quali data research
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Qualitative Data Analysis
AEF 801
Research Methods and Project
Management
18/2/2005
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Session Aim and Objectives
Aim
To introduce students to the analysis of qualitative data
Objectives By the end students will have an appreciation of:
1 The principles of analysing qualitative data
2 The Qualitative Analytical Process
3 Qualitative Data Management Tools
4 How to present qualitative results
Part1: Theory
Part 2: Qualitative Analysis: A worked example
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Qualitative Research Qualitative research is an interdisciplinary,
transdisciplinary, and sometimes counterdisciplinary field.
It crosses the humanities and the social and physical sciences. Qualitative research is many things at the same
time. It is multiparadigmatic in focus. Its practitioners
are sensitive to the value of the multimethod approach.
They are committed to the naturalistic perspective, and to
the interpretative understanding of human experience. At the same time, the field is inherently political and shaped
by multiple ethical and political positions.
Nelson et al¶s (1992, p4)
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Qualitative Inquiry
Purpose
The purpose of qualitative inquiry is to produce findings. The Data
Collection process is not an end in itself. The culminating activities of
qualitative inquiry are analysis, interpretation, and presentation of findings.
Challenge
To make sense of massive amounts of data, reduce the volume of
information, identify significant patterns and construct a framework for
communicating the essence of what the data reveal
Problem
µ«have few agreed-on canons for qualitative data analysis, in the
sense of shared ground rules for drawing conclusions and verifying
sturdiness¶ Miles and Huberman, 1984)
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The Creativity of Qualitative Inquiry
µ ..the human element of qualitative inquiry is both
is strength and weakness - its strength is fully
using human insight and experience, its weaknessis being so heavily dependent on the researcher¶s
skill, training, intellect, discipline, and creativity.
The researcher is the instrument of qualitative
inquiry, so the quality of the research dependsheavily on the qualities of that human being¶
(Patton, 1988)
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The Science and Art of Qualitative
Inquiry(Patton, 1988)
The Science
The scientific part is systematic, analytical,
rigorous, disciplined, and critical in perspective
The Art
The artistic part is exploring, playful,
metaphorical, insightful, and creative
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The Critical and Creative Thinker
µJust as creative thinkers want to be creative, critical thinkers, it seems
, want to be critical, or at least to be certain. Yet the critical attitude
and the creative attitude seem to be poles apart«On one hand, there
are those who are always telling you why ideas won¶t work but whonever seem able to come up with alternatives of their own; and, on the
other hand, there are those who are constantly coming up with ideas
but seem unable to tell good from bad. There are people in whom both
attitudes are developed to a high degree«, but even these people say
they assume only one of these attitudes at a time. When new ideas are
needed, they put on their creative caps, and when ideas need to be
evaluated, they but on their critical caps¶
(Anderson, 1980:66)
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CriticalT
hinking Critical Thinking
µCritical Thinking calls for a persistent effort to examine any belief or
supposed form of knowledge in the light of the evidence that supports
it and the further conclusions to which it tends¶ (Glaser, 1941)
or more simply!
Critical Thinking means weighting up the arguments and evidence for
and against.
K ey points when thinking critically are (Glaser, 1941):
± Persistence: Considering an issue carefully and more than once
± Evidence: Evaluating the evidence put forward in support of the
belief or viewpoint
± Implications: Considering where the belief or viewpoint leads;
what conclusions would follow; are these suitable and rational; and
if not, should the belief or viewpoint be reconsidered
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Analytical Thinking
Analytical Thinking involves additional processes: Standing back form the information given
Examining it in detail from many angles
Checking closely whether each statement follows logically from what
went before
Looking for possible flaws in the reasoning, the evidence, or the way
that conclusions are drawn
Comparing the same issues from the point of view of other writers
Being able to see and explain why different people arrived at different
conclusions
Being able to argue why one set of opinions, results or conclusions is
preferable to another
Being on guard for literary or statistical devices that encourage the
reader to take questionable statements at face value
Checking for hidden assumptions
Checking for attempts to lure the reader into agreements
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Guidance for Creative Thinking
1 Be open
2 Generate Options
3 Divergence before convergence4 Use multiple stimuli
5 Side track, zig-zag, and circumnavigate
6 Change patterns
7 Make Linkages
8 Trust yourself
9 Work and Play at it
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The Credibility of Qualitative Analysis
The credibility for qualitative inquiry depends on three
distinct but related inquiry elements:
1 Rigorous techniques and methods for gathering high-quality data that is carefully analysed, with attention to
issues of validity, reliability, and triangulation
2 The credibility of the researcher, which is dependent on
training, experience, track record, status, and presentation
of self
3 Philosophical belief in the phenomenological paradigm,
that is, a fundamental appreciation of naturalistic inquiry,
qualitative methods, inductive analysis and holistic
thinking
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A Credible QualitativeS
tudy
A credible qualitative study needs to address the
following issues:
1 What techniques and methods were used to ensurethe integrity, validity, and accuracy of the findings
2 What does the researcher bring to study in terms
of qualifications, experience, and perspective
3 What paradigm orientation and assumption
undergrid the study
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Qualitative Research:
Common Features of Analytic Methods
(Miles and Huberman, 1994)
1 Affixing codes to a set of field notes drawn from data collection
2 Noting reflections or other remarks in margin
3 Sorting or shifting through the materials to identify similar phrases,
relationships between themes, distinct differences between subgroups
and common sequences
4 Isolating patterns and processes, commonalties and differences, and
taking them out to the filed in the next wave of data collection
5 Gradually elaborating a small set of generalisations that cover the
consistencies discerned in the data base
6 Confronting those generalisations with a formalised body of
knowledge in the from of constructs or theories
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Principles of Analysing
Qualitative Data
1 Proceed systematically and rigorously (minimise human
error)
2 Record process, memos, journals, etc.3 Focus on responding to research questions
4 Appropriate level of interpretation appropriate for situation
5 Time (process of inquiry and analysis are often
simultaneous)6 Seek to explain or enlighten
7 Evolutionary/emerging
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The Analysis Continuum
Raw DataDescriptive
StatementsInterpretation
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The Qualitative Analytical
Process
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1. Analysis Considerations
Words
Context (tone and inflection)
Internal consistency (opinion shifts during groups)Frequency and intensity of comments (counting, content
analysis)
S pecificity
Trends/themesIteration (data collection and analysis is an iterative process
moving back and forth)
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2. TheP
rocedures
Coding/indexing
Categorisation
AbstractionComparison
Dimensionalisation
Integration
Iteration
Refutation (subjecting inferences to scrutiny)
Interpretation (grasp of meaning - difficult to describe
procedurally)
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The Qualitative Analytical Process
(Adapted from descriptions of S
trauss and Corbin, 1990,S
piggle1994, Miles and Huberman, 1994)
Components Procedures Outcomes
Data Reductions
Data Display
Conclusions &
Verification
Coding
Categorisation
Abstraction
ComparisonDimensionalisation
Integration
Interpretation
Description
Explanation/
Interpretation
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Qualitative Data Management Tools
QSR NUD.IST
( Non-numerical unstructured data indexing searching and theorising)
Enables efficient data management by supporting the processes of indexing, searching and hence data theorising
Creates an environment to store and explore data and
ideas, it does not determine the research approach.
The major advantage of the package is that it enables anefficient and flexible approach to rigorously and
systematically analysing qualitative data.
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SAFEFOOD Interactive Workshops
A worked example
Preliminary qualitative data analysis
(information to be provided)
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QS
R NUD.IS
T The QSR NUD.IST software tools are incorporated into two
interlocking systems; a document system and an index system
Document Database
Enables text to be stored, edited and retrieved; memos to record ideas
can be attached to text; and word and phrase searches can be
conducted on the documents
Index Database
Enables the researcher to: code the data; conduct multiple concept or
coded category searches thereby providing responses to researchquestions and theory development; and provides the means to record
ideas about the data through memos attached to the various indices