DlAD, CULT OF -¡HL J.I')

Vlll.) were located olltside of the (it)' walls along the

highways) as well as by ~ rirual. Dearh was rcgarded as

having a polluring effccr on rhe enrire family: rile' (lamen Dialis (.._~ flarl1ines) was nor ro roueh a dead body, nor

parricipate in a cremarÍon (Gell. NA TO,rs,24). The

.~ priesrs werc in charge of rhe legal governancc of bur­

ials (Liv. 1,W;7), altbough bmial and the cult of the

cltad WCTe css('nri;llly privare ritllals arranged hy thí'

)- {Jata ía/llilias. Upon rhe arnv<ll of rhe funeral procession ar rhe bur­

L11 silt,. fhe hody WdS ll1rcrrccl 01' crema red ( ~ Bmi;l!

U.). Accordil1g ro Ciceru (Leg. 1.,.16), hurial W;l~ nor complere in rl1e ca~e of crclllarion unriJ rhe l1lon1l:Jll

when rhe carrh covered rhe ashcs of the clece~sl'd; the

grave (sefJ¡·t!cnmz), however. was not considered as con­

sl'ruued and dicl nor hecolllc nn ohjcct o/ rcl.igiolls Iaw

until furthcr eeremonics W1'1T pcrfurmed: findings from

rhe uecropolcis inJicillL' t·har perfume, wine and oil wefl'

burned. According lo Cie. Leg. 2,.,)7, <1 pig was sncri­

ficcd and rhe deceasecl was nuurishcd by the smcll (lf the

animnl, suggesring rhal he had alrcaJy made rhe rransi·

¡ion into rhe Gllegory of rhe Di • rvlanc~. S¡llce rhe ¡iv··

ing WL'fC nor allowcd ro share food wirh the deaJ, rhey

ate no parr oh'he animal, only perhaps a second pig lh,ü

was ofkn:d ro t!w ~ Pen;ltes. Aft'cr cigll!" days had

p<1ssed (dics denicales), anorher sacrrficl' mok place on

lh ... dOI1lesric altar, where a 'ram rOl' Lar' W;'lS slaLlgh

raed (Cie. l.eg. 2.,) .')). The family of rhe deccascd W,1S

now relcascd from rhe poJlurion of de;lt"h.

The ROIn;lJ1S also ccll'hrarcd rwo ccn'monies I-<,r rhe dead: rhe Feralia (Ov. Fast. L,5:n-')70) took place on

2 T February, 3r rhe cnd of J ll10Ilth fi]Jed with variol1s

purificarion rires ín prepararion for the new year in an··

cient ROll1e. 'Ihis W;JS rbe final and c!osing day of [1

period of ninc days (13-21 Fehruary), rhe (lies /Nlren­tales ( ~ l\lrcnralia), which wcrc declicared ro rhe dead

(Van'o, Ling. 6, '.3). Aceording ro Clvid (loe. cit.), fami­

¡ies visired rhe graves and brollghl: gifts, ofren mudes!" (llleS, ro rbe Di Manes: on a briek JecoratL'c1 wirh gar

lands- serving as 3n o.lrar- grains of wheJt ami 5<1lt:,

flat: loars of wheat., and vio!ers wcrl~ ~prcad out while

ritual prayers wcre spokcn. Ir was) hOI},'cvcr 1 l10r forbic1·

den ro make more ¡avish offerings. This cnemony,

which allowed thc living to fulfil rhcir durics rowards

rbe dead, confirmed rhe place of bor11: rhe dcad in rhe

graves, and rhe living in rhe hOllses where rhe surviving

famiJy joincd together on the following day (2.]_ Fehru­

ary), ::lfrer a sacririce ro rhe Lar.

The secolld celebrarian fOf rhe dead 1 rhe LCffiuria,

took place on the 9th, T nh and ] 3th clays 01' May (Ov.

Fasr. 5,4 f9-66r; ..~ lemures). Ovid conoecrs rhe na me

nf rhe monrh (Maius) erymologicalJy wirh the nwi()rt's

('ancesrofs'). ·The LCllluria werc dedicared to rhe IC1l1u­

res, rhe souls of rhe deJd, al so rcgardcd as nocrurna!

ghosrs who supposedl)' visitl."d r!leÍr former homes

(Non. T97 l.). In rhe [nurse of rhesc dap, gifts (inferiar:) wt're broughtTo rhe gravcs. In rhe nighr, rhe pater fami­lias conjured up [he lenwtes in his house. This ritlul!, as

descrihed hy Ovid, cn[ailed m~lgi(;l1 c1emenrs (finger

lTn

gestures of eonj uration; words repeared nine rimes~ rhe

pater familias addresses rhe ghosts with his hOLk rurncd in orcler to clVoid ;'Iny V¡Sll~ll cnnt"JclJ and aporropaic

aspecrs: rhe lemures ¡eave aftcr being fed heaos, which ¡s

rhe priee fol' rhe pater (amilias and his family ro 'buy

our'; rhe noise of bcaring metal wirh rhe hands rhen

scares rhe ghosrs aw;¡y. Tberc is, howevcr, a connecrion

ro more rradi¡-ional "sJcrificcs (lV): rhe ghosrs WeJ'e

prc,Scnrcc! with black hcans,'similar ro rhe hlack sacrifi··

cíal animal::; offered ro rhe ~ 'chrhonic deiries'. The

introductor), washing of rhe hancls hy rhr pcrSCll1 pcr·

tormillg rhe ritual is ,1 rypical acr of purification hdore a sacrifícc; rhe second washing, however, which is dom'

to conclllde the ccremony, aims ai c!eansing the pe!"

fonning penlOn of rhe pollutiun rhat he :ncurn.:d

through his contacr with rhe dcad, and elllphasizes rhe

separarioll hetwccn the dead and rhe living.

FlIrrheJ' {inds in the CXl";lV:Hion~ of ROlll,'lll llCCro

pol.cis, cpigr,lphil' doclIlllcnrs, ,111<.1 anc11yses of rhe ]'(-m··

na1lt"s of ofkrings, esp. of rhe animals sacribced eH rhe

gr;lvcs will offer lllorc <.:oncreU.: knowledgl' ahoLlr tbe

rclatioIlships bcrwccn rbe living and rhe clcad.

~ Burj,ll; :> Funeral'}' archircdure IU (;.; :> Necropo··

leis VIII.; :> Sacrificcs; • Rjru,ll; ~ De:Hh 11.; ., Under·· world

F. BOI'MFlt, Ahncnkulr une! Allllcll!-',buhc im altcn ]{nm,

L944j 1,'. CUMoNr, Lu>.: perpe[lm, 1~4l)j L 1IINI\IW ('d.), La mnrt al! qllOtidicJ1 dans le monde rolH:lin, 1995; 1. MORHIS, DC:lth-Ritual <lnd Social SlTlletLlIT 11I (:IJsslca] AllllLJuiry, 1 99.'.j .J. SeH]'11), (:llJlLLUi;l (acen.:: 1"l'IIVcr:,(' lllents C[ dl;plncelllellt~ dan" les rirl's fun¿:raircs, in: AION h, Jt;18 .. f. 117~r~9. A.PIJ.

VI. CJIIUSTIANITY

rn rhe hegillnillg, ¡·he Chrisrian worship 01' t:he dl';ld

(ldOj)I"Cd almo.'ir all of rhe rradirion<ll forms of rhe olLler

C;rl'dc J.Lld ROll1an culrs of the dcad. [7.. 46-531. For

insrance, there were cekbrations on rhe }rd, 7th, ')orh

and 40th day, after death (Ambr. Obit. TheDd. 3), nI'

rhe Novemelialia (_...• 11()lIclldiale sacrum) and·;. Parcn­

raIia (Aug. Quaestioncs in Heprareuchum 1.)172; ALlg. Conf. 6,2), bur most impürtandy on thc 'birrhday' (dies natalis)l which ChristiaIls understood ro be rhe day of

dearh, esp, in rhe case of ·martyrs [IJ.230-239;

2. 54-67; 1 'l.. 2. .1 9 Lj. Howcver, rhe days uf rhe dearhs

of martyrs and bishops do nor apre.H in rhe wrirren

sourccs llntil rhe second half ()f rhe 4th ccnL ( .~ Chro­

nographer 01' 354). BC¡I,inning wirh bishop -;. Damasu5

af Rome (366-384), the first installations ro suggest a

l1larryr cult ar rhe graves 19· 'l·75-302.] 3ppeared in

Roman ~ car~1Combs. Earlier and conrcmporancolls

trace" of rhe Chrisrian culr of rhe clead are simílar ro rhe

forms of rhe p,lgan culr in Salolla, Tipasa, Snhrarha,

Cornos, Iúrragona.

In the 3rd and 4th cents., rhe mosr popubr fonn (lf

1:he culr of rhe tleatl vv'as rhe funerar)' banqu('r, which in

Rome was nor ncecssarily held ar rhe grave, hut, cle­

pencling nl1 spoce, In rhe ¡. schota 14J collegiJ or in rhe

privare rcslJellCl:. The graves had special place~ fol'

[ 17

:> libarions and for lamps and f[owers [3.31"-,7;

4.2rr-243; 7.179-r~))J. Porricularly in Norrhern

Afríea, rhe rradirionai Ineal Was held in rhe conrexr of

rhe privare cuIr of rhe dead, anc! aLso during rhe feasr

days of marryrs. Borh pracriees are evidenecd by rhe

half-circular masonry betths (stibadía) at the necropo­

leis of Tipasa and Sabratha 13. 29 f.; 12. 3 l\ f.[. TI",

cusrorn of having meals ar rhe graves W(lS íudged nega­

tively by the Chmch Fathers [lO. 50 l., roO-102, ¡ 33­

T4o:; T2. 224-;z.341. This cusrom is ducllmentecl in rhe

carauHllhs in Rome on rcprcscntatiolls (Jf fUllcr,H)' h,lfl ql1ers, which also show the symbo(ic signlficancc of

> agá/oc alHlDf peaee during tbe meal [3· 31-3.\ l. Here,

we aIso find other rraces uf rhe rradirionaI culr of rhe

cleacl~ seat"s hcwn into rhe rllff (cathedrae) [8,98-115;

7.148-1 ,):.11, gbsses fUf liharions and orher objecrs ,H

rhe graves 14. 261-2G][, tables (mellsae) for sacrificcs

11[. In rhe course of the 4rh cent., rhe olc! lireral rllc<lnlng

of rhé re{1'igerium ('rcfreshment') ar rhe grave changeLl

ínro a more symbolic onc: the wish aIld rh<: hope for

<;alvaríou and eternallife in paradisc Is· 164-1711.

The early 4th cenr. wirnessed {"he consrructioll of [·he

first exedra basilicas in Rome 17. 15,-1641, foliowecl

by other ccmcrery basilicas in rhe Chrisrian necropolc¡.s

of vnriolls cÍtics in the clltire ImperjuIll (esp. in Norrh~

cm !\frica) [[o. [7,]"-1971. These basilieas were the

place rol' funerals as well as for burial anJ ElIeharisr

cclebrariolls. The ccld1r,Hion of rhe ElIcharisr in rht·

cnntt'xr Df rht, Chtisrian cu1t of rhe dead can be fOLllld in

writren s()urc<'.':~ (already in Terr. De Corona 3d ;llld

Cypr. Epist. 1,2, 1), [10. 69-731 102- 104; r 2. 222-22~~,

2.14 f.1. Archaeologiealiy, crlebrations of the Eueharisr

are Jocllmcntcc! in rhe ccmerary basilicas of rhe 4th

cene This closc connecrion berween ~ altar and grave

is c10cumcnred in rhe sources for as early as rhe miel 4rh

cent. ArehaenlogicalJy, the oldest evidence ro suggesl

rhis connecrion stems from thc 5rh ccnt. in Romc and

was füund in the B;]siliea of Sr. AlcXelnder 011 rhe uia NomentalUl[9. 284 f.],.

~ Basilica (B.); >- Saínrs; • Caraeomhs; • Martyrs;

>- Paradisc; • Pilgrimage UI);·~ Dearh

1 E. CHALKIA, Le mense paleocristiallc, t991 2 F. W. DE1CHMANN, Einführung in die chrisd. Arch., 19!:\3 3 P.­A. FÉVRIER, Apropos du repas fllnéraire: cnlre er sociabi·· lité, in: Cahiers Archéologiques 26,1977,29-45 4 Id" Le culr..: des morts dans les communauté.~ chréti<.'nncs duranr l<: lIle siccle, in: Atti del IX congresso intl'fnazio­nale Ji archeologia cristiana, vol. J, 197H, 211-2.73

~ Id., La rombe chrérienne ct I'au-dela, in: .J.-M.LEROllX

(ed.), Le remps chrétien de la fin dc ]'Antiqlliré (llllvfoyen Age, 1984, 163-] 8.3 hE. ]ASTRZEBOWWA, Les SCL'lleS de

banquet en pejnrurr cr eo sculprurc chrétlel1nc du me cr du ¡Ve s., in: nccherchc-', Allg:l1~tllli<.::nncs L4, 1979, 3-90

7 Id., Unr. L.llm chrisrl. Tutcnmahl oufgrLlnd dcr Monu­mente des .1. LlnJ 4 Jh. llore!" der Basilika des l-I1. Srbasrian in Rom, 19k 1 RT. KI.!\U~[,I<', Die CHhedLl im Torenkult dcr heidnischen und Lhn:-.rl. Ant., J 97 ¡ 9 L. l{¡~.EKMAN",

1.('s cryptes d..:s llurryrs n1llW.lm, in: Atri, !lec 141, .'.7 ~-102

10 V. SAXER, Ivlofb, rll:lrt~'rs, reliques en Afriquc chréti­er:nc dUX premie]",; si0c1e'i, I;!Ho 11 A. ,)TUII1ER, s. Y.

Gcburt~tJ.g, RAe <),217.-<1.43 12 W. Su L\'II In , Spatanr.

Tl8 !HALJ "EA

Griibrrfeldcr in den Nordprov. des rúm. Rtiches und d:LS Allfkoll1men christl. Hesrarmngsbrauchrllms, SaalburgJh 50, 2.000, 2 L3-441. E·I/\

Dca Dia An orherwise unknown fcmale deity ro whom

rhe }- Arvales tratres devored rhe saerifiee üf rhe month

of May; llorhing is known abour rhe conneerion of rhe

Dea Dia (DD) with a Dia from Amiternllm (C1L l' 2,

1546) amI the Greek Dia. Her mlllll' derives froro rhe

,ldjective dius and is conneered with rhe spJce of heav··

en, proklbly rhl' 'good lighr of heJvcll'. The rhesis tha1" DD is an lIldigiration ( ~ IncligitamL:nta) uf Tellus 01' of

Ceres cannor be mainraineJ.

R. SCHIU.ING, H.ires. cutres, dieux de Rornc, 1979, ":\ 66­

170 • 1,0,·

Dead Sea (textllal fillds) Wha[ is l'cfel'red to :1s t111' rexnu! finds of the Dcad Sea (DS, ~ Asphalriris ljmnc)

i~ rhe: library of ivlSS rhar werc found ar locarions on rhe

US, illcludillg Ketcf Jericho, > Qumriín (= Q), J:iirhat

al-Mirel, Wiíd¡ n-Niír, Wiícl¡ I-(;uwair, Wiíd¡ I-Murah­

ba'a (= WM), W"d¡ Sudair, Nahal Hever (= NH),

Nahal MismÚf, Nahal Se'elim anel the Masada (= M),

:1S wcll as in the W"d¡ d-DiJliya (= Wn) loeated between

Samaria and .Jcrieho. A cOlnpl~tc [¡st of aH the rexrs can

be fmmd in 13, vol. 391·

1. WAD¡ D-DAI.1YA [1. QUMHAN 1II. MASADA

IV. NAl:IAl. f:h:VER, Wi\U( J..-MURABBA'A AND

KI'TEI' JEIUUltl V. SMALLER SITES VI. tllRBA'I'

AL-ivIJlu)

J. WAD¡ D-DALlYA

Witl, the exceptioll Df WDSP 38 ((;reek), the W"di

ed-Daliyeh Samarita" l'apyr¡ (= WDSP) were written in

Aramaic and were found, baclly damaged, in 1962­

J964 in a cave of rhe WD. The c\ocuments (from rhe 4rh

cent. Be) had been in the possession of parts of rhe

Samaritan upper class who had flcd from Alexander's

[41 armir.::s. A lnrge pan uf the c\ocuments deals wirh thc

bllying and sel1ing of s]avcti. More importanr rhan rhe

clocumenrs rheOlsclves are rhe glyprics 011 rhe seal

impressions. Thcy suggesr rhar a Hellenistic influencc

on Sam~Hitan culture and religion exisred already in thc

4th ccm. BC [vol. 3, 24; 5 [l·

ll. QUMRAN

In 1947-J 9 56, Bedol1ins and archaeologists fOlllld

abol1t 1,000 MSS in JI caves near I:.lirbat Q ( ~ Qum··

ran) in Hebrew, Aramaic, Greek and N~lbatacJn, mosr

of rhelll badly damaged, which were eL1rL:d [JJlaeogra­

phically into the period from rhe .1 rd cent. He to rhe 1 sr

cenr. AD. Asiele from hiblieal rexrs, they documcnt apo­

cryphs rh,H Wl:rL: known already prior ro T947 ( ~ Apo­

cryphal jireraturc A.) amI } pseudepigraphic lireraturc

as wel! as :1 brg(' nlllllber of Essen(' ( ¡. Essenes) and

nnn-Esscnl' rcxrs rhar \Vcre l.lllkllOWn prior ro 1947. A

rew tL'xrs from rhe lasr grol1p (e.g, rhe Damascus Docu­

DE/\D StA 110

V¡im ha· Mclah / /\spl1<llti[¡~ Lim;lcj IhJlassa h¿; Ná.ra/ MnJllllllll Mate/

Ih'f/{iSI'(/

I

''1,hlT Z'¡ (

){/ (1

L\ 1 \'".,- '\F"',,'

I ,JI \\I(¿ I, I

~I

1P""""_,~J'~) / "

_"__' _._¿___ !/t;~30':

Textual finds by tIJe Dead Sea and in tIJe Judaean desert Site of manuscrip( finels (selectlon) Yahuda Reglon

@ Semitlc texts (more exacL [!J Impor(ant Lown Identlfication nor pos5ible)

Ancl1~nt road (wurS0 certam/ullcerLain) • Aramaic text5

M~ddva Hebrew / AramaiLl i\Jab,ltilt-'an nalllf' O (Pala.eo -) Hebrew texts Medaba Greek/Labn name @ NabatclPan texts M,jdabj Modern nilJ71e @ GreC'k (up to ByzJntlne) texls

e i-atin (exts () ') 10 15 2tl 25krn

~-----;;-,~==-='=--~

() SYI'lac tcxts

CD Arable text'i ·:J.Oü 100 SCJQ

r )~O lZol

mcnt :J.nd the Ardmaic ¡,cui Docttnumt) are :1150 known

[rOlll [he ~ GC'lllZ(!. Tbe library of Q rherdore pro vides

a JlllO-repre:>l'IlLarive cflJss-secrion of rbe J¡rerarurc oE

ancienr }Judaism in rhe HeJlenisric-Roman períod.

The rexrs authored by rhe Essene residents of Q ean be idcnrif'icd 3ccording ro the foilowing crireria: the [reat·

ment or rhe qllotJtion of ;]11 Essl'ne rt'xt, rhe use of typi­

cal rerminology (eg. ans)! hyJ?d, rbar is 'rIlCIl of the COI11­

Illuniry'), radical ohscrvarion uf rhe Torah, cusmic­

erh¡C3l dualism wherE"in cverything \lon-Essene i.'> rejcct­

('el a.', ~inful, critica] distallcc to lhv 'f'ciTlJlk uf.lnmalelll,

use o{ :l 3()4-day sol8r calendar, ~llld the mcntion ni

cenrral figures frolll rhe history uf rhe Essene COIll1l1t1­

niry. In conrr;Jsr, rhe free use of the terragram, rhe 354­

d,,1Y Illnar cillcndar, ;llld tlll' compilatinn (lf a rext in a

lang:l1<lgc othcr th:J.ll Hchr'cw suggest rhe J]oll-,EsseJ'lc

origin of a texto

A. lllSTORY (jJ; TIIk CANON ANU BllH,¡Ci\L

MANU'iCRll'TS B. PAHA-,B¡BLICAl. LITF,RA'l'tJRE

C. Exu;¡:.'l'lC LITEHATUIU D. 1.1'l'1·:RATtJ!U: In,AI

ING WITI-] HEI.l(;IOUS LAW E. CALENDARIAL i.lT­

I':HA'J'URE F. P()ETIC-I.ITlJR(;[CAL LITERATURF.

C. WISDOM L1'1'ERATlJRI·. (Al) ¡\ la~NRE) I-'L ¡'-Jl:-;"

'rO¡ULA L Tl',X'l'S AND N AHRATlVl',S .r. ApOCA I.i'PTIC

ANO E,<.,C!IA't'OI.O(;ICAL Ll'n:Hi\TtJRF K_ MA(;I

CAL-IHVINATDRY l.l'n:RATUIU· L. ()'I'HF.l{ TEX'¡'S

A. HI.'iTORY OFTlIF cANoN ANIJ HIBUCAL

IvIANUSCl{JI'TS

Tbe library of Q indicares rhar 31lcicnt .Judaism in rhe

I--kllcnistic period obscrved authm-irarive text:-. and had

developcd ~1ll undersranding of rhe Scriprure,'-I from rhe

time of rile Hellcnistic re1igiolls reforms in 175- ¡ ('4 Be. Wc can, howcver, nor :lssume;l complere canon for this

time. Alrogerhcr l (.200 MSS uf boolcs of the lJrcr Hc­

brew lliblc wcrc found III Q: The nldesl' (4QS3m"; 4QJc1'·1

) stem from the mid 3nj cent. BC. C. 35 %) of rhe

OT MSS from Q dOclllllent rhe s<JI11e inventory of Con­

sonants as the bter Masoretic rextj 5 '}(', dOCllmetlt a

for111 of rhe Pellrareuch, v,.. hich was latel' nJoprcd anc1

;:drered by the Samarirans; 5 % document rhe Hehrew

111ode-1s of vnriolls books o{ rhe Sepruagint; c. 2.0 (Xl)o

use a full orrhography common ro Q; c. 15 {Yo shov.'

rypes of t'cxts rbar cannor be classified undel' any of the

kllown versions. Especiaily the textual evidencL of rhe

la sr group allows insighrs into rhe editorial evollltion of

rbe 01' baoks and shed doubr, a t leasr for a part af rbe I-iebrew Bible, 011 rhe posruhlrc uf an original rcxt.~1SS

in Aramaic and Grcek inclicare thar rhe rransbúon pro­

ce$S into Greek anJ Aramaic rcaches tar hack inra the

pasl' ( .} HihJe tr:111slatiolls). Tú rhe exrc:nt that ir IS pns­

.sible ro date thcm, rhc non-BiblJcal rexrs from Q stem

from rhe period berween rhe 4rh and rhe 1 st cenrs nc. Thc"ie rexts can he divided into various grollps:

B. PARA-Blfll,ICA1. I,II·I'RATUkF

Para-biblical n:xr:; are literary w()rks which <ue

dosel y connectcJ to (exts, topies,) nr pt'rsuns of the la ter

¡ 22. DEi\D Sl'A

I-Iebrew Hible. Para-bihlicallirerilwrt' is characrerized

by rhe endc:tvollr to gain insighrs ahotlt rhe revelarinn

thm h,-10 occllrred rhrough ll1rcrprcrJnon ()f aurhorira­

rive rexrs (sllch as the Torab) and ro ne\'vly arriclllate ir in ncw tcxts. Thesc relecture proccsses represent the

attempt ro find :JnSWE"rs tu conremporary ql1esrions allJ

ro ground rhcm in rhe revelation from rhe p<lsr. The

Para-hihlical Jitcratl1rc froLTI Q deals wlrh tcxrs <lnd Pt'f­

son~ from rhe time of Crcarion to the rime of exilc.

Asidc from texrs from the realm of the rewritten Rible (c.g. t!w h()ok~ Ilf N(),lh ,1Ild ,Juhilen, I1vlose:" ,tpO

cryph.';), wt' ::J1so find llarrarives (B()ok uf c;iants), res!:;)­

111('nrS 1 <lnd apocalyp:lCs (see helow).

C. EXECETIC IXl'l":R¡\TU JU',

Thc library of Q is the primary s(JureL' of l'Xl'gCtic

liter~1ture in ancient .IlHL\ism froJll rhe time of rhe Hcl

lenislÍ<' religio1l5 rc{()rms (1-:7)-164 Be). The be! that

l'xegnic iiter~Hurc ~tppcar('d al' lhat rime sllggests ~1

change in ¡-he trcl11TI1clH of aurhuril:llrive ("('xts . .luclaislll

clid nur devc1np ,111 l¡ndcrsranding of Script'ures llnril

rhis pcriod. The most widely l1scd f?;enrc (Ji exegetic lir­

cratl.1fe are thL Pesharún thar originared in Esscnc cir­

eles. They sharc the cOl11mun fetlture of introdllcing [he

interpretarion of ;1 ('ited lel11ma wirh an interprNlHive

formula that (;\11 vary in its precise wording hut alw~lY,~

cOlltains rhe word pese/' ('inrerprct<1tínn'J. There are

thLIl1Jtic l1nd conrinuolls }Jcsharim. '1"he word fJcSer ane!

rhe inrcrprct<lrivc tcchniques useJ hy tll(' Pesharim are

rcminiscent of ,1l1cient interprc¡:aLÍon:; of drc~ms <.lnd

omens ( ~ Oll1en; > Drcal1ls, lnrcrprerarioll uf drcJIll's).

Thc inrl'rpret:lltion nf the Pcshl1risrs was regardcd as a

secund aet of rcvelarion suhordinare l'O tl1l' rcxr of rhe

prophcr,1'vhich n.'v('a1cd ro the interpreter rhe Il1canÍllg

of rhe tcxr h¡Jdl'n to rhe prophct'.

D. LITEH.ATURE DEALlNC WITH RELlGIUUS LA\V

The faet rhJr rhe Esscncs regJrdcd rhis type uf litCT<-.l­

CUre as largcly exegetic is indica red by rhe- designation of

midraSfm for two community rules. Communiry rules

anJ a large parr oE rhe -} Halakha are of Essent' origin.

Their exegeric charactcr may be relared ro rhe Essene

COlllUlullity's claim 1'0 have a special knowlcdgc of rhe

interpretation and the significance of (he laws. Gener­

ally, wc cm observe rhe t'endl'ncy towards a partic1llarly

srricr inrerpret<ltion of reiigious L1WS in rhe Essenc Hal ..

akha. 'The n:ason fnr this may he fOllnd in rhe pricsrly

origín nf rhis cornmunity. AsiJe froffi issues of purity,

the !aws abnur rhe Sahbarh and calendar issues are of

particular intercsr. Commllniry rules such a.., Serekh

ha~Yal,13d or the Damascus Documenr govern rhe con­

dUCi of I¡fe in thc ES:>l'nc COlTimumty ,HlJ are rcminis­

cenr in rheir regulations uf rhe structure of J-Iel1enisric

rc1igiolls guilds. Thc facr that issl1es of rel.igious law

were llot only fckvant for the period in qucstion is dem­

ollsrrared by rhe so-calleo Rule: nfWar ,1nd rile commll

nit)' rllle referring ro (he esrl13toJ1

[JE/\U '.LA 1]·3

L CALENDAR TAL LITERATURE

The large l1limher of calcnJarial MSS indic<1fes thar the Essencs regarded calendar lssues as hlghly signifi­

CJnt. Thc rexts establish the times of serVlce for rhe Jíf­ferent ranks of pricsts and lisr the dares faI' rhe Sahbarb and cnlt festiva/s. Mixed forms were not unusual. Wirb rhe cxceptlon of 4QZodiology and Bronrulogy (.360­day ~oldr calendar), JII rexts are commlrtcJ ro a 1fi4­

day solar calenuar, similar ro rhe eme in asrrHcn and Jub, 'liso thc <;;1l11C 011C rhar governed thl' ultt prauices be(q[l' 1SO Be e1t lca~~r uf rhe ]crllsa1l'm ~ '1l:mplc. In thü; calendar, monrhs, weeks, and (bys do nnr llave

nal11es, hl1r are sil11ply countcd. lr \Vas llsed by the Essene movement even after 15:.'. Be, whilc rhe remple <H th ..1t rime used rhe.1 54-day lunar calenJar with Baby· 10111,ln na mes, rhe samc tila!' is srill bl'ing used by lnod

ern judJism.

F_ POETH>J..l'l UI{CfCAL 1.lTEl{ATtlln: Thc fact rhar pocric.-lirurgicallitl.:r:1rurc forms one ni

the larg;esL groups uf texfs in rhe library 01 Q has ro do with rhe significlnn' that rhe praist of (;od has (or rhe

~ Esscnes. Duc ro their disral1cing from t!l<.' Jerusalem Tcrnplc, rhey rcgarded rheir COm11111lúty as ;1 spiritual rempk (mqds adm, 'Temple o{ htlll1~lns'), i11 which d1l' pr:1ise uf God tnok on rhe funetion (JI' thc sacrificl' (5ee 4QMidrEschar\ HI). In genef<\l, one can ascenaiJl lhat the poeric genres of rile Hehrcw Hiblc mclr togerhcr in dll' rexts of rhe Q lihrary. Also, one finds more ami more allthologic<Ii poetry {sL'e, for inSl<111lT, the

l-lodayot). The liturgic<Jl poetry cnmprises collcctiolls of so-called daily praycrs, song,<, for rhe sacrifice uf SaÍ1­

barh, rcxrs de'lling wirh a covenanl: rl'ncwal lirllrgy, jJurification riruals, ilnd cxorcism (see bclow K.j. Asid e

from psall11 collccrions III rhe sryle of rhe psalrer and Iol11ents, rhe: ncm-liturgical pocrry cOl1sists esscnlially {1i"

Hodayot (songs of praise) anJ }-1odayot-like !1(l~ms.

G. \XlrsDOM L1TEHATURE (A.'1 A (;ENIU~)

The library uf Q contained .\ sllrprisingly laI'ge numbcr uf wisdom rexts~ J./l nf non-EsscI1/..': origin with

rhe excepríon of a didaerie speeeh (4Qz981. Theír large numher indicares rhat wisdol11 lirerature was nHlch more prevalent in ancienr JLJdaism rhan previously as­sllmed, The dominanr genre in rhis type of lirerarure IS

constirured by;] "reaching' (müsar). Such reachings are él

combinarian of collect.ions of sayings and of passages in the sryle of rreatise.s, hymns , and parenesl5. Wc also find a collection of wh~lr seem ro he olJ s,\yings c111d two otheI' didaetic speechcs. On the conrcnr Icvd, must of rhe rexrs c<ln be subsnlllt'd under rhe wisdoIn ot the

TOL1h, bur ir is also not unusual ro flJ1d Juallstic-cschcl­tolugical ideas and an interesr in culto

H. 'f--ll"TOIUCAI. TEXTS ANll NARRATrVES

Narrarivc tcxrs nrher rhGn rhDse bclonging ro rhe

pilrabihlical carcgory are vcry rJrt in the lihrary of Q. Aside frorn Tob, which W¡lS probably wrirtel1 in Hebrcw

originalJy (4Q196-.:.oo), \vc unly fínd rwo AramaÍ(.

\ 14

court narrarivcs (Prayrr of Nabonid; 4QL42; Proro­

Esther; 4Q 5' 50'-5 50c )'.

J. ArOCALYP1'1C AND ESCHATOLOGICAL LITERA­

TUUE

None of rhe apocalypses in rhe library of Q indicate Essene amhors t\1any of the Jpocalypses are of para­blb1Jcll narurl:' ;lnJ procJaJnl tu be revelatioJ1s. Unril re­cenrly, symbolic codificarion waS regarJed as 3 char~lc­

terisric fearurl' (lf apncalyptic revebrion, and indeed, <;l'vef('¡] (Ji rhl'~e <;ymbolic :lpOC<llypscs can be found JIl

rhe líhrary (JI Q (Book olDrcams: 1 Hen 83-90: 4Q204

'1 ctc.). Howevcr, some tTxrs of revdarion werc found wirh icleas similat to rhose in symbolic apoca!ypses, but rhey did not use sYlllbolic codificatioll (c.g. l-lisroflcaJ rext A: 4Q24R) <1nd should be Gltegorízed as non··S}'ln·· holic apocalypsl's. Asidc from jJllrc tcxrs of rl'vclation, we ;llso find works thal tak~ rhe visi()n~lry <lLllhor inlO rhe world of rranscendellCl', O!1 wh,1( onc would caH fl!!Jerworldly j()urlleys (asccnr ro heaveJl; Nc\V Jerusa lem: lQj2e[<...), Furrhcrmorc, lIle Jibrary ofQ contaillS

;:¡ largc I1LlmIH~r of other esch.1tologicaJ rexts (c.g. Ruk 01' W,U or cOlInllunity rule). Of rhesl'¡ at Icast: a younger form ()f the Rule of War, rhe cschatological C{HnI1111nity rllle, Jl1d p()ssihl~1 blcssjngs derived froJl1 dI(' A.1roniric

hlcssiJ]g (Num 6,24-26) appcar ro he of EssclIc origino

K. M.A(;1Ci\L~J)IVINATORY LITEI<.ATUH.F

Only sparse .1t110unts uf magie<ll-divinatory lit('r;l' tllrc wcre found in (2 Zlnd n(mc 01' it Jppears ro he of Essenc origino Aside from a physiognomical-asrfnlngi

callisr of ol11t.'ns ("IQ 1H6, 4Q5GI), wc find <1 bronto]o gioll ¡\rrachcd lo zodiacal asrrology (4<...2318). Thc Sllr­

viving magic'1! tcxts are brgely cxorcist· in llarure ¡. Exorcislll).

1.. ÜTHFH TEXTS

In addition, the library of Q conrained a small nun1l-w.r l)f legal and rc!igious documcnrs, WhlCh dearly connecr rhe lihrary found in lQ-ll Q wirh rhe setrlc­r11ent of Q ( ¡. Essenes; 'r Qumran). Funhermore, two

Icrrers 14Q34L, Aramaic; 4Q34.3, Nabaraean), four ex­ercises by scrihes as wc1i as a 1ist of trCZlsures cllgraved in

copper 13 Q 15) have survived.

llI. MASADA

The badIl' damaged MSS of rhe M Ion rhe archacol­ogy and rhe history of finds: ¡. Masada) stem primarily from irs Zelotic inhabirants during the first ) Jewisb War. Only rhe hihlieal MSS MasDrn and MasEzek

could possibly srem from rhe period 01' Hcrod I¡ JI rhe Cl-caf. As ~~1l as ir i~ stiJ! ascenainablf', the Sl'Ven bíblical rexls clocurncnt a proto-MasoreriL' texr [vol. 7, 6!

MasSir (Ma rh) shows a rextual form which deviares from the LXX allc\ rhe Ceniza ~/fSS, Aside from biblical and dcllterO-C3nonical tv1SS, the fol!owmg rext<; \V('rt-'

found on rhe M: a Juh or p,Juh MS 1M3 1 JI, two MSS 01 texts thar are also dOcllmentcJ fol' Q, an apocr)"rhon o/ Genesis or Joscph, a paleo-Hebrew I\;1S (MJ 10 rL in

12~

whicb hrgrz)'trl (".M.oum Garizim') is written as a proper

name in one word dnd which could be' of Samaritan urigin lvoL7, 6, 142~\47j, an Aramaic rragmenr, and several ostraka. The fact that Ma 1 k-I is a1so documenr­cd m Q does not necessarily prove all Essene presence on M during rhe firsr ]ewish War. In rIw remains ot rhe Roman sieg,eworks, doctllTIcnts and lertcrs were found rhar provide insighrs Inru the life of the iegions aL dll'

end uf rhe firsr ecut. AD. One parttcular pan of ;,1 tcxt from Yerg. AC"l1. (Ma 72 J r) is rcmurk<.1blc in rilar ir cOllstitlltC<; (mc of lbe o\ckst piecc~.; of cvidcllCC for 1hi"

work.

IV. NAJ:íAL l:-1EvER, W.".DÍ L-MuRABBA'A ANlJ

KF.TEF .IEH.1CUO

The alrogerher badly damaged MSS 01 "he rhree ¡ocations nre in Hebrew, Ar¡HnaK, Gr~ck, and Naba­

tacan, <llld wef{' UllCOVl'ITd eithcr hy BedouiJls or in sys tem,ltic cxcavatiol1s. The Bedollins indicated rhal rhe p1J.Cl:S of orip)n for rhe MSS 1hl'Y fOllnd in NH wcrc W5d¡ Sayyi¡1 ,u,,1 Q, ami uuly rhe study ,,1 rhe MSS

thcmselvcs led to soliJ conc1usions abour rheir ongin

1), voL 1~7, 1-6; .'), vol. 391. Lill~r;'lry texts, docl1mcms ,1nd !etrcrs frol11 the 1St <ll1d 2nJ cenrs. Al) we['e founu 111 reElige C;lves in NI) ;m<.l WM. The oldcst known non·

inscrip60nal I-kbrcw reXl, a palco~H('brew pa~)o

limpsest from rbc 7th cenL Be (rhe overwritten rexr consisrs of ,1 ¡ist of nnmcs, rhe sccondary tTxt is <l Ictte~):

W~lS fOlll1J in WM. ln Kctd .Icricho, lWO additional pa!co·-HebI'cw MSS from rhc 4rh cCllL Be w('rc found (Jer ¡; Je .. h,\). Aho in WM, Byzantíne ami Arahíe MSS were fOlllld. BibJical MSS are known only from NI} ,ll1d \XirvL '1'0 the cxtent rhat rhey are legible, they documellt :l prot'o-Masorctic tcxL

Parricularly imporrant ror rhe texrual hi."tory of the 0'1' is HHcvxn gr. Thi,.:; scrol.l consisrs of an edirion nI' the (;1'ce1<. transiation of the Book of I L Prophers in líght

of rhe proto-Masoretic text, a perspccrivc <lIso reprc­s('nred by ¡. Theodorioll or rhe LXX Lamenrations.

DLJe t<J its rypiC<llusc of XUlYf, rhis edition is called Kaigl'

todJY. The j1alL.:ugraphIC Jaring of SI)evXII gr 111tO rbe

late 1sr cent. Be r), vol. 8, 19-.261 eVldcnces rhar thc rewo1'king of the LXX began 111 uch e.1rlicr than prev¡­ously assulllccI anJ IIlvalidates rhe idea rhar rhe Chris­tian use of rhe LXX tnggered the reworking process. The Yleld of non-biblie:a! tcxts from rhe three locarions is meagre. Aside hum ~1 few MSS from che time of rhe

firsr Jewish War (these docLJmenrs bclonged ro a group rhar f1ed from M ro WM in AD 71 or lorer) and a fcw 1\155 rilar srem from rhe R.ornan occuparion ofWM fol­

Jowing the second Jewish W;:¡r, rhe (.160 MSS are docu­ments from W!vl, NI~, and Kctcf.Ierichn ~1l1d ,,,-,ere in the possession of refugccs from rhe !asr ph;.1.<;C (lf the sccoll(l ]ewish War. The uoclIments were wntten in Hebrew,

Ar<ll11J.ic, Grcck, Jnd N'lh.:ltaean and offcr insighrs into thc s)'stem of Ltw, amI rhe social ami cconomíc history of rhL period. !vIos! of rhese documenrs bclong ro rhe foIlowing rypc ... : bilIs of ."<1Ic 01' lcase:., ¡isrs of gooJ,<" promissory nores, mJTl'i:1ge contracrs, and letrcr<; of dj­

126 nEAlJ SE¡\

vorcc. Gcner~d!y~ rhE' ]aw"i rhar exisred prior to thc sec­ond .kvI-'ish \Xiar can a1so he found <lfrer AD 13 'J•• A new devdopmenr, howcvCf, is rhe use uf I-lebrew in legal

documcnrs. Funherffiorc, rhe documcnts frol1l bdore AD 132 suggesr rhat the Jewlsh popularion around the' DS parLicíparcd in rhe sysrern of law of rheir non-Jewish environment in thlS rime period [12.. 215]. The ~1fchives

of documents of two womell mahath~1:'i/6Hl'v 1-35;

Salome Komaíse: XHev/Sc 12, XHev/Se 60-65) allow

us tu undersrand in detail the lep;al history of two Jcwish {.llllilil'''i.

NH anu \XlM providcJ us wirh ,1 large number oí

]etters, which bcc>1me esscnrial sourccs fol' the hisrory oí

rhe secund Jewish War. Many of rhese lctrers werc writ·· ten by ~ Bar Kochb,l hi.msclf and rcvec1!, fuI' instance, Ilí." rme 11<1111(' (Shim'on ben Kosiha); other letrers stem from hlS adminisrrafiou. 'rhe facr rllat only rwo of thesc lener'. are wrirrclI in (;rcek, dw resr in Hcbrcw or Ar¡1­

maic, sllggc.sr~ <1n cffort rowarJs revitalizlL1g rhe Hc­hrt'w bngu:]F;c.

V. SMALLI:H SITES

Slllaller finds of MSS wcrc made j¡1 WaJI ll-N;'ir, Wii.dI I-Guwair, Wcid¡ Sl.ldair, Nal}i.1! Mismúr, and Nahal Se·elím. AII 01 rhese MSS are badly damaged. In WiidI n-Nir, two (;reei{, (lne Sl'rtliric, and two lingui­

stically llnidcntifiablc fr"lgmcnrs werc f()und. Their

speclllarive origin is l)irhat al··Mírd. The complex at Wad¡ !-C;lIwaÍr is possibly an Esscne settlcmenr. This complcx 1<; atrrihurcd wirh t:he hnds of J Greek papyrus

frclgment ane! a. Semiric p<.1per fr'lgmcnt. Accordíng ro inform,Hion from Redouins, four MSS from rhe period of rhe scconu .Iewish War wcre found in WadI Suda Ir

(= Na~al David) in ] lj 5" 2. These MSS consist of a proto­Masoreric Gcn.-l\.1S, an Aram,lIc promissory note, and two unicicntlfied Greek documcnts. In N,1~<1l Mismar, renm<lnti'i of rwo Hebrcw and onc GrecJ{ document

were found, so were parts of four Hehrcw ami of one (;reei{ osrrakol1 from rhe pcriod of rhe second Jewish

War. The few MSS tlut <lrc ccrrain ro srclll from Nahal Sc\'lim weL'C di5covcn~d Juring élJl excavation ca m­

paign in 1960 in cave 34. Thcy consist of a phylacte­riul11, a Neh-1vlS, an Aram¡llC contraer,;] Grcek cenSllS­

lisI, and a Grcek lisr of wbe<lt.

VI. J:ll RBAT AL-M iRD

Tbe name rcfcrs ro rhe BYlantíne mOn<lSfLry of Kas­

tcllion, which was cOl1strucred in AD 492 ncar the DS, llar far fI'om Ijirbar Q on rhe ruins of the anCiL'llt Hyr­

cania. Sincc 1873, sllrveys and parria! cxcava tions hJ ve

been carried our rherc. The Arahic, Grcek, and Syri,m or Chrisrian-Aral1lJic papyri of Ijirba[ al-NIírd are

badly dan1<lged. Found 1I1 j 952 by Bedollins and ín 1953 in exc.1varions, rhey "tcm from rhe Byzantinc and Arabie periodo The roo Arabic papyn ('.1n be dividcd

¡nro protocols, legal docuIl1enrs, lctters, economic rt'xrs, literar)" rexrs, varia, and a drJwJIlg. Of the Syrian and Chrisrlan-Aramaic p<~pyri, a letter, ,1 magical amulet, and ~l !viS of [[ll: Acrs h<\\'c so far been published.

D[;,AD ~Ef\ t 2.7

Furtbennnre, reports exist of .1os-, N1t-, Lk-, and Col­

MSS. üf [he Greek papyri. Mr-, Mk-, ¡n-, and Acts­

MSS !lave Leen puhlis-hed as welJ as a mon ..'l.sric letter.

E])lnON~: 1 N. AVICAD, Y. YADIN, A Gencsis Apocry­phon,I9s6 2J. J-l. CHARLE,..,woRnl (l'd.), The Princt'­ton Theological Scminary Dcad Sea Scrol1s Pro)en, 199 í H. .1 ])iscovcrics in rhe JUd"lC"1Jl lkscrt (()fJordall), '

vol. ¡ n., I SI.') 'i ft. 41,. (;AHCÍ:\ MARIÍNE/" F. J. e:. TIlo

C1IEJ.¡\¡\jZ (ed.), The 1)cad Se<l SCI'olb SruJy Edirioll,vol. 1-2"llJ97-1<J')H s.l, M/\IFRetal.,J)ieQL1lnr;lJl·-b~el1t:r:

])1(' '1'1.'\((' V'()ln '];It(.'ll f'Vll:lT" ~ vol'i., 199'i'-'ll)l){)

b N L¡~\'('L"', Y.¡'!lOiN, J. (:. (;ItH~NFlF.U I (ed.), The DOClJ

Il1CJlt~ rmm dlC Bar Kokhha Perind lr1 the Cave of Letter" (.JlIdaean Ikscn Srudies), I ')S') 7 Masó.da. The Yigilel Yadin Excav;ltí(ms 1.')63-1965, Fina! Repon..... , vol. 1·-6, í9SY-I')lJ9 f{'Y. Y/\11lN (ed.), The 'fl"lllpk Serol1, vol. 1·'-" .lerus<1lcm )LJ77-I')H ~ 9 A. YAIW1:NI, 'Ti:x[hook (Jj

Aral11'lic, l-Iebrew aml Na]1;\[;1c:m OOCllJl1l'!1lary Text·s hUI11 I"llt' .IUCLH';lll Dc,<,nr clnd lZcl<Hcd I\tltenal, vol. ,\ -1\,

2.000.

BlllJ.lOC1<'¡\I'IIY: fO P. H¡\RT/¡{..II·.l....l''{, I.l':-' deV,ll1l"ir'rs el'Aquila (VT, Suprl. JO), ll.)(,·\ 11 J, M. 1)/\lIMCARTFN,

.)illdic .... ill t!lll1lr:Hl l.aw (Smdics Il1.Juuaislil in Latc Anli qUIEY .'."1), IY77 (2 L 11'. SCJ[(l'loMAN l·!;ll. (l:d.). FJll:y c\opedia ot rile Dead .)("'1 ScroJls, vol. 1-2, LOOO

l."1 T. HF.RBI':J{T, F.Tov (eo.), Tlw Tcxl of tlle llebrl'w Hi hJc ill i.ight 01 d1l' Di.\l·()v¡'ric~ ()( i1l1' .J1Id<1l'all lkslTI,

:::'..001.

'TI 11'. r....II\1' LS l\ASHl UN: !J. J¡'llICKI" (; ..)( IIMIT1, 1',11,1'

stina. Siedlungen in gricch ... riil11. Zeit (e;l. ~OO v. (;11r."'".')00

11. eh!'.; NonJ .. Illld Südtcil), 'IAVO B v 1 H, J 1)91.

1.. 1L SUII FFMIIN, Rec!,llming t"he Ik,ld ,)ca Scnll!s, 19X,~

1. WM;NF.H, l)icróm. PnJv. Palacsrin,llJnd Ar;lbia (70'- ::o<¡­

n. Chr.),lAVO B V 17.2., 19HN.

Dca Roma st'c ~ Roma 1V.

Dca SyriJ sce ~ Syri~l Dl':1

Dcath

1. ANCll~NT I~A~T AND F(;YPT [1. CI.ASSICAl. AN'

I'lQUlTY

l. ANCIENT EAST J\ND EGyp'r

A range of archacologic_,1 and textual sourcc~ from

varieJ walles of life hear cloquent r(!sumony ro the in··

tCllsit)' of rlle attl'mpts of coming tu ttTIll wi(h dcath in

anclcnt eastcnl cultures ( > Burial and mourning rituab

and the reLuce! eulr üf the > e!cad), as displayecl in

forms nf-~ funcrary architeeture, huri8.1 objens [{nd the

exrcnsive ~ funerary lüerature. As is evidenr hom tex­

tual SOUfces, this struggle occupled a brge p~1rt of every­

day hUl11an cxistcnce 15 l. 011 thc one hand, bdief in a

cuntimlcd human existcnce ,lftcr Jcarh is a feature of

the Egyptian. Me~opot<lmian and Hittite traditions. Rody ::lllc\ soul-joincd rogether in this ¡ife--- are physi··

cally scpar,ltcd frum each orher after death. The mortal

n~tnC1ins are placcJ in a grave, rhe LieaJ person's sutil

travels ro the Ul1denvorld. 'The dt'pendencc uf thelo

Jead pcrson's suul 011 ~/his/her hody is eviden! in ritual burial (c,g. Egyptian Illummificatiun, J·-J.ittite ,llloim­

r 1.8

mera of (he rcmains). Even thc: cult of the)- dead (;lkes

this corpofl>;¡Jity inro au.::ount \:vith the prnvision of

food and drink, As wcll, thlTl' (Hl~ othe!" forms or corn­

mmúcatlon between the living and the dcad\ sllch as the

cvocatinn of the spirits of the dead (ef. ~ Cilgamesh

Epic, tahlet 1 el.

On the orher hand, death in ~ncil'nt t"astl'nl cultures

was a social cven1: a Ffcetlng [lot just rhe deccased :llld ¡li!'>

01' hcr famiJy but the whole social milieu 141. Death

outsidc onc's own sl1rroundings, ooc'::; own culture,

W,IS s()jlJcthing LO he fe'1rnl, J~; i!,; shnwn fur l'X,llllpk in

the Egypfial1 l10vd uf ~ Sillulll: 01' the Sumerian Epic uf

Lug<lJhanda [4/. Thl' death uf a ~ ruler could cnd'lI1~cr

t:he social or cusmi,c onlcr in irs entil'ety: the beginning

()f thC"' Hinite roy.t\ dL';.1th ritll,I! rtms: 'If a greJt disturb·· ,mce takes pLILT in l);lttUS;1 a~ i1 kinp, nr ljllCCIl becol11es :1 c\(>ity' i3. ')6). '"I'he val'i(~ty Jl1clltiorIcd ah()ve rypifies the r,JIlgc or lTlC:l,',urcs Cor L'oJliug witll dcuh, Tlw .... , t"O lhe

MesopOUlllli,ll1 mincl l the jOl\nlcy to tl1l' ~ Undcrwor\J

((luid t:.1ke difFerent rorJl1s (LTo~sing, rhe Undcrwnrld

r¡vcr, m~lking l:he joufIlcy on fOOI). Varying rcgioJlal l

social nI' cultural traditiol1s are mirro!"(!d in thc literary

texts, the lircrattlrc un dcath and rhe archacological evi­

dcnc(', The dl~t;liled descriprion of ¡-he her('aftcr, espe· cially typiC¡ll (){ Egypt ;lI1d McsopOL'anll;l, articulates 1"lJl' attelllpt (() acquaint ¡he ITader wirh ;ln <1Spcct" of lik

in;¡cecssihlc tu hUl1lans and thus ro n'1110vc thc h'ar oI

(he unknown (eL rhe Egyptian guic\cs to rhe hcrc'lfter,

indicating t"h{' dist",lIlces of individual scetions),

Cmnll'10Jl!"o ;111 thos<' belid sYSfl'I11S lS t"he umcep¡- tha¡

rhe deccJscd h;l.'; ro mJkc a, jonrney tn reach the dest'i·

Il;ltion. Egyp¡-ian :Hld N1esojlotarnian conccpts view r11l~

decl'<lscd aS an active agenr; thc HitritT {1erspcnive, 011

tbe othe!" hJ.lld, secs him as esscntially passivc, depend··

c-:nt 011 propitiarory sacrifices ro the .... uil··goddess of [!te

Underworld ( ~ Sun-g()ddes~ IIl.}, who is to be illduccd

lO let him pa" (burial .. ¡tual: 16. 421 l. Therc are ::lIso texts that do not sha re tlll' hclic!: in :1

(gond) life aftcr dC(lch: Egypti,m harp .... ongs and the

Gilgamcsh Epic cxhorr pcople ro enjoy ¡ife 1). 1 SI 5 ­

1.,041, as ollIy c\espair ,lile! oblivioll await thcm t:here­

afrer -- dcath as rhe cnd to a sclf-determ¡ned existenec

anJ the beginning of <l shadowy existence rhíH canno!

be overcome wirh lavish funer;1ry <Irchitccture ;1nJ bur­

ial gifts: 'Gilg'lLlle.S, where are you nlllning ro? YOll will not find rhe life rh,lt Y0l! are seeki.ng! \Xlhcn rhe gneis

creat"c.d mankind , rhey bestowed lllorr::Ility ... M;lke of

eaeh day a fesrival of pleasnre. dJnce and play by day

8nd nighr! ... Such is rhe n;1rt1re of human activity!'

(Gilgarnesh Epic, tablee 10). Even though the Contrast

hetween the two eoneepts could not have becn grcater,

Ln yiew (,f the great (m;:1tcrial) dforr deployed for life

aher deadl (panicularly in Egypr), tbey both nevcrthe­

less fix on the .;ame ohjecrive - sllfvival, by deeds and

in litera tu re, in rosfl'rity's memor)': 'M,an p;1sses a\\':lY,

his boJy nwnhks ro Just. But ,1 book convey.s IlIs mcmory in the mOt1th of ("he perSOIl J"cading aloud .

(llst of OIJ Egyptian writers); "The)' have gonc~ t!Jcir

na mes wOllld have becil forgotten-- but it is tlle book

r 2')

rhat keeps rbeir lllcmory alive!' lL:2 7'".'1-22(,1.

~ Rllrial; ~ Funerary architecrure; > Funerary Jiter::1­

tmCj ~ Dco.d, culr of the; ~ UnJerworld

1.1- ASSMANN, Toe! und jC!lScits im Altcn Ag" 1.00J

21-,1. BRUNNER, Die \XIelsheitshiicher cit:r Agyptl'f, 1. 1991 .3 V. HAAS, Hethit. Bestattllngsbrauche, lO: Altnricnral.

Forsch. 1.7, 2.000, F-67 4 S. LUNDSTRÓM. ZUf Aussa­gekr,lfL schnhliehn Qudlcn hinsich{lich dcr Vorstl'llull gen VOl)) Lcbcn nach dClll Tud in Mesopoumicn, in: Ah .. oriental. FOfsch. :;0. 1.003, 30-')0 5 (; . .1, SELZ, W:lS

blcil,¡-i', in: ~l'(' 14/ (111 prinr) (, r. P. .I.VJ\N lJI·.N HOli·l.

])cath 'lS <1 Pr¡vdege. Thl' ¡ litti((' Ropl hllle!""r)' Rimal: in .J. M. BI~tMl':R el al. (t-J.), ¡"liddcn FutLln:: ..... J)(-ath and Irn­monality in Anciclll Egypr, Anatoli:l. lhc C1aSSiC'l!, Bibli cal and Arahie Islamic World, r994, 37-7 S·

....,¡,ll ..II1lI!! (JI

Ilo Cl.A\:o,ICAl. ANTlQUITY

(Cree1\. OÚVUT.or;,/thánatos; l.al. IHurs, fcturn).

A. PRELlMJNA\tY REMAHK B. (;ENL:HAI. (lVl'.l{VIF\V

(:. CnnF.IUA uF 1lI',A'['ll D. IloM!CIIH. ANU qll ..

<:11)/' L. P\lllllSOP!lY 1". RFLIl;ION ANIJ fvfYT!IOi.'

()(;y C;.l.iTF1lATI1Hl;, 1,,"1. DFATlI 01' A ItlJr.ER

A. PIU·:J.1 MINARY RFMA¡{K

l.ike ~ hirlh amI > sl'xu,I1ity., de;Hh is (Jne uf lhe

collstants in thc condiáo hUma1lél tl.]. Rcsearch into it,

cnttillg ,lCr()~s cultural houndarics, le'MIs lO compc!ling

kl10wlcdge about cnltural valul's in socictie~. In cbssi··

cal st"udic.s, too, t"hc range of rdcvant andent sources in

the fidds nf liter:1turc, ll11'dicilll', philosophy, epigra­

pl1YI iconographYl !cgis1ation, legal wills l:I:C. 1l1i1kes

clearh ¡In arCa of cultural swdics {hIt" excelfencc.

B. C;U"'¡ERAI. nVERVIEW

As ;'l11 clltírely incxofJblc dl'lllelH in rhe franll'w()rk

of hum:m existen ce, death was considered a sign rhat

l~vcn the Illost powcrfulllllll1<ln bL'Íng would ncvcr com­

pletely master destiny in this world !10. [3-27; 2.81.

The yv{i)(h (JC1u"'Cóv!gnólhi sautt"n1 ('Know thyself') of

Ddphic ~ Apollo cal/s fnr all acknowlcdgcll1em of one's own J11ort<llíty and (o/lsequcnt power1essncss. or similar mcaning is the memento te IJOrninem C5se ('Re­

membcr that YOl] are <1 hUIll;lJl being') rhat a sbve nscd

to whu;per during:l triumphal proccssion to the Rom,lll

bcing honuured with tbe ~ triumph. As <1 law of Na­

ture, death was secn as analogolls ro rhe phenomena uf ,mimate and inanim~1te Nature (Arist. Spir. 1.7.47Rb 22 ff.), e.g. to thc chan~ing seasons of the yeal' and ro

thc destfllction of ciries by human violence ( -~ Conso­

lati~). Tr<1Jlsported ro thc personallevel, cven the dcat\¡

of favourjtc~ dOl11cstic ;lllimals was mOlirned Ir 5J. Death in ~mtiql.lity W"b gencr;]/Iy thollghr of as <1 t¡"¡lnSI tion and dlélnge imo anuther form of exis[enee, rJther

than as ahsolute finaliry (Cie. ·rusc. 1,12) 1141. Popular

llletaphors for dC.Jth are (hcrdore ch,mge, journey, tak­

illg one\ kavt, skep 13; IRI. As a c<111sall¡llk was ~H:

ccpted betwccnlife ::md post-mortal cxistcncc, rhe vicw

of death a.) ~H1 (vent to he wclcomcd, 01' feólred, 01' ac

cepted with indiffercnce, \Va." also cXl'rcssed in corre,·

sponding approaches to life.

110 nEXIll

That dcath, like scxuillity, was 5ubject to a strong

uhoo [ I . 774 ff.], is shown by rhe high level uf cultural

acriviry that govLTl1ed contu:cr with the corpsc :lnd el11O­

tions <lccompanying cleath (d. as well ~ Burialj

> Mourningj ~ Dead~ culr uf rhc; ~ iaudatlo (u'Nehris;

~ Ncnia A.; > thr¿nos:> ekl)horá) in Grcek, Etruscan

and ROlllan cultures. In a relarively homogenous con­

l"ept of rhe l.'S~L'l"ICC amI duracter nf Lkath, a r1ch culture of dcarh dcveloped in rhe MecliterraneJn. for Greccc, complcx burial rires were crucial from the c<ulicst item~

n{ cvidCJlL:L' I.t; 2. S l. \~/illl rhc J.'trUSGLm, dcath-cultllrc

WilS fur cxamplc ciisplaycd in a rieh fllnerary cultmc

( ,Lnllscans Il. C. anJ In. c,; ~ Grave painting<;;

~ Sareophagus) rh~1t, in irs ;1rtistic emph~lsis, is both <l

memorial ro rhc deae! :l11d an expressioll of ,1 pro·

llo11nccLi ze~r fuI' life ;lile! an eXf1ccrancy of an aftcrlifc.

Distinctively Ronull is ;1 funhcr ¡nst"i(Utionali7.~lr;Onnf hurla! r¡tes .\1ld ;l cl11nI1'<111y ver y advanCl:d form nt'

relllelllhering rhe de:1l1 (d. ~ /'IIidatio (uII(dn·is,

~ tvLtnes, )- imügh'les IJuliorum, ~ l.el1lurcs, ) Paren­tJlia) thar finds almost unbroken eontintlity in Christi·

anity in ;ln i11tcrlJretaúo christiana 12.6; 2.71, Evell if demh was undouhtedly more srrongiy visible in public consc¡ousncss in contrast ro conrcmponlry Euro-o

j1e<:lTl culture wherc i1' i,,, virtually 'L\eprivcc1 of .status' 1r I ~- tbere welT sti11 distincr tahoos (c. g. dispby of an

'l1gjy' death frolTI illrH'ss).

C. CRITERIA OF IH.ATlI

Already in anLiquity thei'e was a liveJy conrrovcrsy,

espccially in medicine ,-1l1U philosophy, as to rile criteria by which a human cOllld be consiclcred dtad or by which death cOllld be rcliably dcterminecl (mWE'iú Ouvú­T.ou/shneía lhattátou; Lu, signa mortis) !171. Thos(·

S;lIllC doctors who dttrihurcJ a fundalllental role to the

br:lill in boclily functiolls ( ~ Hippocrates 1(-;1, Galc­-)o

nusct aL) sie!cd with Aristotic 161 (Part. an. 3,4 667,,-b)

in bd¡eving de;:lth to DC C<lt1scd by clrdiac arresr, even if rh:at ctluld be broughr ahour by other organs. Though as

they wcrc very familiar with conditions such élS ~ hy­

sreria, asphyxia and coma, in which respiration and cnrdiac activiry could cease l171, rhey conceded tbat

derermining death hy rhcse crireria conld be difficult (ef.

Plin. HN 7dl, 1 241 L6,8,I 5í llnlike the situation roday,

determining dcath did nor come under the area nf com­

petence of doctors but was p¡Ht of rhe burial ritual d. ) conc!al1wtio).

In philosophy rhere werc .several views aS ro what

death meant (synopsis of views in CIC. fusc. 1,H). Death

was gencrally seen as a separarion ofbody anJ sou], <lIld

that produced severa1 possibiljries ( -~ Sou!, cloctríne of

rhe); if rhe sun} is denied ,H1l'xisrcncc indepcndcl1t of thc bociy, the \-vhole person dies ( > Epicurus, ~ Epicurcan

Sehoo!); if " bodilcss smI! tS consie!c..ed püssibk (anil

rherc ~HC vJrying estimates for rhe durarioll: for eter­

nity. in Plato's view, d. hl .... PkiÍdcJn, 'lIle! th:1t of ~ Py­

t!ugoras [2.1 :md rhc Pythagorean School; oF limitedlo

durJtinn, for > StClicisrn), d~a(h is lirnitcd to the body,

\\'hich lS thOllght of as ir 1t werc <l iIletonyrny ror man

ESNA (,7

first referenee to E. comes feorn the rsr intermediate

period i E. did not become significant, however, untj]

the New Kingdom as the Jerarture poim for a caravan

ronte to Nubia. The príncipal deity was the ram Chnllm

(- ~ Chnubis), whose temple is E.'s most significant

monumento It was begull under the later Prolemies (VJI VIIl); rhe hypostyle room, rhe only part accessible

roday, dates from [he 1st cent. AD and was decorated

undcr rhe emperors Clalldius ro Decills (middle of the

Isr-midc/[c of the 3rd ceoL AD; names of most of the

CaC'S<lCS can still he fOll.lld). 11- contains the most recen¡

body of hiel'oglyphic inscriptions, n:m;lrkablc fOl" an

especially elaborate writing system.ln the Christiau era

E. was a bishopric. Ir is the birrhplace of • Pachomius,

fOl1nder of Egyptian monJsríeísm.

S. SAUNl·.RON, 1.A 2, JO-J;. K·f··W

Espioni.lge Procllring information about the pnlitical

and military sittwrLon uf the cnemy played 311 Lmportallt

pan in Grcek and Roman warfare (d. Thuc. 6,.12,3 f.).

Aside from statemcnts madc by dcsarers, ~ prisoncl"s

of war, 01" even merchants (d. Caes. Gal1. 4,20,3 f.) and

travdlers, army cornmanders and politicians rnade use

of rhe Iwowlcdge gainec! by spiC's. In Grcek texts, spics

are referred ro as X<lTÚOXorrDI/lwtáskopoi, althollgh the

distincrion bctwecn l'spionagt: and milirary intelligence

is mllrky (Hd1. 7,r45!.; Tlmc. (,,61d).ln Caesar, spies

(spead'1tores) al"<: disringnished from ~ exp/oratores

( :aes. G~~¡1. 2, T 1,2j eL, howcver, SAy,8). Thc tcrIn

spcculator is also llscd fOl" forcign spics (Liv. 1.2d3,1.).

On<: mllsr, howevcr, takc inw consic!cratiol1 that the

speculatores, who belonged to the ~ f)rincif)ales of each

lcgion in rhe late Rcpllblic and Prinl:ipate, ¡IJso had ro fuInIl orhe1' dutics (tomhs[onc of a s/Jeculator: AF 1945,88).

Espionag~ is fitsr mentioned in lIomcr: the ·rrojan

Dolon secretly trLes to board Agamcmnon 's ship in order to ea vesdrop on the Greeks (1-10m. O. la,} 14­

4.59; Odysseus in Troy: Hom. Od. 4,242-258). Al­

though the activ[ties of spics ~r(' hardly {'ver documen­

ted, the measures taken against espíonage indicate that

ir was rcgarded as ti seriolls danger. In Rhodes, for in­

stance, entering [he station of rhe Heet was punishable

by death (Stt. 14,2,5). The commander Chares 111

caught spies in his eamp by forcing cach soldier to name

his unir (Polyaenus, Strat. 3,1 j,1). Delegations weJT

oftcn used far espionage and fal" investigating rhe land of the enemy (Alexander [4]: Arr. Anab. 4,1,2).

According to Procopius (3), Rome had always uscd

espionage (Procüp. Pers. r ,21,11): P. Cornelius [17 [ I Scipio used the n(;gotiations prior tu a batde in Africa

(203 Be) for spying on the enem)' camp (1,11,1. jO,4, r-J;

d. a150 3°,2,9,2 ff.). Espionage was even used in the

Civil War (BeI!. Hisp. 13; 20). Captllred spies had ro

face scverc punishments; thus, a Carthaginian spY hall

his hanJs cut off (Liv. L2d3, r), and in thc civil W~H'J slaycs rhar were dlscovered to be speculatores Were cru­

cified, soldiers were bcheaded (lJel!. Hisp. 13; 20; d.

6~

Suet. Aug. 27,3). The specialized líterature n[ Greece

and Rome deals wirh espionage oniy briefly (Fronrin.

Str. r ,2; Onasander rO,9; Veg. ]\¡lil. 3,7~1.Jl.1). For the

procurement of polítical relevant information within

the Imperium Romanllln, the -~ fnanentarii were used

in rhe 2.nd and 3rd cents. AD., 8nd in late anríql1iry, the

~ agentes in rehus.

,Curiosi; ~ Secret police; ~ CommunicHions

J N. J. LAuSTlN, N. B. RANKOV, Exploratlo, 1 99,'i, 54­60. llj.()"II1l[K.U/lA.

Esquiline Gener;!1 rerm far rhe hills Cispius aud Oppius

in ~ Romc (Varro, Ling. 5,4,-)). Flere was thc end of tbe

platea u thar extended ro the Anio~ and from it impor­

tanr aqueducts (Anio vctus 270 Be, AqU~l Marcia J 44

Be, Aqua Claudia and Anio 1l0VUS AD 52) lecl into rlH'

city. Thc Anio nOV\lS rhar was iJlcorporatLd ilHo the

Porta Maggiore is lJarrieularly impressivc.

A hasty nnd cxhaustive redcvdopment started in

18"70/71 -.:aused largc-scale exposurc ami dcstrllerioll,

with which the Jocumentaríon proeess could not kcep

pace; as a result, the considerable nllmber of finds,

plans and photographs are nor mueh of a gllide to rhe

eorreJation of rh<: finds. 1i'<ldit'ion (Vano, Ling. S,49)

portrays the E. as nninhalJited in the <:arli(~r pcriod,

interspcrscd with groves of individual sacrt.lria and cov ..

ered with hnus<:s of kings like Tarquínius SlIpel'bllS

(Solill. 1,26). The regioll was said to havc hecn added to

the eity hy Scrvius Tultills (Liv. 1,44,J). Thc ten-itory

olltsidc the wall was organizcd as a pagus (CJL VI 3832­~ .11 s77l. In the lare Republican period E. and Fagutal

still formcd the sccond region of the ciry (Vano, Ling.

S,so; Fest. 344), only to he divided lllJ in the Augustan rcform (7 RC) iuto rhe rbird (Oppins), fourrh (Fagnral)

and fifth ¡Cispius) regions. Only rhe iast of those re­

U1 ined the name.

Fundamental to the scttlcment history is rhe scpara­

tion between those pans Iying wirhin the Servian WaH,

with a resldential settlement, and rhe arcas beyond the

Wall, whcrt:> cxtcnsive necropoleis werc sítuated in th<:

Republican períod, but the topographic transírion be~

tween the two funetions remains uuexplaincd. No later

than the Augustan period, beginning withMaeccnas,

rhe zone outside the wall was occupied by a series of

park.') belonging to the aristocracy. Hornee memions a

cemerery of Rcpnblican Rome with mass graves for the

poor (Hot". Sal. 1,8,10) but its identification with rhe

variollsly located puticuli (Vano, Ling. 5,25) has nor

been entire!y settled. The lattcr were ar times linked to a

necropohs that was ~lttested from the 8th to rhe 1 st

cents, Be and was closed in the Augustan periocl. Whnt

has been transmirtecl to U5 is simply thar [he horti Mac­

cenatis (Hor. Sal. 1,R,7f.; CJrm. 3,29,,'jf.; Epod. 9,3;

Suet. Aug. 72,2; Nefo 38,2) were sited on a necropolis

rOl' paupers and thar M<lecenas was able 1'0 "ótroll over ir,

just as he couId ove!" the rampan l nI' aggCl", of the Ser­

vian Wall (Hor. Sato 1,8,10). In a similar situation,

partlr burieL! in the aggerJ lies the so-called Audirorium

h9

of Maecenas frorn the period arolllld 40 Be, which as

an extanr building COl1veys a snapshot of the high qllal­

i[y of the architectmc anc! of its fittings. In this clcmoll­

strative incorporation of a city wal1 inro a residential

distriet, a widespread phenomenon in Allgustan Italy

(cf. the Augusran suburban dwellings of Hereulanellm

3nd Pompeií), there was perhaps ro be found a a con­

sciolls demonstl'J[ion of the nde of dOl1lestic peacc in

Italy rhat haLl been erea[ed by AUgllStUS. The horti Mae­

cenatis constituted al1 importanf centre within Augus­

tan Rome. Virgil'.s hous(' (Dollat., Vit3 Ve!'. '_1) was also

in the llcighbourhood 01' cven within the (olllplcx (Hor.

Sato 2,6,30; Epist. 2,2,65); likewise the houses uf Horaee alld Propertius anc! Horaee's grave (Suet.,

fragm. p. 1.98). Orher aristocratic parklands were es­

tablished - the h01"ti F¡Japhroditiani. l,ilt'J1iani, l'llaiarú, [,ollillui ",Id Pal/afltiani ( 'Rome). They all gradually

passcd il1to rhc imperial domain. EspL'cially rieh and high-quality seulptural furnishíng."i were found here,

SOlllC of which have ended IIp in the Palazzo dci (:on­scrvatori. A large number of sanctl1a,.¡t:s, divine prc­

cincrs Jlld public pbces are lllt'lltioncd in litcra[ure,

with no possibiJity of fixing rheir loeation and oftcn

witb only dwir mention <10 a terminus ante quemo

C.Burl.ITI'J, in: LTllR:;, T<)l)~, L.14-L1S; IZlcllAlm<,oN,

[46. It l'.

Esscdarius, Essedum scc > War chariot

Essenes A. ETYMOUH;Y B. ANCIENT SOURCES e, TI-lE

QUMRAN FINDS D. HISTORY

A. ETYMOJ.OGY

Thc na me E. CEmrqvo(. 'EoO'all)].; Esscnoí, Essaíoi)

was probably applied by outsiders to the commllnity

rhar it describes. It represents an attempt to render in

Greck the Aramaic ~}(ls{1yya) (~syh is Qumranic, no'MJb.

attested in rhe non-Essene Ararnaic Levi Document: ud'

rn!1t1~r' sm ~syh nm !?wl ''Tnh) /'1m, 'and the name of the

devout will llOt be extinguished in eternity'; 4 Q 213<1

3-4 6). The Hebrew hasid that has the same meaning as

the Aramaic ~}'Jsayya' is also fOlllId, as pan of a place­

descriptor of the settlerncnt uf Qumran that had at that

time bccn destroYt'd, in a lerter daring to AD ] 34/5 (m$d

'!sydym, 'fortress of the devnut'; Murahbatat 1= Murl

45 6) - alld this tends tu corroborar<: the etymology

suggested (cf.k vo!. 2,16411.

Il. ANCIENT So URCE'

Until modem times the E., as a Jewish religious

P<1rtYl were known to llS only from Greek and Latín

SOllrces (mainly ---+ Philo of Alexandria, Ql10d omnis

probus liber sit 7~-91; Pro Iudaós defensio (Euseb.

Pracp. evang. 8,11; d. Phil. De 'lita contemplativa Oll

rheTherapclltae);Jos. Bl 2,119-r61,Ant, Iud. 18,11

and 18-.u.; Plin. IiN ,),73; Hippolytus., Rcflltatio

9,r8,2-úl,2; orher rextual 50urces in ¡1; 71). 1'h<: pic­

70 ES:,ENES

rure emerges of ;] community of about 4,000 people

(Phi!. Quod omnis probus líber sir 7\; Jos. An1. lud.

18,1.0) scatten:d rhroughollr Palesrinc. As wdl as tbe

large number of irs members (cL the Pharisees num­

oered abour 6,000), the reporrs mentiouing Essene seer.s

and interprerers of dreams (Jos. El I,78; 2,Il1-l T 3,

Ant. Iud. 13,31I-313; 15,171-379; .l7d45-J48), as w(,ll as the Zcalot military commandcr caílcd 'John the

Essene' (Jos. BI 2,567) confírl11 rbJt th<.: E. were not a

'secr' in the sense of a fringe grollp having no influencc

o]l puhlic life [j<~; ·1') 1. The picrurc emerges Of;lll egJ.li

tarian group (though with a strict lllcrarchlCal s[rUL>

ture) characrcriz<:d by communal propeny, common

work programs, commun<11 meals and tlle idea of pu­

riry. According to Jos. Anr. lud. r8,19 (Latin transla­

tion and epitomcJj d. Phi!. Qllod omnis prohus liber sit

7-')) the E. did not partidp¡lte in Jerusalcm's sacrifícial

eult:. Moscs, the Tor;:¡h and ~cripruf<11 excgcsi~ (.Jos. Bl 1.,IJ6; 145; 1S2; Phil. QlIOc\ omnis probus liber sit

Ho-82) stood at the centre of Essenc helief. As well ¡lS a branch Jjvin~ in an Illllllarricc1 sta te, Josephlls mentions

a second grollp that ;:¡cceptcd marriage and intcrcoursc

sülcly foc the purpose uf procreation (m 2, [(,o!.). Spir­

itually the E. were nored far thelr belief in desriny "nd

the doctrine of dl(' soul's immortality (Jos. Ant. Iud.

[H,J 8; d. '.1,.172; 15>.173, [JI 2,154-' 58). The depic­

tion in Philo and Josephus is tendentious and infiucnced

by Grcck attitudc.~ (sce e.g. the dcscription of rhe E. as <1

philosophical school s'imilar to the Pythagoreans: Jos.

Am. lud. 18,1 J). The accoun! by Pliny rhe Elder (HN

5,73) is interesting from a geographieal perspeetive as

he describes rhe E. as a grOl1p settled on the Westcrn

bank of the Dead Se" norrh of 'En Gedi.

The Egyptian group of the Therapeutae described by

Philo in De vita contemplativa may be considered as eirher influcnced by the E. or as Q splinter group of

the E.

C. THE QUMRAN FINDS

Even befare the Qumrau finels, GINZBERG 12 J 1pos­

rulated rhar the Damaseus Documenr (~ CD) found in

the -~ Geniza of the Cairo Ezra-Synagogue nod laccr at

~ Ql1mran was Essene in origin [211. The settlemem

<lnd textual fínds ar Qumran were firsr <:lscribed to the E. by SUKENIK 161 (1948). The Esscne origin of pan of the

QunHan MSS is suggesred by rheological concordance

(detcrminarion, life after death, central significancc of the Torah) anel Iifesryle parallcls (communal meals,

purLfying baths, hicrarchieal structure, three-year 'pro­

barionary period' for new membcrs, commllnal proper­

ry, mOllogamy, no spitring in assembly, oilas carrier of

impuriry; see i.a. liS; 3(,; ;811. Through the porrer),

found there, an ostlnkon recently found in Qumran

[171 and a fl". rhar documents the application of hal­

akhic regulations froOl rile comn1L1nity rules of Qumran

(far 4 Q477 see 118]), rhc5errlcmenr ofUírbet Qumr:m

is inseparably línked wirh rhe MSS finds.

The Esscne texrs of Qumran sketch a portrair of radic:1l TorJh-ob.scrvancc, a dualis[je world vis ion ,-lnd

FS'iENF<; 7 1

a commllnJty marked by short-term eschatological

cxpectancy and seeiug ¡tseH as Lhe only legitimate rem­

n,-lnt of God's choseo pcople who had by then faUen

inta transgression. In their church scrvices the E. experi­

enced communíon with the angels. Tbcir view of histo­

ry was based on predestination and on the division of

history imo epochs. The concept of two Ivfcssíabs is intcrcsting from all CSCh:lloJoglc ..d point. of view. A~

well as ro che Davidic Mcssiah, it looked to a priestly

> Mmiah (1 QS IX 11; CD XII 23; XIV '9; XIX lO; 4

Q test; d. CD XX 1) "nd w," pmbably influelleed by

Zach 4. ConsÍsrenr with the norion of being a remnant, tbere

can be found, along with tbe lexeme yahad ('new'), self­

descriptive tenl1s like 'pearle of the new covcnant'

(hbryt ¡'¡'dsh; en VI '9; VIII 2.1; XIX 3i; XX l2; "1' plying ro all ear!ier stagc uf the f.) or simp!y 'the lraguc'

(hhryt; c.g. 1 (~S I r B.20.¿4 ami passirn). BeLansc uf the

lee)' importancC:.' of duali!-illl and ~ eschatology the

Qumran com!11ul1lry has been repearedly charactcril.cd

as apocalyptic (secc.g.ll.í; 2.2.]), however the complete

abscncc of apocalypses in the Essene rcxts arglles

against rhis (d. 1'4; 33; 3 \ 1). The central role of Torah

ohscrvancc, the rheme uf purity aml calendary isslIes, as

weU as 1:IJ(, grcilr il1lportancl::: of rhe pri<:sts, aH sllggest

instead rhar rbe E. wcre a group determÜlcd by pricsts.

That if> shown especially clearly lJl 1 QSa 11 11-2.2.

whcrc, in the eschatological assemhly of God's coml11u­

nity, the priests cake precedellce over rhe Messíah both

01'1 entry ami dllring 11ll' meal. It may finally have ~:d.<;(J

bren a conscquCIlL'C of dw pricf>t!y infhll'llcc on rhe

Fsscne community that it adhcn.:d ro the ohl, solar cuit

calendar that had not hern in use sincl' the ~ Haf>mo

naean period ~for rhe dífferent solar and luniso!ar ("alen··

dan; in the 'astrollolllical book of Enoch' ¡astr En :::: 1

llen 72-B21, 'llook orJl1bilees·l.Jl1hl and the calendar

texts from qllIDran see lB; 27, vol. l. 53fLI).

Esscne tcxts are regarded essenrially as scriprnr<-11 ex·

egesis: rwo of the most import~nt commllniry rules (for

rhe Essenl' ~ J-'-Ialalcha sec r29; 3 [1) bear rhe title mdrs {h }tUJl'h lJ'f)nun ('definitivc cxcgcsni oí rhe Torílh'; sec in

the Oamasclls Documenr :rvrss frolll Cavcrn 4: 4 QIY

11 2Of. par 4 QLY 7 II 1 \) and mdrs lmshyl '1 'Ilsy htwrh bmtndhym lhsyb mkl 1" wlhhzyq hkl 'sr ,wh 'Direetions

for the instructor for aH men of the Tora h who ha ve

dedicated themselves ro ("11m frol11 evil and ro c1ing fasr

to evcrything rllat he has con'lDlanded'; sec in the MSS

ofcommunity rules from Cavcrn 4: 4 QSh 51 par 4 QSd

1 r t). The cornmunity's histQry and its cschatological

hupes afe dcpicted in conseclltÍve interprerations üf the

texts of the prophets and oí the psalms (consecutive

peshJrim) 01' in interpret;Hions (Jf thematically com­

piled written quotations (tbem;1tic peSb'H'lm). Both thc­

matic and consecutive resharim were dlUS regarded as

inspired and eapahle of scriptllraJ exegesis only jn fol­

lowing the 'teacher (Jf ¡llstice' (1 QpHab Il "-1 1; VII 3-5). The Essenes also tcnJed to eompose their poetic

liturgic.lllitet'<:lturc fro!11 quot;ltjons from, and alluslolls

tu, rhe Scripturcs ( ). Exegesis)

72.

D. H¡STORY

(For the 11lstnry of the E. see 134; ,~\; '3]): The ao­

cient accounts abollt the E., the excavations aml tlle

Esscne texts from Qumran allow a sketchy reconstrl1C­

tíon of the Esscne movement. The main li[crary sources

are the 5horr outline of nrigins in CD I Sff. and thc

eschat<llogical t'c;llization of Bíblical texts in the history

uf the E. tbrough Pcsarin,:.: After the Macc<lbean Jorra­

than, following the Hdlcnisric bigh priests Jasoll,

Menelausl Alcimus and ;:m interim predecessot whose

n.1Il1t' has not sllfvlvrJ (on th;:Jt ~T(' 1, 'i )), W;\S ;1ppointcll

high priest in J.5 2. Be ([ M<.lcc 10,15-21), his predeees­

sor left rhe Temple with a followi.ng f1'o01 tbe pricsdy

group and joined a Chassidic rriestly group callillg

itse1f 'the new covcnant'. Thar group prohably leh thc

Temple 20 yeal'S earlier;H the time of tlw so-ealled Hel· lenisric rcligiolls rdorms. From tb<: 1111ion of the two

grouJls there devcloped the Esselll~ cOlnlllunity (rhe rtlct

that Josephus mentiolls the E. fol' the firsr time c1uring

Jonath<1D's rcgime, in Ant. lud. r, 1 171-- , 7 ~, would

sllpport thar his[oncal gencsis; d.[1 ! 1). The CHiS l'-S for

the J 52 Be: schism werc rhe lunar calendar lIseJ by

Jonathan and the faet th;1t he W;;lS 11m an OniaJ ;lllJ

thus !lot of the ptic.'itiy family that alone was snpposcd

ro provicic tlw hig:h priest. In the Essenc tcxts of (~lHn

ran, Jonathan's predecessor ís dcscrihed only as 'tcJch

er of jllstice'. The doctrinal songs thar he cOl1l\1osed in

the [Jodayot and rhe aCCollnt in I (~pl-Iah XI 4-H, ¡.'I., document rhe cünflicts :'lIld crises associ;Hcc\ with the

schism. Tbe Saddllce;lll rcligiolls P;ll'ty developcd larcr

froll1 those pricsrs WllO staYl'd wit"h rhe Templc.

Quite soon ;:¡[rer rhe creation uf the E. a dispute arosc

over the cnrrcct illt('rpret~tí()n nf the '1'01';111. Under Lhe

Ieader whom the E. cal1cd a 'man uf dcrision' and 'm¡JIl

of Jies\ a grollp split off frotn thc E. They werc

dcscribed as tllOsc 'who interpret aiming for smooth

thíngs' ('51' dr,( !Jhlqwt or dwrsy hlqwt, eD I 18 ¡¡nd

fJassim). As the tenn involves a play on wonls 0\1 tlJc

eemral beliefs of Pharisaism (> Halakhah ami

). Mídr;:¡sh) and as the group so described was in 4

(~pN<lh )-4 I 6f. connected with rhe persccmion of

Pharisees hy > Alexander 116] lanoaeus [301, rhe

schism rnentioned in en I rúf. may weJlluve brollghl

ahollt the birth of Pharisalsm.The halakhie and c"¡eo~

dary ísslles of contention with the Pharisees were im­

pressively set Ollt in an carly 1etter from rhe Essene com­

mnnity to the high priest in Jerusalem (4 QMMT),

As attested by the allcient sources in their rcports of

the Essene movement having 4,000 members (see

ahove), the E. Ljulckly developed into a relatively large

religious party wbose influence should in no way he

underestim<1ted (d. 1,6; 1') 1)· Srructural precnnditions

in Qnmran, [he (s('veral~) cllcampments mentioncd al

el) VII 6 (and pass;'n). Philo (QlIod omnis pro bus liber

sit 75) and.Josephu .... (Bl L,124 AnL lud. 18,T9) suggcst,

Jl1 contrast to Pliny (HN 5,T7) thett ['he Essene l11ovc­

ment was not restrictcd tD the settlcmcnt <lt QunHan or

the Dead Sea. In eXC1vdtions at 'En d-Ghuwcir, HiClm

el-Sagha amI Jerusalem, graves have ber[l fOllnd

7J

re~embling those in the cClllctcries oE Qumran, tims pOll1tmg to Essene settlements ollts¡de Qumran l39J.

Lltrlc LS known of the furt:her coutse of ESSéllt' !listory.

Rderence to the persecurion of Pharlsees by the Has·

monean rulcr Alexal1der [161 bnllaeus (4 QpNah 3-4 I M. I, together with a fr. interprcted as an undelivered

message of grcetings ro I1m1 (4 Q44S), makes ir possiblc

th<1t rhCIT was a rapprochement with rhe Hasll1<mac,llls

during IliS period in afhee (10,-7" BC). The legendary

aecount of an F:.'s predicl'ion of Herod the Great's ruJe

(Jos. Ant. luJ. 1')'.37 S--.' 7N) cUllld hint at jJ(jlirical influ

cnce O!l that klllg. Thc cnd of the Fs~ene Olovement can

prohably be set during the Isrjcwish War (AD 60-7001'

74) - the archaeologieal fil1ds at Qumran and the

account of Essene martyrs in Jos. Bl 2,1 .52.f. both pnjnr

to rilat. The fact that a Zealot milir:lry coml1l<lndcr was

ca!lec! lohn the Essene (Jos. BI 2,\67), togetllCr with

ROl11an PLTSCCUtÍOIl of the E., makes it not Ilnproh;lblc

that the E. took P:H't 111 the Ze,llot liberation struggle.

The E" who Wl'l'C actllally p;)cifisl, would thu~ have

SCLll it as the final struggle, describt:d in the rule of war,

against the powers of darkness. Wherher remnants of

the Esscne movcment werc absorbed iuro early Christi­

anity aod Rahbinícal 1mbism LS "matter of eontentioll

but cannor ll(' rulnl OUl ;lltogcthcr.

F.J)ITlnN~: ! A.AIIAM, (;'1, BIJHU-IAIW, Ant. Hcric!l(, übcr die I'-,., ~1971. 2 K.BEYEH, Die aram. Texte vom 'I(llTll )\·1I.:cr, vol. 1--2., l')g4-1~94 .1./.11 CIlAIUF.... ­WOHTII (cd.), The Prmcel'on Theolngícal SClllinary Dcad Sea Scrolls PrnjccL, vol. 1fr., TInl n. 4 Discovcril's in rht: .!ude:lIlIJescr\, vol. [ff., I~) HE!. (:::o IlJD 1 H.) .'i F. (;AR cíA MARTiNE/., E.J, c:. 'l'1(;CIIELAAR, The Dc,td Sea Scrolls Stlldy LditiOI1, VOIS.l·-1" !9~)7/H (, F.I .. SUKENIK, Tlle Dcad Sea Scrolh of the l'lchrew University, 19S5 (Hchr. 1948) 7 e;. VERMES, M. D. (;OODMAN, The F'iscnes Ac· cording ro rhe Classical'soUfces, 1989. l.n¡,',HATUltF: 8 M.ALBJ\NI, Zur Rckonstruktioll cLnes vcrdrangte.n K(¡nzcpts: Dcr 364-Tagc-Kalende~ U.1 dcr~

gegenwarIlgcn Forschung,w: Id. et al. (ed.L Stuches 111 the Book of JlIbilees, J 997,79-12.5 9 T. S. l.h~i\lL, ]osephus' de,<;Cfiptions of the E~scnes illllstnltcd by thl' 0(':](1 Sea SLrolls, 198H 10 R.BEIH;MEfEll, Die Esscllcr-Benchte ucsFbviusJoscphus, 1993 1J O.BETL,S.V.E.ulldThe~

rapeurell, TRE JO, ~86-391 12 CH. BUHCl-IARD, BibJi­ogr. Zl1 den Hss. WHll Toten Mecr, vol. 1-2., ] 957-19úS 13 PH. R. C\l.LAWAV, 1'he His[()ry of rhe Ql1mran Com­munitYl 1988 14 J.CARMIGNAC, Qll'cst-ce que PApo· calyprl'qlle? Son emploi ú Qlllllnln, in: Revue de Qumran 10, llj79-19HT, 3-B 15 J.]. COLLlN~, Apocalypricism in the Dead Sea Scrolls, J997 16 F. M. CItOS:>, lhe An­cicnt Library of Qumran, .11995 17 F. M. CHOSS, E. Es­HU., OstraC:l from Khirher Qllmr6.n, Ill: IEJ 47, 1997, J 7-2.8 18 E.Fsl-IEL, 4Q477: Thc Rcbukcs by rhe Over­seer, in: Joufllal nf ]ewish Stlldies 45. T994, 11 r-f22

19 1-·1.-J. Ftd~HY, s.v. QUlllran, NCLlCS Bibdlexikon, in pnllt 20 F. G1\RCÍA MARTíNEZ, D. W. PAltHy, A Bíbliography of the Finds In che Desert of Judah 1970-95, 1996 21 LGINzIH·:n(;, Fine unlwkannre jüd. Sárc. 1922 22. M.Hl·N(;Fl,[lIdclltUJl1 lInd Hellefll~ml1'i, ':'1'-)7")

23 B.JONGLLlNC" A Classificu Bihliography' of rhe FinJ ... jn rhe Desen of }udah 19'iR-'T969, r97T 24 A.LANCE, H.LlCHTFNIWRC;I:.R, s.,' Qlllllran, TRE l~. 4')-79

25 W' S. I.ASüR, Bibljo~r<lpby of the Dead Se:] Scrolb

[."TATE l-\F(;ISfER74

194H-19'J71 (958 26 E.I.(JH"E, Die Tcxre allS Qumran, ¡T9<~1 27 ¡.MA1L',R, Die Qllmr:m F.: Die-- Textt' vom Toten Meer, vol. 1-3,1995/6 2fl .1.'1'. MILlK, Ten Years of Discovery in the Wilderness 01.! lH.iaea, 1959 29 L. H SUIIFF¡vlAN, The Halakhah al Qumrall, 1975 30 Id., Pharisees and SadJucees in Pesllcr Nahum, in: M.BRErr" LER, M.fISI--lBANE (ed.), Min~ah le-Nal.1aulll, FS Naburn M. Sarna, 199"), 272.-2YO JI Id., Reclaiming the De,lJ Sea Suoll .... 1994 12 Id..111U J. C. VANDEltKAM (~d.),

Eucydopedia of the Dead Sea Scrolls, 2000 .B H. STEGE"

MANN. Die Bed. der Ql1mr;lnfullde filr die ErfrH'schung del' Apoblvprik, 111: D. Hn J,JlOI M (ed.), Ap(1GdyptlCl~1ll IJl

rhe Iv!edirerranean World <lile! lhe Ncar Fasl, '1989, 4') 'i­S30 34 Id., Die Enrstehung ucr Qumrangcmeinde, rhesi ... Bonn [971 JS Id., Die Es!:ocncr, l'¿urnran,JohanJ1cs uel Taufer und Jcsus, "1994 36 Id., The Qumran Essenes­Loc~J Melllbcrs of tht Maín Jewisb Ullion ín Late Second 'fcmpk Times, in: l TUl'.lWLJ.E BAHREHA, L. VLC;AS I\.luN"

TANER (ed.), The Madrid (Jumr<tn Congrcs.'i, (9Y2., l-!1"­

166 17 (;. STl~MBI'.l((;El(, PhansátT, SadJllzacr, F' l , 9L) t

Hl J. C. VANDl'nJ(AM, Tlll' Dcad Sl:~ Scrolls Toeby, 1l)94 39 B. ZISSU, sLlh 'c¡brym hp'V-!rym' hhyt ~PP' - 'uwr 'rky'wlwgyr lqhyit 'Y':lyym?, in: A. FAIJ,;r {('d.), Nl'W SrllJles on JerllfOalcm. Procecclings of thc Sccond Confer l'llCe, J 99ó, 32.-40. ¡\IU

Estate register In contr;)Sr ro Lhe ~ bnd register rhar

existed - probably hased on Jn Old Egyptiall modcll JI - in PtolcT1laic and Roman Egypt (and, Ll'l <tntiquity,

possibly only thcre) as ,1 safcguard for priv;]cc property

trans,lCtions, the prim.1ry purpose of esta te regisrcrs

(ER) JI1c\ similar registers was the levy of Iand !.1xes as

wdl as the admlnisrratioIl uf sLatt' leases. Thus, <11mosr

inevitahly, r¡wy werl' JUSi as widesprcad a:"¡ those very

fonns of stat"C ¡ncome. A prereljlli..,ítc for staning Llp archives or books with record:;- of the sizc and location

of properries is <1 knowledge of sllrveying tcchniqucs

iJlld tbe ;wailability uf <1 profc.ssioll 01 ~ sUl'vcyors.

Howcver, We lack a c\irect tr<lnsmission nf an EH.

(tórma) for allcLent Rome z1l1d ltaly where OUI' knowl­

edge of this profession is by far rhe bese From a much

earlier period a so-caBed 'estllte register-texr' of

Urnamml1 (rule1'ofUr in Mesopotamia 21 11-2.094 Be) mentions ('he precisely sllrvcyed district borders of his

kingdom. In oth('t respeets as well, EH. werc app(lr~!lrly

widcspread in Mesopotam.ia and possibly even in gen­

er"luse [2. 571. ER in Egypt are treated i.u. 111 the 'Offi

cial rcgubrions for rhe vizjer' from the middle of rhc

2nd nüllennium Be r5 j. According ro it the mosr senior

official in the whole kingdol11 had the respoosibility.

amongsr otber things, for proceedings concerning

fields l checking the survey reslllts and administering rhe

ER and bounci;,uy maps. At first glance it is thercforc aH

rhe more Jstounding thar tl'chnical evidencc of an ER is

eomplctcly lacking fol' rhe Ptolemaic pniod in Egypt.

That is precisely rhe reason th;::Jt the land regisrer (bi­hll-Othélul enkt2seón) was origillally rcgarded as an EH.

(d. also 13.751). In the Ptolemaic periodl ho\,¡vcver, a

st'pararc ER may have bccn snperfluülls, as on rhe one

h3Jld rhe authorirles cOllld access the bnd regt.srer dt

<1(1)' time and on the other hand, becau'>c (lf a spec1fiL'

QUIRINU~ ,59

Quirinus [1] Roman deity A. NAME B. OR1GIN AND FUNCTlON e. CULT

A.NAME The etyrnology of the name (Q. from ,¡. co-uir-inus as

with ¡.- Quirites from ", co··uirites, 'the roraliry of the

citizens') makcs its bearer rhe prorecror of rhe Roman

cirizenry. The age and importance of Q. afe documcll-· ted by the mention of hi~ (lamen ( ". J-,'lmnines) in founh

pm,itioll of rhl' pricstly hicrarchy ( ¡. l{ex sil(J'orum)

transmitrcd 10 fesr. 299 f. 1.. Nevcrthelcss, his narure remains opaque: Bis origin is connected with the

iounding of the eity of Romc anel the first Roman eiti­zenship; however, beca use Q. was equared with rhe dei­fied >Romulus [1.], probably from the 3n:l eent. IIC, rhe original identity nf the god was hl11rrcd.

B. ORJ(;IN AND FlJNC'L'ION

Thc llames of thc rhn~e {Lamines maiores (Dia/is,

Martialis, Quirinalis) have kd to the gods ¡.lllppirer, p Mars and Q. (who are associated with them by

name) bcing scen as an archaic triad, which is sllpposed 1·0 have beeu subsequently repbecd by the Capitoline rr¡~ld (luppitcr, .~ luno and • i\J[inerva) [ l. 2<~ l. llow· cvef, rhe inrerpretation uf I"his 'original triad' has

changecl ovcr 1:he eourse of the 1.oth CC11I:. [n the i st half

of rhe cent., a Jualistic model of rhe scttlemenr of Rome predominared (d. Iz.. J .~o6, J 309-.[.) 12.1): In rhe early period o{ Romc ( • Romc 1.), the ¡. I..ariui from the Palatinc ane! 'Romulus' introducce! thcir gods, JBlong

whom luppiter held the highest tank, whilc the ,Sabini ftom the Quitinal, the 'Hill of Q.', btOught

theirs, including Q.; mOfeover, aecording ro the Iiterary rradirion, ..~ Numa Pompilius stcmlllcd from Cures,

trom the name of which sorne ancicnt erymoJogists de­tived Q. This model leaves the quesrion of Mms, the

legendary father of Romullls, opell. For some hisro­rians, Mars was the Latin, Q. rhe Sabinc god, whik

luppitet >toad above the whoIe. G. DUMÉZIL [3] sug­gested a complercly diffeJ'enr inrcrpreration of rhe rriad of gods: aeeotding to his global hypothesis of a fune­tionaJ rhrce-way divü;ion in lndo-European societies, he

saw Q. as the god of material prosperity, whieh faeili­tatee! the life of the eitizenry. However, the Iron Age finds of recenr decades in LatiuIl1 have rehabilitated thc assumption oí a mixeJ settlcment of Rorne in the early period; rhis also supports rhe rhesis of rhe ropographic roots of rhe different cults in che separate regions of

Rome (el. 14; 5. 73-801). In the historieal era, Q. is the god of rhe polítieal

organizarion of the Roman cirizens in one of their divi­sions, rhe -l· cU1"iae, whosc name ('~ co-uiria) c1early

shows the rclatíonship ro rhe godo The assimilation of

ROJ11ulllS, the deified foundC'f of rhe city, \Virh Q. can also he berter undersrood wirb r!lis in mine!. The rcla­

tionship of Q. ro Nlars, particularly the role of each as war gocl, was alrcady discussed ín anriquiry (Li\',

5152,7; Dion. Hal. Anr. Rom. 2..,48,2; Fes!. 238 L.; d.

360

[2. 1306-1309J;-> SaIii [2]). Servius ptoposed a divi­sion oi power (Serv. Aen. 6,8\9 f.; cf. 1,1.9'.): Q. is a Mars who guards peaee and is hononred wirhin rhe city,

while rhe war god Mars receives a culr oursiJe the city. On the other hand, 16] sees Q. as a god who appeared only after rhe emergen((~ of rhe urbs in order to ensure

its proteetion (custodia), while Mars was the protecror of rhe ager Rotntllws, OH which war was often ncccs­

sary; thus, Q. is not, as l3J hol"s, the protector of the carrIc and fields who guaranteed rhe materiallifc of the Rornans, bccallsc he did no[ lcavc the urhs.

C. CULT Q. had several sancruarics in Rome: I-Jis main temple

srnod on rhe ¡. NIons Quirinalis, in rhe neighbourhood

of sanctuarics of Sabine deities ([ 7. '39-' 44; 8]; cf. [') 1). The festival of the god, the Quitina lia on 1. 7 Feb­

nwry, tell on the "ame day as tile festival of the > Forn­acalia, bur rhe two wcrc not l'Olllrningled; the Quirina­tia, which do not have an agraria n characrcr, was a fesrival of the [uriac.

1 C;.'W¡SSOWA, Hcl.ig,ion und Kulnls del" Hümn, 1 1912

2 CKOCJI, <;. v. Q., RE :';'-4, 1306-IV.1 3 DUMÍ:ZIl.

4 C. AMPOJ.O, L:1 nascit'<l de1L1 citt<'¡, in: A. MOMT(;L1ANO,

!\.SC!IIAVONI'. (ell.), Sm]"iil di l{oma, vol. 1, IlJH8, 151­

180 S l.l CnRNEU., 1'he Ikg,innings of Rornc, 1995 (, A. MM;J.)ELAIN, De la royaurl' cr du Jroir Jc ROllmtus a Sabinus, (99)" 7 A.ZIOLKOWSKl, The ·Icmp1cs of Mid­RcpuhliC<\ll R{une, 1.992 B F.COAltELLl, s. V. Q., acJcs, l:rUR4,IH)"·-IH7 l)ld.,s.v.Q.,:-.acdlllJ"Il,ITl.JR4, 18 7·

A.nu'

[2] (Kugí'voS; Kyrínos). Sophisr frorn Nicomcdia 1 born

about AD "70 (?), student of >Hadrianus [l.], whose work he may have edited (cf. Philostr. VS 2,29,621). Philostralus [5-81 praised his powerful oratory ami his

lack of greed and sclf-asscrtion as an aduocatus fisci (probably under Septimius Sevcrus and in an eastern províncc); Philostrarus quotes bons mot;s but no spe­

eches, and notes that Q. died aged 70. PIR Q 55. ¡. Second Sopbistic E.no.

13] Rhetor of the 4th eenl". AD from Antioehia, known only from Libanius. He held high-Ievcl administrative offiees, was probably governor in Lycía, Pamphylia and Cyprus (Lih. Ep. 366); he declined the offiee of a prae­

(ectus Galliarum in 355 (386,6f.1. His son Honoratus

studied with Libanius (300, 3'0, 366). In 163, Q. re­tired ro bis esta tes in Cilicia ancl died there approxi­

mardy ane year later (I 24 3; 13°3; 1327).

PLRE 1, Quirinus M.W.

Quirites P01mlus !\(J1né111US Quirdes (or, [;:¡ter, Quiri~

ttum) was rhe officiai rerm fur rhe Roman cirizenry. Ir contaills rbe name of the ciry (Romanus) and rhat ofthe

> IJOpu/uS (Quirites), as Wilh >Ardea (Ardeates

RutuLz) ane! ~ Lavinium (Laurelltes Lavinates), where

the name oi the city stood alongsirie that of the people living rhere. Thé singular form, Quiris, snrvives only in

arehaie formulae (Fest. 304' ol/us Quirís).

3 (;1

The erymalogical derivarion of the rerm is sri11 dis­pllted. The Romans themselves wishcd ro separare Qui­rites neither from rhe god --¡. Quirinus nor the Quirinal

HiII ( ,Mons Quirinalis), and attributed the double term to the fllsion of the Sabine eommunity (~.> Sabini) on the Quirinal with the Palatine eity of Rome (Fest.

304). Both the Hamo of the Sabine eity' Cures and the name Juno Curis or Quiris atresred rhere ilnd elscwherc

eould fit sueh a Sabine etymology (derivation fmm Cures already in Varro, Ling. )",) 1; d. also Varro in

Dion. Hal. 1\nt. Rom. 2.,48 ane! [1]1. Others derive the word from ':·co-uirites, which could mean 'aUmen' 01"

'en tire eommllnity' r,.. l.17ff.l.

1 W.EI.SENI-IUT, s. v. Qlliris, Q., Curis, Cur(r)itis, RE 24, 1.")24-1 3~ ~ 2 P. Krtl~)·~cIIMJ~R, Lar. Q. und quiritare,! in: Glorta 10, 191.0, -1<17-1.'i7 .1 A.PJtOSlJOCIMI, Curia, (~.

e il sistema di Qllirino, in: ()srraka 5, 1996, 24.'1-3 J 9. IU,A.

Quiza. City in ¡. Maurcrania Caesariensis, northcasr

of Portus [5] Magnus on thc right bank of the OucJ

Chclif (Plin. EN 5,I9: Q. Cenital1a; Ptol. 4,2,3: Ko\iil;", xOAwvLa/l(oúi"za koLó11íaj 1t. Anr. J. 3,9: Q. munici­f)ium), l1lodern El-Bcnian. J)uu1nlJih are attested for

AD 'L8 (ClI. VIII 2, 9697); there is also l1I.ention of a disp(uIlctorl reíp(ub/icae) Q(uizellsium) ('eomptroller

of the eity of Q.', CIL VIII 2, 9699). Inseriptions: CIJ.

VIn 2, 9697-97°3; suppl. 3, 2J 5 r4f. Significant ruins survivc.

AAAIg, !ea[ 11, no. 1.; P. CADENAT, Q. ct' Milla "., in: Libyea 2, 19.~4, 243-248; I-1.TREIDLER, s.v. Q., RE 24,

T.33"1· W.lHJ.

Qurncsh see ~ Comisenc

Qumran

1. HrSTORY 01.' FlNDS 11. SETrt.EMENT IlI. SUR­ROUNDING AREA 1V. NATURE AND fUNCTlON OF

THE SETTLEMENT

1. HlSTORY 01' FlNDS

Thc settlcmcnt of Q, on rhe norrhwest shore of the DeaJ Sea, c. 20 km sourheast of --~ Jernsalenl, rcceives

its na me from Wiid¡ Q., at the end of whieh it Iies. After Bedouins diseovered rhe first scrolls in nearby caves in

1947, the settlement of Q_ itself was excavated in a roral

of five ca,mpaigns, 1951-1956 [11; 28; 29; 30; 3d, and digs and surveys have been carried our very recendy 15; 1.8; 24; 26J. The l::lirbat Q. site essentially eonsists of tbree eomponenrs: a IOO m x 80 m building complex,

three ccmeterics and nUlllerous caves, sorne artificial and SOlne narural, in nearby and broadcr environs.

11. S¡'TTLEMENT

The c~1fliesr settlement al I:lirbat Q. dares bcfore rhé Exilie Periori (Iron Age 11). The rectangular bll.ilding, with a forccourt and a large ronnd cistcrn (d. sire plan), resembles lsraelire fortresses in the Negcv dnd the

~ 67~ QUMRAN

Judaean desert. Tbc ceramies date from rhe 8th cent. Be t'O rhe heginning of rhe 6rh. This dassificarion is con­firmeJ by a Im/k-seal impression (/m/k = 'for the king')

and a palaeo-Hebrew osrrakon, rhe wriring on which dates to the late 7th or eady 6th eent. Be. The !ron Age sire could have been part of a ring of fonifieation built

by Uzziah (790-740) and is ealled S'·kaka in Jos l 5: 6]

(ei. 3 Q'5 IV '3; V 2·5-'31 [II. Hirbat Q. experienced irs mosr intensive sertlernenr

in d~c Graeco-Roman Periodo Accordinp; to M llrabha \l! 45,6 the pL.lcC Wá::; calleJ lvl"~(/(i !JilSídi1l (Aramaic, 'fort of the devout') in this periodo Phase la is hard to date beca use of irs short c1uration and rhe paucity of ceram~

ies, scarcely distinguishable from finds in subsequenr strata. Essenrialiy, rhe L'arlier building remains WC'rc llscd and rwo mOre cisterns WCfe added to rhe lron Age

one. Phase lb was originally dat"cd ro the reign of

>Hyrcanus 121 I (J 3.\/4--l04 BC) [29], yiclding a beginning for Phase la in rhe time of.Jonarhan (T 60-J 4L

Be) or Simon ( '42-J 3514 BC). Re-interpretation ohhe numismatic aud ceramic fincis, howcver, makes ir mOJ"e

likely that the beginning of building (Phase la) dates to the period of Hyreanus I and the beginning of Phase lb

to the reign of >Alexander [¡6J.1annaeus (1.03-76 Be) [3; 27]· The insrallation rhen grew to its greatcsr exrent

"l>.()f c. J.oo m x 80 lll. Ir consistcd of a main building with a massive tower (site plan no. 2), internal courtyard ancl

comIllunal rooms; to tbe south there was a large assem­bly room (no. 9), whieh aIso sl'rvee! as a diniug hall, wit"h an annex wherc more than 1,000 piecL's of crock­

ery were found (no. lO). Southcast of the assem.bly room there wcrc rwo pottery workshops (no. 6) ane! a

firing oven (no. 7). A huilding wcst of tbe central couft­yard consisted of a further internal courryard ane! st'O­rerooms. Betwccn the t\'Vo buildings lay tbe three cis­terns from Phase la and workshops. In ae!dition, furrher cisterns and several miqua)ot (rirual baths) and a eOlTI­

plex water installation (no. 14) were found. In the arcas around the building animal loanes (mostly of sheep and

goats, but also oxen) Came tO Jight. The end of Phase lb is marked by earthquake damage anel traces of fire. DE

VAUX [29J has interpreted them in the eontext of the

great carthqllake of 3"1 Be (.Jos. An!. ludo 1 S,5,1.-1 22; Jos. BI 1.,1.9>3-370). MAGNESS [I7! has shown, how­ever, based cm a re-evaluarion of rbe numismatic finds,

that the fire can be set no eadier than 9/8 Be.

Tbe coin finds show rhar rhe sertlement was nor rehuilt until under ,Herodes [31 ArcheIaus (4 BC - AD 6) (Phase 1I). The building and its disposition hardly altered. The inkweIls and the 'writing desk', whieh have

becorne famoos, are from this periodo The size of the

large assembJy room in the somh of rhe eonlplex sug·· gests rhar rhe population of rhe sertlerncnr in Phases lb

and II was about 200. The faet that the latest Phasc II

coins date to the 3rd year of the first Jewish War (AD 68) whereas thc earliest Roman coins are from the years

AD 67-68 and rhar in this period Romall troops werc stationed inJericho IJos. Ant. ludo 4,8,7, § 433) Ieads to the deduetion that the settlement of Q. was destroyed

QUMlZ¡\¡"¡ ;6) 36;364 Vi6 QUl\1RAN

r-- -----..- ...--.-..- ..- ..-.--.. by Roman troops 1lI AD 68_ A smaL! part of the settlc­

mCI1t' was sllbsequently rebuilt as aRoman garrison

(Pha,e UI), Becduse rhe latest COITIS from this phase date .~ ro AD 72.-73, the garrison may hav0 been withdrawn e o .~ ~

again after the conquest of the fonress of. Masada. ~ ~ ~ On the basis of hnds of coins fmm the secolld Jewisb O 8 8 ~ E" e

War the rnins were used in this period by .lewish resist­_ -€~:e

ancc groups as a hiding-place. ~ i3.. tl.O[~~ i _ ~ ·6 E-62 O" Q;

u «l e111- SUR[(OUNDING AntA

hnrnedi<11cly adjaccIH ro ,h(' budding comp1cx thercHU hUí wae ccmeterics, a main OllL' (e. [, j 00 gra ves) and two o ~ rol Ir,<'1 '1 \(1 ~ secondary ones (each 1 5-30 gr~lVcs) t"hesc latter, ac­

cording to the most reccnt studics) o[ more recCnt date

and of Bedouin origin L14 In all, 5 J graves [2 J; 26; '-9 [ ha\'t becn opened. The hcads o[ [he eorpses are all urí

~

enred ro the sOllth. Thc hodies themsclvcs lie in graves

1.2--1.0 m Jeep undcr rhe l'astcrn wall in a hollow cm'·· o

·00 ;¡J cred with stonc ~labs. SOlllt: graves cOlltained more thnn

onc skcleton. WhCfl';lS ir W~lS original1y assulTled that~~

1: apan [rOln <l IHImher of eXl'eptions around the edgc, ~ only rnen 's skcletons were hurieci in the main (l'mereryeS ji [29.1, more recenr anthropological studics of rhe skel­

ctons have shown that Women anrl children wcrc not~~l~jL~

buricJ oill)' in the sccondary CClTlctcrics. C;ravé 2..4 ('ven

<lO eontaillcd the skclctons of borh aman and ;] W01l1311

\l) [21]. Nonc of the lIlost reccntly investig;][ed skelerons Cl ~

.~ u x belonged to individnals who had carned their livings by -.. 00 ~

I ~~ pbysieall,lbolJr [2 J j. Ccmcteries with the same type of

grave h:1VC brell founcl not only in 'Ain al~(juwair,~ ~.~ ~

O UJ E E J::Iiyam al-Saga, Jericho (Tall al-Sultán) ami in rhe southO I OJ ~

~ ~t---- ';;;"~~ of modcrn Jerusalcm (Rait ~afafa) 1 r; 2; 9; 13; :.u.; 331,ti ~~~ ~~~ but are known aIso from thc Nab3tacan rcgion in the

1St an<1 2nd cents. AD (lJirh:.n Qa¡sun, al-Faifa) andi ji~~~~i~

possibly t)irhat Sakina and al-Had¡ta) [19; w]_ lJnlikeE ~18 ~~~.§

:::J c·~,-·~~~:g the Q, sitcs, in a small nurnber of the graves of HirhatO ~:i~oaus:

Qaisün there are grave goods (jewellery and "dOCll­

ments) and five tornbstoncs. In rhe cnurse of cxca vati­

on8 in the neighhourhood of Q., DE VAUX found sorneJI ~ e 11 40 ollce-inhabitcd cJ.ves, with the ceramics of 2.7 caves

corrcsponding 1'0 Q.'s ensemble o[ ceramics and, with

some probability, having becn made there [29- 54 LI_ Ir was in eleven of thesc caves that the Q_ MSS were found

- mostly by Bedouills and rarely by areh.1eologists (~> Dead Sea (textual findsl; ~, Esscnes)_ Some caves

were artificiaUy knocl<t'd. into the mar! terraces of Wadi

Q- (e.g_, 4 Q; S Q; 7 Q; 8 Q; 9 Q; lO Q)_ Later exea­vations found further caves and the rcm<.1ins of a tcnt

(118] and H. ESHEI. in [24]), which shows that the char­

acteristic living quarters wcrc t'ssentialIy caves and ~ tents. Besidcs thc ceramic finds) 311 ostrakoll very rec­

--:/ ~~-.::::---- rt\ emly found in Q_ 151 and a fragll1C11r showing tiJar regu­

z-....,¡( lations from the community rules (1 QS; -4 QS'\-I; 4

QD'-h; S QD; 6 QD) of Q_ (for 4 Q477 see [8]) had been1~;Íi~~~'~ ~

transfened there also prove rhe connexion between the:~~" / caves and tbe serrJemcnt.'>/ " -~

4~C:! //? CAín Fasl]a: At 'Ain Fas~al ahout 3 km to the south

• ., of Q., a courtyanl wirh workshops \Vas found: a build­

ing, to which a pen and a shcd to the south :.llld basins Ll1

an enclosure ro rhe north werc conncctcJ.

IV. NATURE AND FUNCTION 01' TEL:. SFTTLE­

MENT

The rationaJe of the settlement at (~. has bcen under­

srood varioLlsly as that of a military fortress [7i IoL a

villü rustica 16J, an Esscnc cult sire built in a Hasmo­

naean villa 11 LJ, an Essene fine leather tannery and

serol! faetory [27], a Zadokid splinter group's sehonl­

illg centre 12. sI ( • Z<.lJok 1 sons of) Jnd a fortified cus­

toms statinn \\,it'h assoeiated road house and integrated

haspiee [4J- On tbe otber haud, the col!ection of exeeed­ingly sobre lTr;ll1lics I J h 1and the WJLer instalhtiolls ­

which, e.g., in comparison to thc Hasmonaean-Hero­

dian uillae uf .Jericho, were obviously orientcd 3t the

purity rcquircments of a religiolls comrnunity l171 ­c!C3rly indicare th3t the rationalc for Ihe setdf'lllent ,-H

Q. W3S for it to serve as [·he centre of ;¡ rdigiOlls COIll ­

mnnity, Llsing m least some of thc caves for homes and a lihLUY· Tile transfn, rccordcd by 4- Q4T7, o.f thc como tllunity rules in rhe scttkmcnt of Q. speak to dwt Sl'tt ­

lcmcnt's Ess('nc char;lcrcr ( ~ EssenesJ (communis opi­

nio, esp. [27; 2.9]). Thc cemctcrics of 'Ain al-c';uwair,

Ij.iyam al-Saga and .Jericho make furrher Essene settlc­

meuts aroulld Q_ likely; f¡nds at naif SafMa poiut to an

Essene settlemcnt in JerusalcOl. Thc Nabatacan paral­"lds COLtlel point ro Nahara('Jn cultural inflllcncc on tbe

Essene l11ovcment, pDssibly through mCmbl.TS from thc

Nabatacan diaspora, nnd this could be confirmed by

the Nabataean mannseripts 4 Q23S and 4 Q343­

~ Dead Sea (texrual fillds); > Essenes (with map)

I P. BAR-Au( )N, Another ScttlemcrH of che Judeill1 Dcsl.·lt Scct at En-c\-Ghuwdl' 011 che Sho1'cs of the Dead Se<ll in: BASU 2.2.7, J 977, 1-2. ') 2 C. M. RENNETr, Tümbs of rhe J{onKIII Period, in: K. M. KENYON ku.), Excavarions al"

Jericho, vol. 2., 196.'),516-545 3 P.R. CALLAWAY, The Hismry of che Q. COffimuniry, 1988 4 L. CANSDAl.E, Q, and rhe Essenes, J997 S F. M. CROSS, E. ESHEl., Ostraca

from Khirbct Qumrán, in: IEJ 47, 1997, 17-28

6 R.DoNCEEL, P.DONCl~EI_.-V()\}r¡~~ The Archacology of Khírbet Q_, in, M_ 0_ WISI' et al, (ed_), Methads of lnvcs­cigation of the Dead Sea Scrolls and the Khirbet Q. Sire, J 994l I-38 7 G. R. DRIVER, The Judean 5c1'ol1s, 1965 8 F. ESHEL, 4Q477: The Rebukes by the Oversecr, in: Journ. of Jcwish Stud. 45,1994, llJ-I2.l. 9 H.EsHEL, Z. GIl..EENI-IlH, ~iam El-Sagha, a Cemctery of the Q. Typc, in: RBi lOO, I993, 252-259 10 N.GOLB, Q., 1994 11 L.HARDlNG, R. DEVAUXlG. M. CRAWFOOT, H.]. PLEN­

DERLbITl-l, Thc AIchaeological Fincls l 1ll: DJD 1, 195.5, 3-40 [2 J.-R.HuMBERT, l.'Espace Sacré .1. Q., 111: RRi

lor, 1994, ] 61-2.1 T 13 K. M. KENYON, Excavations ..1t Jerieho, vol. j, 1981, I73f. 14 E_-M.LAPEROlfSSAZ,

QOUl1lrall, 1976 15 .J.lv.lAGNESS, The CQJ1ullunity ar Q. in Lightüflts Potter}', in: see [6], 39-50 16 Id., A Villa ar Khirbcr Q.?, in: Rev. de Q. 16, 1993/4, 397-<119 17 Id., The Chrunology of rhe SenlemelH <'It Q. in tbc Hl'foJlan Penod, in: Deae! Sea Discovcries 2.. J ~~ 5, 58-6.5 18 J. PATRICH, Khirbel Q. and the ManuscripL Finds of rhe: Judaean Wilderness, in: sce [6], 73-95 19 K.D. Po LITIS, Thl" Nab<.1tJ.can CClllctcry at Klurbct (¿azone, in: Ncar Eastern Archaeology 62.]~, 1999, 11.8 ).0 JeL, Reselle Excavations at rhe N"b<ltaeJ.D C:emctery at Khirbct QazouC' T996-1997, in: AnnllaJ ni the Department of An­tiquitics of lardan .p., 1';198 .. 61T-614 110.RdHRER­

QUMf<AN ,67

ERTL, f. ROBRHIRSCH, D.HAHN, Über die Graberfelder von Khirbct Q., insbcsondere die Fundc der Campagne 1:956, 1: Anthropologische Datenvorlage und Ersraus­werrung 3ufgrllnd der Collecrio Kurth, in: Rev. dc Q. J9, 199912000, 3-46 22 D. RESHEF, P.SMITH, Two Skeleral Rcmains fram l:Iiam e1-Sagh:1, in: RBi 100, 1993,260-1.69 23 f. ROHRHIRSCH, Wissenschaftsrheorie llnd Q., 1996 24 A. ROITMAN (ed.I, A Day atQ., '997 25 L. H. SCHIFF­

MAN, Recbiming rhe Dead SCJ Scrolls, 1 Y94 26 S.H,

STECKOU, Preliminary Excavarían Report, in: Rev. de Q. 6, 1967-1969, 323-344 27 H.STEGEMANN, DIe Esse­ne1", Q., JohanOl's del" T;iufcr lwd ]esl1s, j] 1)94 Zf: R. DE

VAUX, Archéologie, in: D]D 3.1, 1962., .1-)6 29 Id., Al' chacology and che Deacl Sea Scrnlls, 1973 30 Id., FOlli]· les de Kbirbcr QUl11rán et de Ai"n Feshkha, vol. 1, 1':194 31 Id., Die Ausgrabungen von Q. llnd En Feschcha, vol. la,19y6 32J.E. ZIA~, The Cemeterics oE Q. ami Celi­b:lcy: Confusiolll.aid to Rest?, in: Dl'ad Sea Di~C()Veries 7, 2.000, 220-253 33 B. ZISSO, 'Q. Type' Graves in JCIll

salenl:' Arehaeoiogical EvideIlte for an Essc.ne Commu­ni1Y?, in: Dead Sea Discoveries 5, 1998, 1.')8-J7I. AlU.

Qurnran. Aramaic. QA (= llasrnol1aicJ LS rhe name giv­en ro rbe ) Aramaic in which rhe texrs fOllnd in

>Qumran werc written (1 st cent. BC to 2nd ccnt. AD),

which, howcver, are nor quite unifonn in theír lan­gl.lagc. QA has rhe characterisrícs of a srandardizcd lit­

cr<Iry language (whicb a150 reappears larcr in Aramaic ) Biblc rransladons, such as largum Onqclos1Targum

Jonal"han: note rhe pronouns i:wd infinirivcs). Yer ir also still had linguistic features based un >Official Aramaic aud also th,' Aramaic oithe Bibk. QA shows the cadieS[

índicatiol1 for rhe dcvclopment 01" rhe subsequcnr West­ern Aramaic di<llecrs, cspccially rbe Chrisrian-Pa1csri­nian Aramaic ( ~ Palcstinian~Aramaic). for example in orthugraphy (tcndcney towards plenc spelling) and morpho!ogy. QA is still almost entircly free of Greek ami Latin words, bur the Hchrcw subsrrare, which sub··

sequently became ;] characreristic fearure of Wesrern Aramaic, is already bccoming more obvious in loan words and nOlln formation,

Ext3nt texto indude translations of [he boolcs ofJob, Tobir and Enoch, a Gcnc.sis Apocryphol1, and rhe Tcs­tamcnt of Levi. Inro rhe samc linguistic group also

belong the doeuments (papyri) fOllnd in Nabal Hever, Wad¡ Sayyal ami Wacl¡ Murabba'al. No comprcbensive

srudy of QA exists. , Aramaic;" Nabaraean; -) Palmyrenc; , Papyrus

K. BEYER, Die aramaischen Tex[c vom Toten Meer, voJs 1

and 2., 1984/1994; J.A. FnZMYER, The Dead Sea Scrotls. Major PubJications and Tools fur Study, 1977; J. T. MTlIK, Díscoveries ín the ]udaean Dcsert, vol. l, 195 5.

<..K

Quocl idola clii non sin! ('That idols are nol gods'). An apologeric trearise in rhyrhmic form from rhe mid-4rh

cent. AD, attributed to ' Cyprianus 12] but based on Lactanrius [lj. Contenrs: 1-7: Rcjcetion of the clllr of thc gods as a demonic illusion, llar rhe cause or rhc gre­arnesS oE Romc; 8-9: Discuvery of the one God; 10--14:

1v1ission, work, passlon and resurreetion of Christ; 15:

.1 68

Cal! to follow. The main sourees are-' Minueius fU r] Felix and Tertullianus, Apologeticum (see aiso De_o)

spectaculisL as wcU as Lacrantius (Divmae i71stitutio­

/les, De ira del, Epítome), Cypríanlls (tidc based on Ad

Fortunatum J, condusion based on Ad DemetríanumL

also pagan SOllrces, e.g. Virgil. Since Hieronymus (Ep. 7°,5.2, commendarory) and Allgusrine and into rhe 20rh ccnr. rhc 'pockct:sizcd apology' was thoughr ro be

the worlc of Cyprian. t- Apologists

EU¡1"lON: W. HAR"IT1., C:~EL J.I, 19-,3!.�

L.ln~RATORE: LHECK, Pseudo-Cyprian, Q. und Lactanz,� Epirome divinaruITI institutiollllm, in: M. WACl-IT (ed.),� Panchaia, FS K. Thraede, J 995, q8-r 55; A. WLOSOK, in:� HLL§481.j. r..I1E.�

Quoclvultdeus. Burn toward the end uf the 4th eent.,

deacon from 4 I7'-42.1 , and in 4.~"7 (a.ccording lO \s1as

carly os 4 j 2/j) bishop 01' Carrhage. He encouraged

~ Augusrinus (AlIg. Episr. 2.21; 223) ro wrire De hae­resibus (Jcdicared ro Q.). After Carrhagc was conque­

ted by , Gciserieus kl9), Q. was cxilecl ro Campania because uf his prorests against Gciscricus' policy on rcli­

gion (Victor of Vita ',15 CS!'L 7), where he died (today his tomb is in the N~rks carhcdra1). Ar least r3 psclldo­Augustinian scrmon~ are currcntly attribured ro him

(see 13. 1.1-161), alongwith the excgetical work De pro­missiuni!Jus et praedicatiul1ibus Dei, which was tl"adi­tiollally bclievcd ro hnvc hecn wrir[cn by ~ Prospcr Tiro (arguing ag;1inst Q.' amhorsbip: 1411.

EDlTION,',: 1 le BRAUN, ceL (,0, [976 1 Id., sebe, 1964, rol-102- 3 A. V. NAZZARO, Q., Promessc e pre~

diziolli di dí 0, 1.989 (with 11. transl. and coml11.). BIBLIOGRAPHY: 4 M.SIMoNETn, L:l produi'jone lette~

raria latina fnl Romani t' barhari (sec. V-VIII), 1986135 f. S W. STIWBl., Notitiolae Quoc!vultdc<lnac, in: Vigiliae Chrjstianae 52., 1998, J 93-2°3. T.fo.

Quotation marks SCl' , PUl1cru:ltioD

Qur'iin (](oran) A.DEFINITION B.OllIGIN C. STItUCTURE ANO

FüRM - LANGUAGE AND STYLE D, CONTENT

E. COMMENTARIE5 AND 1"RANSLATIONS F. TI-lE

QUH' AN WITHIN THE FRAMEWORK üF THE HI5TO­

RY OF ANClEN"!' IDEAS AND GENRES

A. DEFINITION

The s"cred book of the Muslims, the word oI God,

rcecived through the prophet ' Muhammad e. AD 6 IO-6}2.

B.ORIl;IN

The divine revela tions had alre,dy been eolleeted in oral and writtcn form by the faithful during tbe lifetime

(lf the propbel, but il was the 3rd ' Calipb ,Othman ('Utman; 644-56) who eompiled thelll in their ultimate, unchangeable, canonical formo

~69

C. STRUCTURE AND FüRM - LANGUAGE AND

ST,¡·tE

The 1 [4 Suras (loan word from Talmud;e Júrah 'se­

quence, line'l are roughly organized aeeording to length from rhe longest ro the shorresr, with tbe exceprion of the first one, the 'opening' ial-fatiha), a short prayer. Eaeb Sura eonsists of individual verses. It is only partly possiblc ro esrablish a sequence of revelations baBed on thematic and srylistic crireria, even the disrinction be­

rween rhe Mecca and Medina Periods (meanin~ hefore or ahcr tIJe ~ Hcjira) i~ no1' cHtirely deae.

Tbt Arabie of the Qur'an is a formal standard !an­guage in rhymes. Tht text first consisted purcly of eon­sonanrs, which al10wed diffcrent interpretarions. In rhe

2lld half of the 8th cent., the [ext was complctely fur­nished wirh added vowels and recitation signs.

D. CONTENT

The Qur'an conrains rules and instrucrions for aH arcas of life, thus ir is rhe primary soun.:e of Isbmic law, fairh, and rules of conduce Early on, rhe goodness and

omnípotence of the one God (Allah), lhe Lasl .Indge­menr, and norions of paradisc were the main focus. Lar­er, we find nn increased engagemenr wirh specific ]ew­ish and esp. wirh Christian tOpiC5, parr of WhlCh are

legcnds of prophers (í.a. Abraham, Mosl..:s, Salomoll j

Jesos). An originaJ scripturc from hcaven is undersrood

to be [he origin of the sacred texts of Jews and Chris­rians as wcll ('owncrs of scripture'). In rhe Medinensic Period, th(> rclationship ro owners of scripture deterio­

rares and abroga1'ions parrially revise previons sratc­mcnrs abour rhcm.

E. COMMENTARIES AND TRAN5LATIONS

The need for inrcrpreration concerning SOl11e of rhe tevelarions soon gave rise ro rhe Qnr'an exegesis as an indepcndenr literary genre. On the other hand, trami­lar¡ons were prevenred ar firsr due ro rhe explicir refer­enee to Arahie in the Qur'an itself and due to tbe dogma rhat it is li1'erarily inimirable - despire a growing need

for them cinc ro the rapid expansion of> IsJam. The firsr Latin translarion of rhe QurJan was complered in tI43 on Petrus Venerabilis' iniriarive (Cluny). l1.SCHO.

F. THE QUR'ÁN WITHIN THE FHAMEWORK üF

THE HISTORY OF ANCIENT IDEAS AND GENRES

The word qur)an is of Syrian origin « qeryallii, 'pe­ricope reading'). Correspondingly, the Qurlan indicares

,\70 QUSAf

borh in form and conrcnr rkH rhe origins of Islam art ro be found in Late Anriquiry. In rnis context, ir is dcbat­able bow mueh Christian and Jewish hymn poetry had

been adopred inro the Ql1l·'an. This quesrion, however1

musr nor be dismissed alrogerher since rhe reccprion and further development of traditional Christian aud Jewish rhemes in Islam has llar only been lcnown for a long rime, bur Islam rcgarded irself as thc heir and, at

rhe same rimc) as rhe genuine represenrarive of rhe origi­nal Illonotheistic re1igion inangllrared by )- Abraham [l J. The lingllisric cbaracrer of lhe Qur'an poinrs into this direetion as well: based on Old Arabic (prose rhymes sag' were also used hy 'pagan' fortune-tellers,

b,hhan), the spceific religious voeabulary is eharaeter­ized by many horrowings from Hebrew ((illiyün <

(mlyón 'nppermosr heavcn') and Syrian (~alat < ~elü!a,

'prayer" masgid < masg'·g.ii, 'place of prayer'), second~

arily from Ethiopian and Old Arabic as wcll (rahman,

'God thr merciful'; original name of 3n old soutb

Arabic gDd}. Aside form rbese loan words, many con­eeprs and srories apparently reached Muhammad by l;\fny of oral SOl.1rces. Esp. obvious is the Qur'an's chris­tologiea! docetism (, Doketai) and the presenee of sev­eml Haggadic stories ( >Haggadah; thus in the only narrativc Sllra 12 'Ylisnf'). Th.c larcr, Medinensic Suras, on the orhcr hand, were shapcd afrcf commentaries of

[he .Jewish ' Halakhah. In its entirety, bowcver, tbe Qurlan presents an inn4)Varive and quirt original uniry and can be regarded as rhe suecl'ssful atrcmpt to newly formulare an Arabie rcligious idcnriry in Lare Anriquiry

based on rbe Jewish/Chrisrian religions ycr in constanr dialogue wirb rhe lattce.

H. BOl\ZIN, Dcr Km.m im Zcita!ter del" Reformation. Stu­dien zur Frühgeschichtc der Arabistik und lslamkunde ín Europa, 1995 J. DAMMEN McAuLIFFE (ed.), The Encyclo­paC'dia of rhe Qur'<l.n, 1999 J. W. HIRSCHBERG, Jüdischc und cbristlische Lehren im vor~ und frühislamischen Ara­bien, 1939 J. HOROVITZ, Koranische Untersllchllngcn, 192.6 1'. NAGEL, Der Kor,:m: Einfiihrung - Texte - Erbiu­[erungen, 1998 A. NEllwnrrH, Koran, in: H. Gi\'rJE (ed.), GrundriE drr arabischen Philologie 1I (Literatnrwiss.), 1987, 96-lJ5 TI-I. NÓLDEKE, f.SCI-IWALLY, G.BERG­sTnAS~ER, O.PRETZL, Geschichte des Qorans, ~ L938 (rcpr. 1961) R.PARF:r, Dcr Koran. Übersctznng, L963­1966 W.M. WA'JT, HelL's Introduction to the Qur'an: Completcly Revised ami Enlarged, ] 970 A. T. WELCH ct aL, s.v. ~ur'jn, El 5, 400a-432b. ).N

Qusae see--) Kusac