Page 1 sur 10

Camaraderie and eating out: An investigation into the social ingredient of customer satisfaction Though many products and services are consumed collectively, e.g., in conjunction with

members of one’s family, friends, or colleagues, there is inadequate understanding of fellow

consumers’ effect on a focal consumer’s customer satisfaction. The present research speculates

on the reasons behind this deficiency. More importantly, it applies a framework for classifying

social support to analyse different types of inter-consumer social support, exchanged in course of

a consumption event, which enhance consumers’ consumption experience and contribute to their

customer satisfaction. Thus, it demonstrates the applicability of a comprehensive framework for

examining the social side of consumption and its effects on customer satisfaction.

Imagine celebrating your birthday with your friends

and family at a pizzeria. The fare is à la carte, but

you are the centre of attention. Next, imagine

attending an acquaintance’s birthday party at the same

pizzeria. The food and service are like in the previous

occasion, but you are peripheral in this group. You

can play an active part in the evening’s festivities but

you refrain, in the fear of committing a gaffe. Finally,

picture yourself eating alone at the same restaurant.

It would be logical to expect that the unalike social

settings outlined above will lead to appreciably

different consumption experiences for you, even if the

food and service were essentially the same

throughout. Conceivably, these experiences will also

lead to different levels of your overall customer

satisfaction with the evening’s experience. Yet, if the

pizzeria administered an after-meal satisfaction

questionnaire, would they even ask you about your

dining companions?

The social context pertaining to fellow consumers has

scarcely been researched, academically or

managerially, in consumer behaviour (Buttle, 1998;

Algesheimer & Wangenheim, 2002; O’Guinn &

Muñiz, 2009) and, specifically, in customer

satisfaction (Rogers, Peyton & Berl, 1991; Martin,

1996; Fournier & Mick, 1999).

As a case in point, it is barely mentioned in the over

50 academic articles on diners’ customer satisfaction

(bibliography supplied) perused in course of this

research. In none does it appear as a determinant,

directly or indirectly, i.e., as a moderator or mediator,

of customer satisfaction.

In contrast, restaurant patrons value company highly

(Andersson & Mossberg, 2004; Scitovsky, 1985,

quoted in Andersson & Mossberg, 2004) and

socializing is a major reason for eating out

(MarketResearch.com, 2010; Liang, & Zhang, 2012).

This is to be expected given the word ‘companion’

comes from, pan, Latin for bread, and literally means

‘someone to break bread with’ (Ferris & Stein, 2010).

Other research confirms the importance of social

factors in consumption (Arnould & Price, 1993; Holt,

1995; Goodwin, 1996). In the end, what is a home but

a house consumed by a family?

The disparity between the almost self-evident social

aspect of consumption and the deficiency of research

on it calls for an explanation and a remedy. Below are

an outline of the former and contribution, however

meagre, to the latter. (Please note, the deficiency

mentioned here refers to research on consumer-

consumer interactions and relations, and not to those

between consumers and companies or the latter’s

staff, e.g., research on CRM or staff empathy.)

Why this topic is under-researched

Despite its intuitive appeal, it is difficult to find

literature pertaining to consumer-consumer relations

on satisfaction. There may be several reasons for this.

Possibly researchers are too steeped in the

information processing perspective (Holbrook &

Hirschman, 1982) to look beyond the expectations-

disconfirmation model of satisfaction (Fournier &

Mick, 1999) that presupposes consumers are

concerned solely with product and service features

while judging1 these. The experiential side to

consumption (Holbrook & Hirschman, 1982) are

well-known, as is the theory that needs and fulfilment

are both many layered (e.g., Maslow, 1954; quoted in

1 “Satisfaction is the consumer's fulfillment response. It is a

judgment that a product or service feature, or the product or service

itself, provided (or is providing) a pleasurable level of consumption-related fulfillment, including levels of under-or over-

fulfillment” (Oliver, 1997 [p 13]; 2006)

Page 2 sur 10

Oliver, 1997). Nonetheless, both aspects are unheeded

when it comes to actual research, so strong is the

information processing perspective.

Another reason could be that inter-consumer

interactions and relations are deemed beyond

marketers’ control (Adelman, Ahuvia & Goodwin,

1994; Martin & Clark, 1996); hence, researchers think

it is not worthwhile to research these.

The neglect of inter-consumer connections may also

stem from a preoccupation with the consumer-

marketer dyad and the accompanying neglect of other

actors, e.g., other consumers, institutions, who shape

consumption experiences (O’Guinn & Muñiz, 2009)

and evaluations.

Plausibly, this also explains why the limited research

on inter-consumer interactions or relations mainly

looks at cases where other consumers are part of the

‘servicescape’ provided by the marketer (Tombs &

McColl-Kennedy, 2003); or strangers with whom the

focal consumer may have a chance encounter,

pleasant or unpleasant (Adelman et al, 1994; Nicholls,

2011); or, at the other extreme, fellow members of

brand (centred) communities (Muñiz & O’Guinn,

2001; Fournier & Lee, 2009). These foci leave a

major consumption context unobserved, namely,

collectively consumed products and services.

Justification of the present research

Collective consumption: Many products and services

are consumed collectively or as a group, e.g., shared

by the family at home, neighbours in a

neighbourhood, colleagues at the workplace. Such

consumption situations set the stage for the exchange

of varied forms of social support (below) between

‘co-consumers’ (e.g., family, friends, colleagues or

neighbours sharing the same service or product),

leading to fulfilment of higher order needs (Oliver,

1997) which may or may not be directly connected to

the product or service consumed. For instance,

Duneier (1999; quoted in Small, 2009) finds

camaraderie among old men at a cheap eatery in

Chicago stemming from the simple practice of letting

diners linger at their tables; Harris & Baron (2004)

find chatting with fellow passengers enhances

enjoyment of rail commute; and Small (2009)

describes how mothers of children in crèches (in

Chicago) enjoy ‘unanticipated gains’ from ties

formed there (at those crèches).

It may be anticipated that such exchange between co-

consumers has considerable influence on a focal

consumer’s consumption experience and its

evaluation. Unfortunately, the ‘other consumer as

servicescape’ and ‘other consumer as stranger’

perspectives leave out co-consumers.

Further, extant theories do not go into the consumer’s

relation and responsibly vis-à-vis his co-consumers.

Data suggests this is another inadequacy. For

example, Fournier & Mick (1999) relate a case where

the father is highly satisfied with an answering

machine because it helps him control his daughter’s

social life. (The daughter ‘hates it’.) In a B2B context,

Bohlmann, Rosa, Bolton & Qualls (2006) find

professional buyers’ satisfaction to be influenced by

users’ satisfaction.

Finally, not many brands have identifiable brand

communities. In those that do, community members

take on a range of roles (Kozinets, 1997; Cova &

Cova, 2002; Fournier & Lee, 2009). Most play only

minor parts, though all may fell the bonding (Muñiz

& O’Guinn, 2009). At any rate, the bonding is via the

brand. In contrast, in the collective consumption just

outlined, consumption may have a role in forging

group identity (Epp & Price, 2008); then again, it may

not (e.g., a family is not defined by shared meals,

important as these meals may be).

Yet the very ubiquitousness of collective

consumption makes it theoretically interesting. As for

managerial relevance, it may be precipitate to state

that marketers cannot facilitate inter-consumer

interactions and relations unless they control or

manage these (as they presumably can in a brand

community initiated and managed by a firm). Also,

given the critical importance of satisfaction as a

marketing performance metric (Söderlund, 2011), it is

worthwhile to ‘explore all angles’, if only to

appreciate managers’ limitations in determining

consumers’ satisfaction.

It would be easier to understand social support during

collective consumption if there was a framework,

preferably one that is simple yet comprehensive.

Fortunately, there is one such.

Three forms of social support

The proposed framework comes from Adelman et al,

1994. As per it, social support has three benefits:

‘uncertainty reduction, self-acceptance, and social

integration’ (Adelman et al, 1994 [p 144]).

Uncertainty reduction is defined as ‘communication

that reduces uncertainty… and functions to enhance a

perception of personal control.’ Such support helps

the consumer attain personal goals and cope with

personal problems. In plain words, it means helping

each other, e.g., co-consumers sharing tips and tools

that may or may not have something to do with

Page 3 sur 10

consumption.

Self-acceptance ‘provides individuals with

opportunities for feedback about themselves and for

validations of their expectations about others.’

(Caplan, 1976; quoted in Adelman et al, 1994). In the

present context, it translates into opportunities for

social comparison (Adelman et al, 1994).

The theory of social comparison (Festinger, 1954)

hypothesizes that humans communicate primarily to

reach agreement in their groups. Agreement is needed

for collective action. Agreement also validates

individual opinions and preferences. When it comes

to customer satisfaction, the evaluator seeks accord

with someone like him (Suls, Martin & Wheeler,

2000), e.g., someone from the same department

during the evaluation of coffee (Burnkrant

&Cousineau, 1975), someone from the same college,

while evaluating fruit juice (Raghunathan & Corfman,

2006).

Social integration constitutes of ‘information leading

the subject to believe that he is cared for and loved…

esteemed and valued… that he belongs to a network

of communication and mutual obligation’ (Cobb,

1979; quoted in Adelman et al, 1994). An example of

the link between this and consumption is the universal

welcome to new neighbours: “Why don’t you come

over for tea (or coffee or beer) sometime?”

Self-acceptance is a dyadic form of support whereas

social integration involves an entire group. Finally,

the three forms of social support overlap.

Method

Adelman et al (1994) use the framework principally

to explain connections between consumers and staff,

though inter-consumer connections are mentioned

briefly as well. The question was: Can the same

framework be used to analyse inter-consumer social

support? It was expected to suffice because it

structures social support in general and is not

confined to consumption contexts. Hence, it was

tested by interviewing some consumers about a

common type of collective consumption: eating out

with friends.

Context: The principle motivation for eating out with

friends, colleagues or business acquaintances is to

talk with them informally. Further, previous research

(Rosenbaum, 2006) shows consumers can describe

the social support they received from staff

interestingly and thoroughly. As such it was expected

interviewees would find it easy to recall their dining

experiences. This hope, fortunately, came true.

Eating out was also selected because of its

ordinariness. If easily classifiable data on social

support can be obtained on such a commonplace

activity, it should be feasible to obtain similar data for

memorable ones, e.g., romantic dinners, funerals,

software implementations.

Method: Interviews were used to explore consumers’

experiences. Holbrook & Hirschman (1982 [p 135])

classify eating as ‘relatively pleasure-oriented

consumption’. They suggest that such consumption

should be studied in terms of consumers’ overall

experience, i.e., the researcher should look at

subjective, introspective reports and not just objective

behavioral data. To allow each consumer to tell his or

her story of how he or she consumed the service,

interviewees were asked to describe their last

restaurant visit with friends. Three interviews

discussed the same meal.

In all, 11 persons were interviewed, four women and

seven men. Of these, one was an operations engineer,

another was unemployed, and the rest were

researchers (my colleagues). I knew all of them

personally, and the sampling was for convenience. At

the same time, the interviews came from different

cultures and varied substantially in terms of age and

experience, personal and professional. The first three

interviews were free flowing discussions on eating

out; thereafter, a set of open ended questions were

administered. All but two interviews were conducted

face-to-face; the balance interviews were conducted

via a VoIP service (Skype).

The matter was recorded, transcribed, read five times

and coded using the framework suggested in Adelman

et al (1994). No data was found that did not fit this

framework. The transcriptions were emailed to all

interviewees. None asked for revisions.

Social support during collective consumption

Uncertainty reduction and control (Help):

Expectedly, diners helped each other enjoy their

meals, and I will come to this in a moment. Before

that, I will discuss another form of help that Adelman

et al (1994) mention. In their review, this constitutes

of service providers helping consumers with

(dispassionate) counsel and sympathy, e.g., an

undertaker helping the bereaved cope with their loss

with a patient ear and a kind word. The same sort of

help is also exchanged between friends over a meal.

For instance, an interviewee spoke about his dinner

companions, a couple, discussing problematical

family issues related to their upcoming wedding. (The

same interviewee feared he committed a faux pas by

Page 4 sur 10

talking about politics, a subject on which his leaning

differed from his dining companions’. Verily, social

norms are complicated.)

The more ordinary type of help, i.e., helping each

other enjoy the food, was evident too. Several

interviewees spoke of the restaurant being

recommended, either by one in the dining party or by

a friend.

An interviewee recalled she and her dining

companions debated their order for half an hour, i.e.,

they helped each other select. More interestingly, the

same person also mentioned how her dining

companions withheld discouraging information: On

previous occasions, some of her party had eaten the

dish she was keen on and had been disappointed; yet,

they held their silence and let her order it. Possibly

they reasoned that since tastes differ, she was entitled

to an experience unbiased and undamped by their

assessments, after which she would draw her own

conclusions.

Also, the three interviewees who went to the same

outing remembered that diners shared food off each

other’s plates there. This is considered taboo in

certain cultures (Fox, 2002) and, as one interviewee

noted, not everyone is comfortable with it. Most

probably they shared food in spite of such issues so

that everyone could sample a variety of dishes and

indulge in a little gastronomic adventure. There may

have been some ritualistic signalling too, e.g.,

partaking each other’s food to bond.

Self-acceptance via social comparison: The

interviewees had discussed food, sometimes at length,

with their fellow diners. Thus, they helped each other

evaluate the food, i.e., they practised social

comparison pertaining to customer satisfaction.

A different type of social comparison, one also

anticipated in Adelman et al (1994), and which draws

on Granovatter (1973), was performed too. In this, the

consumer uses the collective consumption situation to

‘compare notes’ with acquaintances, i.e., those not in

his intimate social circle. Such comparison is safe,

because it does not lead to competition, at least not

competition between close friends and colleagues. It

is also constructive, because it brings in new

perspectives.

I was sitting with A, who is a former DBA

student in this school. I think he is more than

forty and all his life he just studied and he has

lots of diplomas and we were talking about

choices in life. And I have a few diplomas of my

own and so we were talking about how weird (it

was) for people.

We were (saying) how we don’t really fit into the

social role and so we started talking about what

the society expects from people, how people try

to fit in with society’s rules and some people

don’t, and they are sort of pointed at and others

perceive them as weird people. (B)

Social integration: That eating out is as much for

social bonding as it is epicurean enjoyment was

evident in all interviews, and the topic is discussed

under the subhead that follows. Here, I confine

myself to two other subjects: using consumption to

identify with an attractive category of people; and the

consumers using ‘place-as-home’ (Rosenbaum, 2006)

to assuage loneliness.

Some diners may have come together to see

themselves as bon vivants, i.e., those who, as a group,

appreciate and indulge in the good things of life.

I think it (the thing that is common to the group)

is similar attitudes or life styles or you can say

similar consumption styles. (R)

Perhaps this feeling, amplified, leads to brand

communities. It can also be a motivation behind

certain definitive societal and familial traditions that

have to do with consumption, e.g., cooking, serving

and eating elaborate meals, with ‘signature’ recipes,

during festivals (Arnould & Price, 2000).

In keeping with this theme, words like ‘adventure’

and ‘discover’ were used, conforming to Fox (2002).

On the other end, when dining alone some people

may prefer the familiar and humdrum.

If I eat alone I go to places where I feel at home

or where I am a regular customer or where I have

been with some other girls from the school. I feel

comfortable and (have) visited that place many

times… I already know the waitresses and

waiters. So I know the staff and it is very nicely

organized and I don’t feel (I am) at the centre of

the attention if I eat alone. So that’s what feeling

like home is to me. I feel comfortable. I know the

people, I know the place well, I know the menu

well, I know the food is good and I don’t feel bad

eating alone. (B)

The comment reflects that the regular restaurant

fulfils the need safety (no unpleasant surprises) and

personal acknowledgment (knowing the staff) besides

the need for food (Rosenbaum, 2006).

Undoubtedly, this factor falls outside social support

from co-consumers and comes under social support

from service providers. Nonetheless, it illustrates how

different criteria are used for selection and evaluation

Page 5 sur 10

depending on the social context of consumption

(Andersson & Mossberg, 2004).

Customer satisfaction from collective consumption

When interviewees spoke of their own satisfaction,

they essentially evaluated their overall experience, as

predicted by Holbrook & Hirschman (1982). While

food was an element of that experience, it was not the

whole. In fact, diners recognized that the raison d'être

of the meal was not eating but socializing. As long as

the social purpose was fulfilled, they did not mind if

the cuisine did not meet their expectations.

It (a noodle dish) did not live up to my

expectation because I thought it should be even

more striking. But obviously to me it was... an

ordinary meal. But I think that the purpose to

meet was… we wanted to taste the noodle but it

was not the point…beyond that we wanted to get

a chance to gather together and talk (about)

something interesting… I would say (it was) not

about only a meal to taste something new but

more about keeping our ties. (J)

If it is a new group where I need to fit... I try to

eat whatever with them. Then we become friends

and it is more relaxed. Then the food becomes a

priority as you are already friends and you call

them out to adventure with, try new food. No

pressure. (BM)

The main criterion for evaluation (whether the

experience, taken as a whole, was enjoyable) was

extended to interviewees’ estimates of their fellow

diners’ satisfaction. Two attendees of the same meal

said:

I think they (her friends) were very satisfied

because they were very happy. (Y)

At the end of the evening everybody was happy

with what happened. They said it was nice. My

close friends said that it was nice to meet new

people. My colleagues said that they would like

to do it again. (B. Note: They did do it again.)

On a different note, as predicted in Andersson &

Mossberg (2004), the criteria for selection and

satisfaction depended significantly on whether a meal

was deemed social, i.e., to be partaken with company,

or instrumental, i.e., eaten alone, to satisfy hunger.

I would feel uncomfortable being alone in this

place (a tapas restaurant) because this is more a

place where people often party and if you are

there alone with your newspaper or with your

smart phone, you will look like a stupid idiot. So

if you are alone you... (you) tend to go to a place

where there are people who are eating alone...

(C)

If I have to go alone then I would say it is a

completely different experience. It means I want

to have food only - if possible, good food - but

one of the key selection criteria - I would say

satisfaction criteria - would be the time. How

long do I have to be in the restaurant... if you are

alone, (you) want to escape completely. I want to

get out quickly... We just need food to fill our

belly and that’s it. (C)

Furthermore, while the service and decor did not

come across as major determinants of satisfaction, in

one instance a lapse did cause dissatisfaction.

I would say the service is fine but I would really

say that there was a disturbance there, because

when we had dinner together someone just came

to us abruptly and I was a little bit surprised

about that. And obviously he was a beggar and

wanted money and I was a little bit shocked

because he was standing there for two full

minutes and no one at the restaurant came to stop

him.

I don’t mind giving money but this kind of thing

really disturbs your mood and your enjoyment of

having food with your friends and this restaurant

should have a certain standard of service and they

really need to intervene in this kind of abrupt

appearance and this may have a negative

impression of the entire restaurant and they just

don’t care about their customers’ feelings during

the dinner. Maybe they never thought about it.

And maybe they just wanted to help the beggar,

but really that is not their responsibility and their

major responsibility is to ensure their food and

their service and offer the best atmosphere there.

But there was no one there when the beggar was

there and when he even aggressively asked for

money. And no one was there and no one cared

and for me that was a shock. (J, emphasis mine)

The main thing is the diner and restaurateur probably

emphasise different things when they think about

service and atmosphere. To the restaurateur, service

may mean promptness, accuracy and the like. These

are what scales like SERVQUAL (Parasuraman,

Zeithaml, and Berry, 1988) mainly measure. To the

diner these probably represent the minimum. He may

not notice if a restaurateur excels, but is annoyed

when the restaurateur falls short.

Similarly, the restaurateur may think of atmosphere

principally in terms of decor and music, factors under

Page 6 sur 10

his control; whereas the diner may think of it in terms

of friendly company, the factor under his and his

fellow diners’ control.

Paradoxically, the restaurateur may be thanked for

doing some things which, logically, he must do if he

wants his patron’s business, e.g., provide a chair.

I remember that we had difficulty because we

didn’t have enough chairs. I think we reserved

for 13 (and) we had 12 chairs. They helped us

(in) moving a lot of chairs and tables to get us an

extra chair. The place was quite packed and it is

not easy to move something... (R)

Since the 13th

chair was essential for creating the

appropriate setting for the group to come together, its

supply was remembered and appreciated.

To sum up, the data shows a clear link between

motivation to consume (socializing), social support

and consequent elevation, i.e., customer satisfaction.

The social benefits are classifiable. Hopefully, their

effects are quantifiable. The next step will be to

compare findings from this study with those on

related events, e.g., business lunches and romantic

dinners.

Implication The implication of this work is methodological. If

consumers are asked about food, décor and service,

they will talk about these: If they are asked about

their friends and family, they will talk about these too.

Eventually, predictability and profits must decide

which questions are better.

For the present, it bears keeping in mind that experts

urge us to look into the social aspects of consumption.

For instance, Oliver (1999) says:

In its pure form, the village is a social alliance in

which the primary motivation to become loyal on

the part of each consumer is to be one with the

group, and the primary motivation of the group

overseers is to please their constituency. In this

situation, the consumer becomes a (willing)

participant because of the attention provided by

its members. In the limiting case, the

product/service is not the consumable. Rather, it

is the camaraderie provided by the social

organization.

Rieicheld (2006) posits that the best predictor of

future profits is customers’ propensity to recommend

a firm to their best friends, and advices marketers to

follow the golden rule: Do to others as you would

have them do to you. (Luke 6:31).

In future, should quantitative analysis show that

fulfilment of social needs through inter-consumer

interaction does substantially affect customer

satisfaction with collectively consumed products or

services, this can have wide-ranging implications.

Marketers will have to review how well they are

helping consumers fulfil their actual needs and

expectations. If they find themselves falling short,

they must reshape their offerings. Common products

(Norman, 2002) and processes (Womack & Jones,

2005) can be radically redesigned if there is the desire

to so. For example, just as a U-shaped setting in a

classroom is more conducive to inter-student

interaction (Dierdonck, Gemmel & Desmet, 2003), a

round table may be more conducive of chatting over

food, if the dining party is large. Can restaurateurs

plan ahead to have an optimal number of such tables?

There may a need to rethink in research too.

Currently, there is ‘a tendency to operate with

utilitarian assumption; a tendency to view

consumption as instrumental to other social ends

rather than having intrinsic social value; and a

tendency to refuse to accept that people are the best

judges of the meaning and value of their feelings of

satisfaction.’ Warde & Martens (2000; quoted in

Winsted, 2000). Consequently, the actual

consumption experience and its social value to the

consumer are neglected.

Happily, some scholars have avoided these tendencies

to provide readily applicable tools, e.g., the universal

product or service consumption satisfaction scale

enables a many-sided analysis of satisfaction (Oliver,

1997 [p 343]. Notably, this scale does not mention

co-consumers or other consumers.)

Research on social comparison on opinions has been

hitherto neglected (Corcoran, Crusius & Mussweiler,

2011). A remedy of this deficiency can lead to more

works on the lines of Burnkrant &Cousineau (1975)

and Raghunathan & Corfman (2006), adding to our

knowledge of customer satisfaction.

Limitation & suggestions The principle limitation of this research is the

personality of the researcher. I was extremely

uncomfortable while asking interviewees about their

experiences: I felt I was intruding into their and their

friends’ privacy. The feeling worsened when the

interviewee went out of his or her way to help, e.g.,

when an interviewee voluntarily drew out the floor

plan and seating arrangement of a restaurant he had

gone to more than a month before the interview

(Appendix A). Most probably, this, rather than my

obvious lack of expertise on interviewing, prevented

Page 7 sur 10

many facets of the interviewees’ experiences from

being unearthed.

Convenience sampling is a flaw. However, given the

inclusiveness of the framework, it may not a critical

drawback, i.e., social support under other conditions

should be classifiable under the framework used.

Nonetheless, it is of prime importance that the

exercise be repeated for other services and samples.

For further generalisation, other events, like a visit to

a mall, a cruise, or a (B2B) service call, must be

investigated, perhaps by process-mapping as well as

interviewing.

Finally, if this line of research is to become

managerially relevant, it will have to be quantitative.

A start may be made by simply including two

questions in customer satisfaction questionnaires:

1. Who did you share this product (or service) with?

2. To what extent did it serve its purpose? (For

example, if you organised a seminar primarily to

generate sales leads, how many leads do you

credit to it?)

Actually, the very ordinariness of collective

consumption suggests it needs no novel or complex

method for its study. Instead, what is needed is an

acknowledgment of the obvious: The social side of

consumption may be mundane; it is almost certainly

not trivial.

References 1. Adelman, M.B., Ahuvia, A. & Goodwin, C. (1994).

Beyond smiling: social support and service quality. In

eds., R.L. Rust & R.L. Oliver, Service Quality: New

Directions in Theory and Practice. Sage, Thousand

Oaks, 139-71

2. Algesheimer, R. & Wangenheim, F.V. (2002). A

Network Based Approach to Customer Equity

Management. Journal of Service Research

3. Andersson, T.D. & Mossberg, L. (2004). The dining

experience: do restaurants satisfy customer needs?

Food Service Technology, 4, 171–177

4. Arnould, E. J. & Price, L. L. (1993). River magic:

Extraordinary experience and the extended service

encounter. The Journal Of Consumer Research 20(1),

24-55

5. Arnould, E.J. & Price, L.L. (2000). Authenticating acts

and authoritative performances: questing for self and

community. In eds. C. Huffman, D.G. Mick & S.

Ratneshwar The Why of Consumption: Contemporary

Perspectives on Consumer Motives, Goals and Desires

Routledge

6. Bohlmann, J.D., Rosa, J.A., Bolton, R.N. & Qualls,

W.J. (2006). The Effect of Group Interactions on

Satisfaction Judgments: Satisfaction Escalation.

Marketing Science

7. Burnkrant, R.E. & Cousineau, A. Informational and

Normative Social Influence in Buyer Behavior.

Journal of Consumer Research, 2(3), 206-215

8. Buttle, F.A. (1998). Rules Theory: Understanding the

Social Construction of Consumer Behaviour. Journal

of Marketing Management 14, 63-94

9. Corcoran, K., Crusius, J., & Mussweiler, T. (2011).

Social comparison: Motives, standards, and

mechanisms. In ed. D. Chadee, Theories in social

psychology, 119-139. Wiley-Blackwell, Oxford.

10. Cova, B. & Cova, V. (2002). Tribal Marketing. The

tribalisation of society and its impact in the conduct if

marketing. European Journal of Marketing 36, 595-

620

11. Dierdonck, R.V., Gemmel, P. & Desmet, S. (2003)

Facilities management. In ed. B.V. Looy, Services

Management: an Integrated Approach (2nd ed.).

Financial Times/Prentice Hall

12. Epp, A.M. & Price, L.L. (2008). Family Identity: A

Framework of Identity Interplay in Consumption

Practices. Journal Of Consumer Research, 35

13. Ferris, K. & Stein, J. (2010). The real world: An

introduction to sociology (2nd Edition). W. W. Norton

& Company

14. Festinger, L. (1954). A Theory of Social Comparison

Processes. Human Relations, 7, 117-140.

15. Fournier, S. & Lee, L. (2009) Getting Brand

Communities Right. Harvard Business Review

16. Fournier, S. & Mick, D.G. (1999), Rediscovering

Satisfaction. Journal of Marketing, Vol. 63( 4), 5-23

17. Goodwin, C. (1996). Communality as a Dimension of

Service Relationships. Journal of Consumer

Psychology 5 (4), 387-415

18. Granovatter, M. (1973). The Strength of Weak

Ties. American Journal of Sociology, 78, 1360-1380

19. Harris, K. & Baron, S. (2004). Consumer-to-consumer

conversations in service settings. Journal of Service

Research

20. Holbrook, M.B. & Hirschman, E.C. (1982) The

Experiential Aspects of Consumption: Consumer

Fantasies, Feelings, and Fun. Journal of Consumer

Research, 9(2), 132-140

21. Holt, D.B. (1995). How Consumers Consume: A

Typology of Consumption Practices. Journal of

Consumer Research 2

22. Kozinets, R.V. (1997). I want to believe: a

netnography of the X-Philes subculture of

Consumption. Advances in Consumer Research 24,

470-475

23. Liang, R. & Zhang, D.J. (2012). The effect of service

interaction orientation on customer satisfaction and

behavioural intention: The moderating effect of dining

frequency. Asia Pacific Journal of Marketing and

Logistics, 24(1), 153-17

24. Martin, C. L. & Clark, T. (1996). Networks of

Customer-to-Customer Relationships in Marketing. In

ed. D. Iacobucci, Networks in Marketing. Sage:

Thousand Oaks

25. Martin, C. L. (1996). Consumer-to-Consumer

Relationships: Satisfaction with Other Consumers’

Public Behaviours. The Journal of Consumer Affairs,

30 (1), 146-69

Page 8 sur 10

26. Muñiz, A.M. & O’Guinn, T.C. (2001). Brand

Community. Journal of Consumer Research, 27, 412-

432

27. Nicholls, R (2011). Customer-to-customer interaction

(CCI): a cross-cultural perspective. International

Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management

23(2), 209-223

28. Norman D.A. (2002). The Design of Everyday Things.

Basic Books

29. O’Guinn, T.C. & Muñiz, A. (2009). The Social Brand:

Towards a Sociological Model of Brands. In eds. B.

Loken, R. Ahluwalia & M.J. Houston Contemporary

Branding Issues: A Research Perspective, Taylor and

Francis: New York

30. Oliver, R.L. (1999). Whence Consumer Loyalty?

Journal of Marketing, 63 (Special Issue), 33-44

31. Parasuraman, A., Zeithaml, V.A. and Berry, L.L.

(1988). SERVQUAL: A Multiple-Item Scale for

Measuring Consumer Perceptions of Service Quality.

Journal of Retailing, 64, 12–40.

32. Raghunathan, R. & Corfman, K. (2006). Is Happiness

Shared Doubled and Sadness Shared Halved?: Social

Influence on Enjoyment of Hedonic Experiences.

Journal of Marketing Research

33. Rieicheld, F. (2006). The Ultimate Question: Driving

Good Profits and True Growth. Harvard Business

School Press

34. Rogers, H.P., Peyton, R.M. & Berl, R. (1991).

Measurement and Evaluation of Satisfaction Processes

in a Dyadic Setting. Journal of Consumer

Satisfaction/Dissatisfaction and Complaining Behavior

35. Small, M.L. (2009). Unanticipated Gains - Origins of

Network Inequality in Everyday Life. Oxford

University Press

36. Söderlund, M. (2011). Measuring Satisfaction. In ed.

D. Southerton Encyclopedia of Consumer Culture.

Sage

37. Suls J., Martin, R. & Wheeler, L. (2000). Three Kinds

of Opinion Comparison: The Triadic Model.

Personality and Social Psychology Review, 4(3), 219–

237

38. The 2010 restaurant, food & beverage market research

handbook. (2010) MarketResearch.com

39. Tombs, A. and McColl-Kennedy, J.R. (2003). Social

servicescape conceptual model. Marketing Theory,

3(4), 447-75

40. Winsted, K.F. (2000). Service behaviors that lead to

satisfied customers. European Journal of Marketing,

34 (3), 399-417

41. Womack, J.P. & Jones, D.T. (2005). Lean Solutions:

How Companies and Customers Can Create Value and

Wealth Together. Free Press

Bibliography 1. Andaleeb, S.S. & Conway, C. (2006). Customer

satisfaction in the restaurant industry: an examination

of the transaction-specific model. Journal of Services

Marketing, 20(1), 3–11

2. Andersson, T.D. & Mossberg, L. (2004). The dining

experience: do restaurants satisfy customer needs?

Food Service Technology, 4, 171–177.

3. Ariffin, H.F., Bibon M.F. & Abdullah, R.P.S.R.

(2012). Restaurant’s Atmospheric Elements: What the

Customer Wants. Social and Behavioral Sciences. 38,

380-387

4. Arora, R. & Singer, J. (2006). Customer Satisfaction

and Value as Drivers of Business Success for Fine

Dining Restaurants. Services Marketing Quarterly,

28(1)

5. Asif, U. Javed, K. & Saleem, W. (2011) Measuring

Customer Satisfaction in Fast Food Industry: A Case

From Pakistan Fast Food Industry. Interdisciplinary

Journal of Contemporary Research in Business, 3(4)

6. Babin, B.J., Lee, Y., Kim, E. & Griffin, M. (2005).

Modeling consumer satisfaction and word-of-mouth:

restaurant patronage in Korea. Journal of Services

Marketing, 19(3), 133-139

7. Barber, N., Goodman, R.J. & Goh, B.K. (2011).

Restaurant consumers repeat patronage: A service

quality concern. International Journal of Hospitality

Management, 30, 329–336

8. Barsky, J.D. & Labagh, R. (1992). A Strategy for

Customer Satisfaction. Cornell Hospitality Quarterly,

33(5), 32

9. Cadotte, E.R. Woodruff, R.B. & Jenkins, R.L. (1987).

Expectations and Norms in Models of Consumer

Satisfaction. Journal of Marketing Research, 24( 3),

305-314

10. Chadee, D.D. & Mattsson, J. (1996). An empirical

assessment of customer satisfaction in tourism. The

Service Industries Journal, 16(3), 305

11. Clark, M.A. & Wood, R.C. (1998). Consumer loyalty

in the restaurant industry - a preliminary exploration of

the issues. International Journal of Contemporary

Hospitality Management, 10(4), 139-144

12. Danaher, P.J. & Mattsson, J. (1994). Customer

satisfaction during the service delivery process.

European Journal of Marketing, 28(5), 5

13. Dube, L., Renaghan, L.M & Miller, J.M. (1994).

Measuring customer satisfaction for strategic

management. Cornell Hospitality Quarterly, 35(1), 39

14. Gupta, S., McLaughlin, E. & Gomez, M. (2007). Guest

Satisfaction and Restaurant Performance. Cornell

Hospitality Quarterly, 48(3), 284

15. Ha, J. & Jang, S. (2010), Effects of service quality and

food quality: The moderating role of atmospherics in

an ethnic restaurant segment. International Journal of

Hospitality Management. 29(3), 520–529

16. Han, H., Back K. & Barrett, B. (2009) Influencing

factors on restaurant customers’ revisit intention: The

roles of emotions and switching barriers International

Journal of Hospitality Management, 28, 563–572

17. Hoare R.J. & Butcher, K. (2008). Do Chinese cultural

values affect customer satisfaction/loyalty?

International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality

Management, 20(2), 156-171

18. Holjevac, I.A., Marković, S. & Raspor, S. (2009).

Customer satisfaction measurement in hotel industry:

content analysis study. 4th International Scientific

Conference ‘Planning for the future learning from the

past: Contemporary Developments in Tourism, Travel

& Hospitality’, Rhodes Islands, Greece

19. Iglesias, M.P. & Guillén, M.J.Y (2004). Perceived

quality and price: their impact on the satisfaction of

Page 9 sur 10

restaurant customers. International Journal of

Contemporary Hospitality Management, 16(6), 373-

379

20. Jung, H.S. & Yoon, H.H. (2011). The effects of

nonverbal communication of employees in the family

restaurant upon customers’ emotional responses and

customer satisfaction. International Journal of

Hospitality Management, 30, 542–550

21. Jung, H.S. & Yoon, H.H. (2012). Why do satisfied

customers switch? Focus on the restaurant patron

variety-seeking orientation and purchase decision

involvement. International Journal of Hospitality

Management. 31, 875–884

22. Kang, J. & Hyun, S.S. (2012). Effective

communication styles for the customer-oriented

service employee: Inducing dedicational behaviors in

luxury restaurant patrons. International Journal of

Hospitality Management. 31, 772–785

23. Kim, N. & Lee, M. (2012). Other customers in a

service encounter: examining the effect in a restaurant

setting", Journal of Services Marketing, 26(1), 27-40

24. Kincaid, C., Baloglu, S. Mao, Z. & Busser, J. (2010).

What really brings them back?: The impact of tangible

quality on affect and intention for casual dining

restaurant patrons. International Journal of

Contemporary Hospitality Management, 22(2), 209-

220

25. Kivela, J., Reece, J. & Inbakaran, R. (1999). Consumer

research in the restaurant environment, Part 1: A

conceptual model of dining satisfaction and return

patronage", International Journal of Contemporary

Hospitality Management, 11(5), 205-222

26. Kivela, J., Reece, J. & Inbakaran, R. (1999). Consumer

research in the restaurant environment. Part 2:

Research design and analytical methods. International

Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management,

11(6), 269-286

27. Ladhari, R., Bruna, I. & Morales, M. (2008).

Determinants of dining satisfaction and post-dining

behavioral intentions. International Journal of

Hospitality Management, 27, 563–573

28. Lee, Seoki & Heo C.Y. (2009). Corporate social

responsibility and customer satisfaction among US

publicly traded hotels and restaurants. International

Journal of Hospitality Management, 28, 635–637

29. Liang, R. & Zhang, D.J. (2012). The effect of service

interaction orientation on customer satisfaction and

behavioural intention: The moderating effect of dining

frequency. Asia Pacific Journal of Marketing and

Logistics, 24(1), 153-170

30. Liddle, A. (1999). Customer satisfaction: Technology.

Nation's Restaurant News, 33(37), 126

31. Liu Y. & Jang, S. (2009). Perceptions of Chinese

restaurants in the U.S.: What affects customer

satisfaction and behavioral intentions? International

Journal of Hospitality Management, 28, 338–348

32. Lumbers, M., Eves A. & Jaafar S.N. (2008). Does food

really matter in the ‘eating out’ experience in

restaurants? Dubai, India: EuroCHRIE

33. Nam, J. & Lee, T.J. (2011). Foreign travellers’

satisfaction with traditional Korean restaurants.

International Journal of Hospitality Management, 30,

982–989

34. Namkung, Y. & Jang, S. (2009). The effects of

interactional fairness on satisfaction and behavioral

intentions: Mature versus non-mature customers.

International Journal of Hospitality Management, 28,

397–405

35. Noone, B. M., Kimes, S.E, Mattila, A.S & Wirtz, J.

(2007). The Effect of Meal Pace on Customer

Satisfaction. Cornell Hospitality Quarterly, 48(3), 231

36. Polyorat, K. and Sophonsiri, S. (2010). The influence

of service quality dimensions on customer satisfaction

and customer loyalty in the chain restaurant context: a

Thai case. Journal of Global Business and Technology,

6(64), 2

37. Ramseook-Munhurrun, P. (2012). Perceived service

quality in restaurant services. Global Conference on

Business and Finance Proceedings. 7(1)

38. Reynolds, D. & Biel, D. (2007). Incorporating

satisfaction measures into a restaurant productivity

index. Hospitality Management, 26, 352–361

39. Ryu, K. & Han, H. (2011) New or repeat customers:

How does physical environment influence their

restaurant experience? International Journal of

Hospitality Management 30, 599–611

40. Ryu, K., Han, H. & Jang, S. (2010). Relationships

among hedonic and utilitarian values, satisfaction and

behavioral intentions in the fast-casual restaurant

industry. International Journal of Contemporary

Hospitality Management, 22(3), 416-432

41. Ryu, K., Han, H. & Kim, T.(2008) The relationships

among overall quick-casual restaurant image,

perceived value, customer satisfaction, and behavioral

intentions. International Journal of Hospitality

Management, 27, 459–469

42. Ryu, K., Lee, H. & Kim, W.G. (2012). The influence

of the quality of the physical environment, food, and

service on restaurant image, customer perceived value,

customer satisfaction, and behavioral intentions.

International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality

Management, 24(2), 200-223

43. Shaikh, U.A.A. (2009). Impact of Service Quality on

Customer Satisfaction: Evidence from the Restaurant

Industry in Pakistan The Business Review, 13(2)

44. Terblanche N.S & Boshoff, C. (2010). Quality, Value,

Satisfaction and Loyalty amongst Race Groups: A

Study of the Customers in South African Fast Food

Industry. South African Journal of Business

Management, 41(1), 1-9

45. The 2011 restaurant, food & beverage market research

handbook. MarketResearch.com

46. Tian, R.G. & Wang, C.H. (2010). Cross-Cultural

Customer Satisfaction at a Chinese Restaurant: The

Implications to China Foodservice Marketing.

International Journal of China Marketing, 1(1)

47. Toloie-Eshlaghy, A. & Alinejad, S. (2011).

Classification of Customers’ behavior in Selection of

the Restaurant with use of Neural Network. European

Journal of Economics, Finance and Administrative

Sciences, 38

48. Tu, Y., Lin, S. & Chang Y. (2011). Relationships

among service quality, customer satisfaction and

customer loyalty in chain restaurant. Information

Page 10 sur 10

Management and Business Review. 3(5), 270-279

49. Upadhyay, Y., Singh, S.K. & Thomas, G. (2007). Do

People Differ In Their Preferences Regarding

Restaurants? — An Exploratory Study. The Journal of

Business Perspective, 11 (2 )

50. Voon, B.H. (2012). Role of Service Environment for

Restaurants: The Youth Customers’ Perspective.

Social and Behavioral Sciences, 38, 388 – 395

51. Wu, C.H. & Liang, R. (2009). Effect of experiential

value on customer satisfaction with service encounters

in luxury-hotel restaurants. International Journal of

Hospitality Management, 28, 586–593

52. Yi, Y. & La, S. (2004). What Influences the

Relationship Between Customer Satisfaction and

Repurchase Intention? Investig the Effects of Adjusted

Expectations and Customer Loyalty. Psychology &

Marketing, 21(5), 351

53. Yüksel, A. & Rimmington, M. (1998). Customer-

Satisfaction Measurement: Performance Counts.

Cornell Hotel and Restaurant Administration

Quarterly; 39, 60

54. Yuksel, A. & Yuksel, F. (2002). Measurement of

tourist satisfaction with restaurant services: A

segment-based approach. Journal of Vacation

Marketing, 9(1), 52