4-1 2004 7

36

*

Long-term Foraging Expedition and Subsistence of the Baka

in Northwestern Congo Basin:

An Example of Pure Foraging Life in Tropical Rain Forests

Yasuoka Hirokazu*

While “Pygmy” hunter-gatherers were generally assumed to be the original inhabit-ants of the central African rain forest, recent studies have proposed the hypothesis that it is impossible to subsist by hunting and gathering alone in the tropical rain forests without some degree of dependence on agricultural products. This hypothesis has been debated among researchers of hunter-gatherer societies in different parts of the world. There have been, however, few studies on this issue that were based on sound data on the actual hunting and gathering life of the forest peoples.

This paper examines the possibility of hunting and gathering life in the tropical rain forest, based on the data obtained from participant observation on molongo, a long-term hunting and gathering expedition, among the Baka in southeastern Cameroon. During the two and a half months of the expedition, the Baka subsisted solely on wild food resources, wild yams in particular, although it was during the dry season when food resources are generally thought to be scarce. The sustainability of such a forest life is examined in relation to the abundance and distribution patterns of wild food resources, hunting and gathering technologies, residential patterns and nomadic life style.

* , Graduate School of Asian and African Area Studies, Kyoto

University

2004 4 14 2004 7 26

37

1

1.1

Turnbull 1965

Turnbull 1965; 1982; Bahuchet

1993a; 1997

1980 (revisionists)

Headland 1987 Bailey

1989

1

km

4-1

38

(molongo)

1.2

2 5,000

Joiris 1998 1950 1961

Joiris 1998

Kitanishi 2003; 2004

1991 Harako 1976; 1982

1995; Kitanishi 1995

Takeda 1996

1991; 2000

1

1991;

2000; Leclerc 2001; Kitanishi 2003; 2004

2002

19 89 km

2

2 1

39

2

(Cephalophus spp.)

1.3

Headland 1987

Bailey 1989 1)

Headland

4-1

40

Headland 1987

Wild Yam Question

Headland 1987; Bailey et al. 1989

1) Headland 1987

4,000 mm

4,000 mm 1992 Bailey 1989

1,000 mm

18

60 mm

2 (tropical moist

forest) Sommer 1976 Bailey

Bailey Sommer

41

Human Ecology Bahuchet et al. 1991; Brosius

1991; Dwyer and Minnegal 1991; Endicott and Bellwood 1991; Stearman 1991

(ecological)

(evolutionary)

Headland 1987 Bailey

1989

4-1

42

Headland 1997

Bailey and Headland 1991

Bailey and Headland

1991

2

Endicott and Bellwood 1991

89 93 15 2,067 kg

77

54

Bahuchet et al. 1991

1.24 ha

1 ha 2 kg Hladik et al. 1984

26 250 km2

2

Kitanishi

1995; Sato 2001 Mercader et al. 2000

Headland

2

2.1

150 km

2

43

(Zoulabot Ancien) 2

1

400 600 m 25

100 km 1,400 1,600 mm

12 2 yaka 1

(soko ma) 3 11 6

8 soko pekie

(Irvingia gabonensis) I. excelsa,

Bailonella toxisperma, Anonidium mannii

(semi-deciduous forest) Letouzey 1985

Scorodophloeus zenkeri

Anonidium mannii, Polyalthia suaveolens

Gilbertiodendron dewevrei

Hart

et al. 1989

6 CFA 50 1994

2003

(Boumba-Bek) (Nki)

1

4-1

44

2

2004

2003 8 35 140

50 Sato 1992; Tsuru 1998

(Dja)

5 km (Lebe)

1 1964 152 Cameroon

1966 2 11 1970

40 km (Boumba) bac2)

1970

2.2

2001 8 2002 9 2003 1 8 21

2002 2 4 2

2) 2001 (Bek)

2002 4

10 20

45

3 5 4 23 50

2 13 4 27

12 1 2 12 0.5 2

0 Ichikawa 1983 Kitanishi 1995

Kingdon 1997

(Herbier National) Dounias 1993

Garmin e-treck

GPS Centre Geographique National

20 1

10 87

2002 10 12 2003

1

5

1 2 3

2

16 3

38 2003 8 10

1

1

1

Leung 1968

4-1

46

3

3.1

50 km

Leclerc 2001

(sendo) (ngbasa) (maka) 4

2 3

1

Leclerc

1 1

(bala a waiya) (gba)

20 50 km

10

10 20 km

2004

47

2

1

2002 2

4

20 50

2 2001 10 2003 8

100 578 1024 1

38 45 1

4-1

48

5

70 40 60

1 8 10

40 49

29 9 7

45

38 1

50 100

1

3.2

3.2.1 (waiya)

1

49

10 20 km

2

2.4 n 45 10

5

58 17

natte ; ebo

1 10

2

10 30 m 3

1 1

50 100 2 3

4

2

2

3 1

ngendi; Cephalophus

callipygus ngbomu; C. dorsalis mongala/mie;

C. leucogaster monjumbe; C. nigrifrons (pame;

Potamochoerus porcus) (bemba; C. silvicultor)

(dengbe; C. monticola) (mboke;

Atherurus africanus) (mboko; Syncerus

4-1

50

caffer) (mbongo; Tragelaphus euryceros)

4

500 1,000 Fcfa 655.957 Fcfa 1 euro,

(kelepa; Smutsia gigantea)

1 10 kg

Ichikawa

1991

3.2.2 (ngali)

(karabin) (loli)

1 12,000 Fcfa

(ya; Loxodonta africana cyclotis)

2

1 (sala)

grande chasse big hunting

1 1 2

20 6.9 2.2 25

(tuma)

10

51

10

2001 10 2003 8 38

1 1

2 1

bai

1 2

Tsuru 1998

(mokopolo)

2 3

petite chasse small hunting Leclerc

2001

kalu; Colobus guereza tamba; Cercocebus

agilis gada; Lophocebus albigena koi; Cercopithecus nictitans

500 Fcfa

3.2.3 (benga)

4-1

52

1991

14

3 4

4 10 6 5

2 1 2 2 1

(bambe; Varanus sp.)

(mokakele; Osteolaemus sp.) (meke; Python sp.) (boma; Bitis

sp.) (bolo)

Harako 1976

6 4

10

2

Joiris 1998

53

10

3.2.4

(kukuma) 50 55

1 20

2 (mbano) 20

1

3

20

2002

4 20

25

5 20 (yo)

(ndolo)

(libei)

4-1

54

3.3

3.3.1

(noa)

(ngbala)

(head)

Dounias 1993; 2001 (paracultivation)

giving environment Bird-David 1990

15 17 (Dioscorea spp.) 2

(Dioscoreophyllum spp.) Hladik and Dounias 1993; Dumont et al.

1994; Hamon et al. 1995 Dounias 20013 (sapa; Dioscorea praehensilis)

(esuma; D. semperflorens) (ba; D. mangenotiana) (keke; D. burkilliana) (kuku;

D. minutiflora) (baloko; D. smilacifolia) (njakaka; D. sp.)

(ngbi; Dioscoreophyllum cumminsii) Dounias 1993

(sende; D. hirtiflora) (boli; D. sp.) (pange; D. sp.)

(bilango; Dioscoreophyllum sp.)

Dounias 2001

11 3

1

3) p f f

55

1 30 kg

Dounias

2001 ndondo;

Dounias 1993

(head)

1 5 kg 10 kg

(head)

Dounias

2001; Sato 2001

Hladik 1984 waiting phase

1

1

(ngbi)

3.3.2

soko pekie 6 8

8 ha 10 cm

215 4,088 23 671

(mabe; Bailonella toxisperma

(bambu; Gambeya lacourtiana) (pekie; Irvingia gabonensis)

(gangendi/payo; Irvingia excelsa) (kombele/payo; Irvingia

robur) (solia; Irvingia grandifolia) (bokoko; Klainedoxa gabonensis)

(ngoyo; Trichoscypha abut) (gongu; Antrocryon klaineanum)

(gimba; Afrostyrax lepidophyllus) (ngata; Myrianthus

4-1

56

arboreus) (gobo; Ricinodendron heudelotii) (kana;

Panda oleosa) (mbe; Anonidium manii)

(tokomboli; Chytranthus atroviolaceus)

(kaso; Tetracarpidium conophorum) (koko; Gnetum spp.)

(njii; Aframomum spp.) (tondo)

(mbila;

Elaeis guineensis)

(tulu)

6 8 soko pekie

soko mabe

2001

2002 2003

(leka) (la)

6 1 20 30 kg

1 2 3

(gie)

2

(kingili)

(mita mabe)

1 2

57

2 1 1 1.5 kg

500 Fcfa 1 1,000 Fcfa

(tondo) 1 250 500 Fcfa

3.3.3

(libenji)

(pendi)

(yenda) (yanji) (yalo)

ngili/mobabo/gba

(kopa)

Gilbertiodendron dewevrei

(mokobe)

(tongia; Apis adansonii) (poki)

(Meliponinae) (dandu, mopapele, molengi, pende, etc.)

(dandu)

(mbalaka;

Pentaclethra macrophylla)

(mongamba; Dichostemma glaucescens)

(mobay; Pericopsis elata)

2

(gbado; Triplochiton scleroxylon)

(boso; Petersianthus macrocarpus) (nguluma; Duboscia

macrocarpa) (boyo; Entandrophragma cylindricum) (kaanga;

Entandrophragma candolei) (taku; Bridelia grandis) (sengi;

4-1

58

Uapaca spp.) (kopo)

kopo gbado

3 (peke; Raphia spp.)

(pose kpokolo) (bandi)

(mbembe)

3.4

2 3 1 (nguma) 2 3

10 kg

(gbigbi; Malapterurus electricus)

5 cm 10 cm (si) (kaanji)

(njenje)

10

Stearman 1991

keystone resource

(mongombo; Millettia sanagana)

(mboloa; Diospyros canaliculata) (asama; Turraeanthus africanus)

30 km 40 km

3.5

59

1 2 (gbie)

(ndo; Musa spp.) (boma; Maniot esculenta)

(jabuka)

(wono; Arachis hypogaea) (mbombo; Zea mays)

(langa; Xanthosoma sagitifolium) (mebuta; Ipomoea batatas)

(alamba; Capsicum annuum)

timekuma;

bala; (manio)

3.6

1,000 2,000 Fcfa (ngongo; Megaphrynium

macrostachyum) (bili; Marantochloa sp.) (bungu)

1 1,000 Fcfa

2

3

4

4.1

12 2001 12

3 2

4-1

60

2 13 5 km

3 2 (Honji)

2 6 1

7

1 5 km

(Jalope)

1

(Mongungu)

43 8 24

2 1 3 1

1

73 74

3

3 2002

61

29 4)

19 89 17 22

12 14 2 12 27 9

1 8 3

2

1 50 Sato 1992; Tsuru 1998

2.4 10

89

4.2

8

(mongulu)

1 5 10

7 4

2 4 km 3 km

3 1

2 3 1

4

2 3 km

4) 2.1 35 2003 8 2002 2

2 8 5

1

4-1

62

30 40 km2 6 km 6 km

1

(extensive)

(intensive)

4.3

4.3.1

43

41

81 64

4

63

1,930 kg

65 9

2

17

12 5

200

6 250 12

26 300 1 25

1 1 9 16 15 16 16 18

2 80

3 km 41

100

2 3 9 4 20

(kg)*

(kg) **

65 15.9 1034.3 157 Cephalophus callipygus ngendi 38 16.3 619.4 269

C. dorsalis ngbomu 21 15.9 333.9 487

C. leucogaster mongala/mie 5 13.6 68.0 2045 C. nigrifrons monjumbe 1 13.0 13.0

Cephalophus silvicultor bemba 9 35.8 322.2 1136 Potamochoerus porcus pame 3 32.6 97.8

Pan troglodytes seko 3 31.0 93.0

Tragelaphus euryceros mbongo 2 71.8 143.6

Hyemoschus aquaticus geke/akolo 2 12.1 24.2

Felis aurata ebie 2 7.2 14.4

Cephalophus monticola dengbe 2 3.7 7.4

Syncerus caffer mboko 1 141.7 141.7

Smutsia gigantea kelepa 1 26.7 26.7Panthera pardus sua 1 25.1 25.1

91 1930.4 112

* ** 10,223 1

1 5

4-1

64

4.3.2

19 36

21 3 11

4

26

2.2 1

66.5

1 1 605 g

60 363 g 74

615 g 369 g

3 2 13 4 27

(kg)Potamochoerus porcus pame 4 130Python sp. meke 1 35

Cephalophus silivicultor bemba 1 28

Varanus sp. bambe 1 5

Bitis sp. boma 1 3

Herpestidae spp. nganda 1 1-5 *

Atherurus africanus mboke 1 1.5-4

Osteolaemus sp. mokakele 2 10

Tragelaphus euryceros mbongo 1 97 ***

Lophocebus albigena gada 1 5

Loxodonta africana cyclotis ya 1 778** ****

Kinxys sp. kunda 2 3

Cephalophus dorsalis ngbomu 1 2

Pelusios sp. lende 1 2

Phataginus tricuspis or Uromanis tetradactyla kokolo 1 1Cephalophus monticola dengbe 1 1

21 1099

* Kingdon 1997 **

***

**** 6

65

100 g

150 kcal Leung 1968 553 kcal 4

1 1 580 g Ichikawa 1983 680 g Hart and Hart 1986

1.5

Hart 1978; Ichikawa 1983;

1991 1 1 270 g

Kitanishi 1995: Appendix

3 1

4.3.3

1

1 5)

5) 100 1 100 100

1 1

4

[kg] 1930 3029

* 48 74

** 3192 4921

1 [g] 605 363 615 369

1 [kcal]*** 544 553

* 3 11 4 27 48

74 ** 66.5 *** 1 (g) 0.6 100 g

150 kcal Leung 1968

4-1

66

112 5

20 km 6

122

14 91 24 691

71 74

1 1 0.18

0.50

1 2.9

2002 4

4.4

5

91 71 691 74

10223 84125

112 122

12 2.7

1 25 72

1 1 0.18 0.50

20 km 6

67

1 1 1.64 kg

85 6

1,786 kcal 6 Leung 1968 Kitanishi 1995

2,339 kcal

6 3 5 4 23

(kg)

1 1

(g)

1 1

(kcal)*

Dioscorea praehensilis sapa 4519.8 1359.3 1305.0D. semperflorens esuma 654.6 196.9 189.0

D. mangenotiana ba 61.8 18.6 17.8

D. burkilliana keke 184.7 55.5 53.3

D. minutiflora kuku 22.7 6.8 6.5Dioscoreophyllum cumminsii ngbi 3.1 0.9 0.9

Panda oleosa kana 14.0 4.0 16.0Irvingia excelsa gangendi (payo) 10.4 2.9 11.8I. robur kombele (payo) 0.9 0.2 1.0

(Apis adansonii) poki 146.1** 54.9 128.1dandu 62.4** 23.4 54.7

tulu 15.7 4.4 1.4kopo 0.6 0.2 0.1si 2.6 0.7 0.4

1786.1

* 3335 Leung 1968 Kitanishi1995 0.8 120 kcal/100 g Panda oleosa

Irvingia excelsa 670 kcal/100 g

** 3 20 4 21

4-1

68

76 67

56

7

2

6 7 2

12 2

7

*

66 39 14 2 2 3 10

1 4 4 3 8

11 4 64 187

1 1 17 51

22 8 54 48 8 22

17 6 2 2 4 11

8 24

8 36 13 57 51 1 3

25 50 18 40 36 24 69

0 13 12 3 8

** 100 36 89 293

3 4 7 8 3 5 7 8

* 4 6 **

69

4.5

10 10 4

8 5 11

3 15

4

5 10

50 km

8 10

30 km 6

3

8 10

(km)20-30 2 11

20 5 15

15 5 12

15-30 5 6

15-30 10 7

30-50 10 4 Ngato

45 10 10

40-60 10 8

40-45 10 5

30-35 10 6

12 10 30 km 5

Ngato

4-1

70

1

87

15 10 15 57

60 80

45 6

6

40 2,100 km2 80 3,400 km2 60 30

900 1,200 km2

5 10

8

71

6

5 km

40

(nea; Strophanthus gratus)

4-1

72

50

2 (yaka) 1

30

soko pekie: 6 7

10 15

30

30 km

(Lingondo)

30

WWF

WWF 1

WWF 1998: 25

5

5.1

73 74 89

73

Bailey 1989

Hart and Hart 1986 Hart and Hart

5

Ricinodendron

heudelotti

Bahuchet 1991

Hart

12 2

4

Dounias 2001

11 3

4

4

3 km

10 km

11

4-1

74

11 4 100

Dounias 1993;

2001

Dounias 2001

140

1,000 3,000 km2

0.05 0.1 km2 89

40 km2 1

80 km2 12.5

37.5

1

1

5.2

Hart and

75

Hart 1986

Ricinodendron heudelotti Anonidium manii

Bailonella toxisperma

100 km

8 9 (manja)

5.8 kg/ha Sato 2001

73 8

Dounias 2001

1,700 ha 17 km2 1.64 kg 100

26)

89

2.4 10

Dounias 2001

1

6) 5.2 ha 1,000 km2

4-1

76

60 100

Ichikawa 1978; Bahuchet 1985

1950 Joiris 1998

1

5.3

77

(pene)

(pote)

100

1

113 91

71

Tanno 1977; 1982; Hart and Hart 1986 1995; Kitanishi

1995

Kitanishi 1995 Harako 1976

83

100 56 78 9

52 96

Kitanishi 1995

7 19 5

14 1994

16 13

10 kg

10 30 kg Ichikawa 1983

6.3 kg

21.2 kg

4-1

78

Bahuchet 1993b

1

WWF

1998 150 km Fimbel et al. 2000

Hart 2000

Noss 2000

10

12 20 km2 3 9 km2

3 km2 5 15 km2

79

9

*

42 78 11 20 54 Harako 1976

66 52 39 31 126 Tanno 1977

98 69 25 18 142 Ichikawa 1983

23 96 1 4 24 Kitanishi 1995

112 69 46 28 162 1995

440 75 64 11 70 589 Noss 2000

4 10 18 46 7 5 39 Kitanishi 1995

37 5 574 73 782

38 31 45 36 124 Noss 2000

14 38 16 43 4 37 1990

60 47 29 23 16 127 1994

* 10Cephalophus monticola Cephalophus callipygus; C. dorsalis; C. leucogaster; C. nigrifrons

Atherurus africanus Hyemoschus aquaticus Cephalophus silivicultor Potamochoerus porcus

10

(No./km2)

(kg/km2)

(No./km2)

(kg/km2)

(No./km2)

(kg/km2)

11.7 55.0 3.9 73.3 15.6 128.3 Hart 2000*

17.8 83.7 8.7 163.6 26.5 247.3 Hart 2000

14.8-20.4 69.6-95.9 2.4-3.0 45.1-56.4 17.2-23.4 114.7-151.3 Noss 2000**

2.2-3.8 10.3-17.9 5.5-15.1 103.4-285.8 7.7-18.9 113.7-303.7 Fimbel et al. 2000***

0.4-2.3 1.9-10.8 5.3-10.0 99.6-188.0 5.7-12.3 101.5-198.8 WWF 1998****

* Hart 2000: 132 10 km ** Noss 2000: 298 5-10 km, 10-15 km *** Fimbel et al. 2000: 365 10-20 km 20-30 km 30 km **** WWF 1998: 34-35 Boumba-Bek Corridor forest Nki forest

4.7 kg 18.8 kg Koster and Hart 1988

4-1

80

Sato 1983; Takeda 1996

1995

1995

100 2

1 1 605 g

363 g

20

9

7)

434

1990 112

91

11

7 18 (r) 0.29 Noss

2000 5.3 10.0 km2

WWF 1998: 34-35 0.36 0.68 km2

7) 211 1 1 2

105 124 30 38 1994

81

8) 40 km2

200 400 14.4 27.2

65

1/6 1/3

2 3

3 6

6

1

Hart and Hart 1986

Headland 1987

1992

1,500 mm

8) (r) 1.34

10

0.2 Robinson and Redford 1991

4-1

82

20

2002 4

1 2.5

21 COE

14219101 A2

12371004

Ngalo=Daniel=Mayua Makaba=Roger=Mboko

Bahuchet, S. 1985. Les Pygmees Aka et la Foret Centreafrique. Paris: SELAF.

1993a. La Rencontre des Agriculteurs: Les Pygmees Parmi les Peuples d’Afrique Central. Paris:

SELAF.

1993b. Dans la Foret d’Afrique Centrale: Les Pegmees Aka et Baka. Paris: SELAF.

Bahuchet, S., McKey, D. and De Garine, I. 1991. Wild Yams Revisited: Is Independence from Agriculture

Possible for Rain Forest Hunter-Gatherers?, Human Ecology 19 (2): 213-243.

Bailey, R. C., Head, G., Jenike, M., Owen, B., Rechtman, R. and Zechenter, E. 1989. Hunting and Gathering

in Tropical Forest: Is It Possible?, American Anthropologist 91 (1): 59-82.

83

Bailey, R. C. and Headland, T. N. 1991. The Tropical Rain Forest: Is It a Productive Environment for Human

Foragers?, Human Ecology 19 (2): 261-285.

Bird-David, N. 1990. The Giving Environment: Another Perspective on the Economic System of Gatherer-

Hunters, Current Anthropology 31 (2): 189-196.

Brosius, J. P. 1991. Foraging in Tropical Forests: The Case of the Penan of Sarawak, East Malaysia (Borneo),

Human Ecology 19 (2): 123-150.

Cameroon, Orstom. 1966. Dictionnaire des Villages de Boumba Ngoko. Yaounde: Centre Orstom de

Yaounde.

Dounias, E. 1993. Perception and Use of Wild Yams by the Baka Hunter-Gatherers in South Cameroon.

In Hladik, C. M., Hladik, A., Licares, O. F., Pagezy, H., Semple, A. and Hadley, M. eds., Tropical

Forests, People and Food: Biocultural Interactions and Applications to Development. Paris: UNESCO,

pp.621-632.

2001. The Management of Wild Yam Tubers by the Baka Pygmies in Southern Cameroun,

African Study Monographs suppl.26: 135-156.

Dumont, R., Hamon, P. and Seignobos, C. 1994. Les Ignames au Cameroun. Montpellier: CIRAD.

Dwyer, P. D. and Minnegal, M. 1991. Hunting in lowland, Tropical Rain Forest: Towards a Model of Non-

Agricultural Subsistence, Human Ecology 19 (2): 187-212.

Endicott, K. and Bellwood, P. 1991. The Possibility of Independent Foraging in the Rain Forest of Peninsular

Malaysia, Human Ecology 19 (2): 151-185.

Fimbel, C., Curran, B. and Usongo, L. 2000. Enhancing the Sustainability of Duiker Hunting Through

Community Participation and Controlled Access in the Lobeke Region of Southeastern Cameroon.

In Robinson, J. G., and Bennett, E. L. eds., Hunting for Sustainability in Tropical Forest. New York:

Colombia University Press, pp.356-374.

Hamon, P., Dumont, R. Zoundjihekpon, J., Tio Toure, B. and Hamon, S. 1995. Les Ignames Sauvages

d’Afrique de l’Ouest. Caracteristiques morphologiques. Paris: ORSTOM.

Harako, R. 1976. The Mbuti as Hunters: A Study of Ecological Anthropology of the Mbuti Pygmies (1),

Kyoto University African Studies 10: 37-99.

Hart, J. A. 1978. From Subsistence to Market: A Case Study of the Mbuti Net Hunters, Human Ecology

6(3): 325-353.

2000. Impact and Sustainability of Indigenous Hunting in the Ituri Forest, Congo-Zaire: A

Comparison of Unhunted and Hunted Duiker Population. In Robinson, J. G., and Bennett, E. L. eds.,

Hunting for Sustainability in Tropical Forest. New York: Colombia University Press, pp. 106-153.

Hart, T. B. and Hart, J A. 1986. The Ecological Basis of Hunter-Gatherer Subsistence in African Rain

Forests: The Mbuti of Eastern Zaire, Human Ecology 14 (1): 29-55.

Hart, T. B., Hart, J. A. and Murphy, P. 1989. Monodominant and Species-rich Forests of the Humid Tropics:

Census for their Co-occurrence, American Naturalist 133: 613-633.

. 2004.

13: 113-127.

. 2000. (Baka)

14: 27-38.

Headland, T. N. 1987. The Wild Yam Question: How Well Could Independent Hunter-Gatherers Live in a

Tropical Rain Forest Ecosystem?, Human Ecology 15 (4): 463-491.

________ 1997. Revisionism in Ecological Anthropology, Current Anthropology 38 (4): 605-630.

4-1

84

Hladik, A., Bahuchet, S., Ducatillion, C. and Hladik, C. M. 1984. Les Plantes a Tubercules de la Foret Dense

d Afrique Centrale, Revue d’Ecologie (Terre et Vie) 39: 249-290.

Hladik, A. and Dounias, E. 1993. Wild Yams of the African Forest as Potential Food Resouces. In Hladik, C.

M., Hladik, A., Licares, O. F., Pagezy, H., Semple, A. and Hadley, M. eds., Tropical Forests, People and

Food: Biocultural Interactions and Applications to Development. Paris: UNESCO, pp. 163-176.

Ichikawa, M. 1978. The Residential Group of the Mbuti Pygmies, Senri Ethnological Studies 1: 131-188.

1983. An Examination of the Hunting-dependent Life of the Mbuti Pygmies, African Study

Monographs 4: 55-76.

1991. The Impact of Commoditisation on the Mbuti of Eastern Zaire. In Peterson, N. and

Matsuyama, T. eds, Cash, Commoditisation and Changing Foragers, Senri Ethnological Studies 30:

135-162.

. 1982. .

2003.

2: 292-305.

. 1990. 51-70.

Joiris, D. V. 1998. La Chasse, La Chance, La Chant: Aspects du System Rituel des Baka du Cameroun.

Brussels: Universite Libre de Bruxelles.

. 1992.

49-90.

Kingdon, J. 1997. Field Guide to African Mammals. Princeton: Princeton Univ. Press.

Kitanishi, K. 1995. Seasonal Changes in the Subsistence Activities and Food Intake of the Aka Hunter-

Gatherers in Northeastern Congo, African Study Monographs 16 (2): 73-118.

2003. Cultivation by Baka Hunter-Gatherers in the Tropical Rain Forest of Central Africa,

African Study Monographs Suppl.28: 143-157.

Koster, S. H. and Hart, J. A. 1988. Methods of Estimating Ungulate Populations in Tropical Forests, African

Journal of Ecology 26 (2): 117-127.

Leclerc, C. 2001. En Bordure de Route: Espace Social, Dynamisme et Relation a L’environnement chez les

Pygmees Baka du Sud-Est Cameroun. Paris: Universite de Paris X.

Letouzey, R. 1985. Notice de la Carte Phytogeographique du Cameroun au 1:500000. Toulouse: Institut de

la Recherche Agronomique (Herbier National).

Leung, W. W. 1968. Food Composition Table for Use in Africa. Bethesda: FAO Nutrition Division; U.S.

Department of Health Education, and Welfare, Public Health Service.

Mercader, J., Runge, F., Vrydeghs, L., Doutrelepont, H., Ewango, C. E. N. and Juan-Tresseras, J. 2000.

Phytoliths form Archaeological Sites in the Tropical Forest of Ituri, Democratic Republic of Congo,

Quaternary Research 54: 102-112.

. 1994.

45: 1-25.

Noss, A. 2000. Cable Snares and Nets in the Central African Republic. In Robinson, J. G. and Bennett, E. L.

eds., Hunting for Sustainability in Tropical Forest. New York: Colombia University Press, pp.282-304.

Robinson, J. G. and Redford, K. H. 1991. Sustainable Harvest of Neotropical Forest Mammals. In Robinson,

J. G. and Redford, K. H. eds., Neotropical Wildlife Use and Conservation. Chicago: University of

Chicago Press, pp.415-429.

Sato, H. 1983. Hunting of the Boyela, Slash-and-Burn Agriculturalists, in the Central Zaire Forest, African

85

Study Monographs 4: 1-54.

1992. Notes on the Distribution and Settlement Pattern of Hunter-Gatherers in Northeastern

Congo, African Study Monographs 13 (4): 203-216.

2001. The Potential of Edible Wild Yams and Yam-like Plants as a Staple Food Resource in the

African Tropical Rain Forest, African Study Monographs Suppl.26: 123-134.

. 1991.

543-566.

Sommer, A. 1976. Attempt at an Assessment of the World’s Tropical Forests, Unasylva 28 (112/113): 5-25.

Stearman, A. M. 1991. Making a Living in the Tropical Forest: Yuqui Foragers in the Bolivian Amazon,

Human Ecology 19 (2): 245-260.

Takeda, J. 1996. The Ngandu as Hunters in the Zaire River Basin, African Study Monographs Suppl.23:

1-61

. 1995.

4: 27-52.

Tanno, T. 1977. The Mbuti Net-hunters in the Ituri Forest, Eastern Zaire: Their hunting activities and band

composition, Kyoto University African Studies 10: 101-135.

. 1997. 6. .

Tsuru, D. 1998. Diversity of Ritual Spirit Performances among the Baka Pygmies in Southeastern Cameroon,

African Study Monographs Suppl.25: 47-84.

Turnbull, C. 1965. Wayward Servants: The Two World of the African Pygmies. New York: the American

Museum of Natural History.

WWF. 1998. Large Mammals and Vegetation Surveys in the Boumba-Bek and Nki Project Area. Yaounde:

WWF Cameroon.