 1 Give two reasons why the psychologists used Spearman’s rho to analyse the data. (2 marks)

2 2 Using Table 1 below, state whether the result is significant or not significant and explain why. (2 marks)

2 3 Explain what is meant by a Type 1 error. (2 marks)

2 4 Use the information in Table 1 above to explain why the psychologists did not think that they had made a Type 1 error in this case. (3 marks)

The psychologists then wanted to see whether the use of diagrams in medical consultations would affect recall of medical information.

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In a laboratory experiment involving a medical consultation role-play, participants were randomly allocated to one of two conditions. In Condition A, a doctor used diagrams to present to each participant a series of facts about high blood pressure. In Condition B, the same doctor presented the same series of facts about high blood pressure to each participant but without the use of diagrams.At the end of the consultation, participants were tested on their recall of facts about high blood pressure. Each participant was given a score out of ten for the number of facts recalled.2 5 In this case, the psychologists decided to use a laboratory experiment rather than a field experiment. Discuss advantages of carrying out this experiment in a laboratory. (4 marks)

2 6 Identify an appropriate statistical test that the psychologists could use to analyse the data from the follow-up study. Give one reason why this test is appropriate. (2 marks)

2 7 Research has shown that music can affect the ability to concentrate. Design an experiment that could be carried out in a classroom to test the effects of two different kinds of music on a task requiring concentration (e.g. word search).You must use a repeated measures design.In your answer you should:

fully operationalise the independent and dependent variables provide details of how you would control extraneous variables describe the procedure that you would use. You should provide sufficient detail for the study to be carried out. (10 marks)

It is thought that colours might affect our performance when carrying out certain tasks. Research in this area has been inconclusive. Some studies have shown that red improves performance but others have found the opposite. It could be that these contradictory results have arisen because red is beneficial only for certain kinds of mental processing. Some psychologists tested this hypothesis in a series of independent-groups design experiments using students at a Canadian university.

The experiments involved computer tasks, with either a red, blue or neutral background appearing on the monitor. The researchers found that participants were better at a word-recall task and a spell-checking task when the screen background was red rather than blue or neutral. However, participants thought of more creative ideas when the screen was blue rather than red or neutral.The researchers concluded that red is beneficial for tasks that require attention to detail whereas blue aids creativity.1 7 What were the researchers’ aims in this study? (2 marks)

Imagine that you are writing up the report for this series of experiments.1 8 What is the purpose of the introduction section of a report? (2 marks)

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JUNE 2011

A psychological report also contains a discussion section. Researchers are expected to consider their findings critically and discuss issues such as validity.1 9 What is meant by validity? (1 mark)

2 0 Explain how one factor in this study might affect its internal validity and how one factor might affect its external validity. (2 marks + 2 marks)

2 1 In the discussion section, researchers are also expected to consider any possible applications of their research. Suggest one practical application that might arise from these findings. (2 marks)

In a further experiment, participants were given 20 blue shapes or 20 red shapes. They were then asked to pick 5 shapes and use them to make a toy suitable for a child aged between five and eleven years. They were given a limited time to carry out this task.Participants given red shapes made toys that independent judges rated to be more practical but less original, whereas participants given blue shapes made more creative toys.2 2 Explain why the researchers asked independent judges to rate the toys. (2 marks)

2 3 Write a set of standardised instructions that would be suitable to read out to participants in this experiment. (5 marks)

Psychological research suggests an association between birth order and certain abilities.For example, first-born children are often logical in their thinking whereas later-born children tend to be more creative. A psychologist wonders whether this might mean that birth order is associated with different career choices. She decides to investigate and asks 50 artists and 65 lawyers whether they were the first-born child in the family or not.2 4 Write a non-directional hypothesis for this study. (2 marks)

2 5 Identify an appropriate sampling method for this study and explain how the psychologist might have obtained such a sample. (3 marks)

The psychologist found the following results: 20 of the 50 artists were first-born children 35 of the 65 lawyers were first-born children

She analysed her data using a statistical test and calculated a value of X2 = 2.27. She then looked at the relevant table to see whether this value was statistically significant. An extract from the table is provided below.

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2 6 Imagine that you are writing the results section of the report on this investigation. Using information from the description of the study above and the relevant information from the statistical table, provide contents suitable for the results section.You must provide all of the following:

an appropriately labelled 2 2 contingency table a sketch of an appropriately labelled bar chart identification of the appropriate statistical test with justification for its use identification of an appropriate significance level a statement of the results of the statistical test in relation to the hypothesis. (12 marks)

A teacher has worked in the same primary school for two years. While chatting to the

children, she is concerned to find that the majority of them come to school without having eaten a healthy breakfast. In her opinion, children who eat ‘a decent breakfast’ learn to

read more quickly and are better behaved than children who do not. She now wants to set up a pre-school breakfast club for the children so that they can all have this beneficial

start to the day. The local authority is not willing to spend money on this project purely on the basis of the teacher’s opinion and insists on having scientific evidence for the claimed

benefits of eating a healthy breakfast.

1 9 Explain why the teacher’s personal opinion cannot be accepted as scientific evidence. Refer to some of the major features of science in your answer. (6 marks)

A psychologist at the local university agrees to carry out a study to investigate the claim that eating a healthy breakfast improves reading skills. He has access to 400 five-year-old children from 10 local schools, and decides to use 100 children (50 in the experimental group and 50 in the control group). Since the children are so young, he needs to obtain parental consent for them to take part in his study.2 0 The psychologist used a random sampling method. Explain how he could have obtained his sample using this method. (3 marks)

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JANUARY 2011

2 1 Explain limitations of using random sampling in this study. (3 marks)

2 2 Explain why it is important to operationalise the independent variable and the dependent variable in this study and suggest how the psychologist might do this. (5 marks)

2 3 The psychologist used a Mann-Whitney test to analyse the data. Give two reasons why he chose this test. (2 marks)

2 4 He could have used a matched pairs design. Explain why this design would have been more difficult to use in this study. (2 marks)

2 5 Other than parental consent, identify one ethical issue raised in this study and explain how the psychologist might address it. (2 marks)

2 6 The psychologist asks some of his students to conduct a separate observational study at the same time on the same group of children. The aim of this observational study is to test the idea that eating a healthy breakfast affects playground behaviour.Design an observational study to investigate the effects of a healthy breakfast on playground behaviour. Include in your answer sufficient detail to allow for reasonable replication of the study. You should state the hypothesis you are setting out to test.In your answer, refer to:

an appropriate method of investigation materials/apparatus and procedure.

Justify your design decisions. (12 marks)

1 8 Outline what is meant by the term peer review in psychological research. (2 marks)

1 9 Explain why peer review is important in psychological research. (5 marks)

Read the text below and answer questions 2 0 , 2 1 and 2 2 .A psychologist was interested in looking at the effects of a restricted diet on psychological functioning. A group of 20 healthy, young adult volunteers agreed to spend four weeks in a research unit. They were kept warm and comfortable but given only water and small amounts of plain food. They were able to socialise with one another and watch television, but they had to keep to strict, set mealtimes and were not allowed to eat anything between meals. The psychologist carried out various tests of emotional and cognitive functioning during this four-week period. One area of interest for the psychologist was the effect of the dietary restriction on the perception of food. He tested this by asking the volunteers to draw pictures of food at the end of each week. When all the drawings had been completed, the psychologist used content analysis to analyse them.

2 0 What is meant by the term content analysis? (1 mark)

2 1 Explain how the psychologist might have carried out content analysis to analyse these drawings. (3 marks)

2 2 The psychologist needed to be sure that his participants understood the nature of the study so that they were able to give informed consent.

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JUNE 2010

Write a consent form which would be suitable for this study. Make sure there is sufficient information about the study for the participants to make an informed decision. (5 marks)

2 3 The psychologist was also interested in the effects of a restricted diet on memory functioning and he expected memory to become impaired. The psychologist’s hypothesis was that participants’ scores on a memory test are lower after a restricted diet than before a restricted diet. He gave the volunteers a memory test when they first arrived in the research unit and a similar test at the end of the four-week period. He recorded the memory scores on both tests and analysed them using the Wilcoxon signed ranks test.He set his significance level at 5%.His calculated value was T = 53.State whether the hypothesis for this study is directional or non-directional. (1 mark)

2 4

Using Table 1, state whether or not the psychologist’s result was significant. Explainyour answer. (3 marks)

Read the text below and answer questions 2 5 to 2 8.A psychologist is using the observational method to look at verbal aggression in a group of children with behavioural difficulties. Pairs of observers watch a single child in the class for a period of one hour and note the number of verbally aggressive acts within ten-minute time intervals. After seeing the first set of ratings, the psychologist becomes concerned about the quality of inter-rater reliability. The tally chart for the two observers is shown in Table 2.

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2 5 Use the data in Table 2 to sketch a scattergram. Label the axes and give theScattergram a title. (4 marks)

2 6 Using the data in Table 2, explain why the psychologist is concerned about inter-rater reliability. (4 marks)

2 7 Identify an appropriate statistical test to check the inter-rater reliability of these two observers. Explain why this is an appropriate test. (3 marks)

2 8 If the psychologist does find low reliability, what could she do to improve inter-rater reliability before proceeding with the observational research? (4 marks)

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