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SM

CA

Pu

lse

Winte

r 2003-0

4

Jochen Bocksnick

Departm

ent of Kinesiology,

University of Lethbridge

Introduction

Contem

porary research documents significant dropout rates from

organized youth sports and associates the declining numbers w

ith lackof fun/enjoym

ent and negative self-evaluations on the part of the ath-letes. T

he traditional delivery of sport games like soccer and hockey

has relied heavily on playing the game in com

petitive environments

while neglecting the developm

ent of individual skills. The rationale for

this approach has centered on the belief that children will be attracted to

“playing” the game rather than “w

orking on” the skills. Unfortunately,

this ideology neglects that teaching of rudimentary sport-specific skills

can be accomplished through “playful” teaching situations. It is

hypothesized that the participating children will respond rather favor-

ably regarding their experiences of fun/enjoyment because of a higher

frequency of personal success experiences as a result of the instruction-al setting. T

hese success experiences can be attributed to a greateropportunity in handling and m

anipulating the ball. Related research has

shown that the average hockey player w

ill experience far less than am

inute of puck handling-contact during a competitive gam

e, but infi-nitely m

ore contact time during practice situations. A

ssuming that indi-

vidual drills will be presented in such a w

ay that children can master

the objectives of the tasks, it is anticipated that this will result in posi-

tive affect and enjoyment.

Ob

jectiveT

he primary focus of this study is to determ

ine whether or not the

participating youth players will perceive the structured instructional set-

ting with its equal tim

e allotment for practicing individual techniques

and soccer-specific small-group gam

es enjoyable.

Design

One-sam

ple program evaluation.

Settin

gSport fields at the U

niversity of Lethbridge, L

ethbridge, Alberta.

Su

bjects

Subjects for this study were recruited from

the SALT

S-program(i.e., Skills A

pproach for Learning and Teaching Soccer) on a volunteer

basis. The subject pool consisted of boys and girls currently enrolled in

grades one through four. Sixty-two out of 84 participants returned com

-plete questionnaire sets. A

questionnaire set referred to a completed

form by both youth participant and at least one parent/legal guardian.

Interven

tion

/ Main

Ou

tcom

e Measu

resT

his study is concerned with the enjoym

ent youth soccer playersexperience w

hile participating in a sport-specific instructional program.

ASkills A

pproach for Learning and Teaching Soccer (SA

LTS) resulted

in the design of a unique instructional program in w

hich participantsreceive an equal am

ount of practicing time for individual and sm

all-group tactics-related soccer skills and playing tim

e. The children w

ereinstructed in groups of ten, tw

ice a week for sixty m

inutes each session,for ten w

eeks between late A

pril and June. The children w

ere groupedinto tw

o consecutive instructional sessions of Grade 1 and 2 students

and Grades 3 and 4 students, to facilitate an age-adequate teaching envi-

ronment. A

t program end, participants received a self-addressed and

stamped questionnaire that w

as to be completed by both youth partici-

pant and at least one parent independent of each other. Returning the

questionnaire, for which no nam

e identification was required, w

as con-sidered as consenting to participation in the study.

Main

Resu

ltsN

o significant differences were found w

hen comparing the respons-

es of boys and girls; both groups expressed great enjoyment as a result

of their participation in the program. U

sing a repeated measures analy-

sis of variance to contrast responses of children with their correspon-

ding parents showed that children reported significantly greater enjoy-

ment than their parents w

ho were asked to gauge their children’s pro-

gram-related affect. Interestingly, for data sets that w

ere comprised of

child, mother and father, the results suggested that fathers reported sig-

nificantly lower than both other respondents.

Co

nclu

sion

The triangulation of the inform

ation revealed important differences

and suggests considering the respondent groups separately. Most

importantly it is necessary to consider the voices of youth participants.

So

urce o

f Fun

din

gSport Science A

ssociation of Alberta (SSA

A) through the A

lbertaSport, R

ecreation, Parks and Wildlife Foundation.

For m

ore in

form

ation

con

tactD

r. Jochen Bocksnick, phone: 403 329-5188

e- mail: bocksnick@

uleth.ca

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Yo

uth

soccer p

layers’exp

erience o

f enjo

ymen

t

FFoo

rr tthheeoo

ff iittFU

NFU

N

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Welcom

e on behalf of the executive com-

mittee, board of directors and staff of the Sport

Medicine C

ouncil of Alberta. M

y term as the

President of the SMC

Ahas been an eventful one

and one that has seen progress with m

any of theSM

CA

‚s goals and projects. I would like to

thank our office staff who have been very effec-

tive at bringing about positive changes through-out 2003 and into the N

ew Y

ear. I w

ould also like to thank the volunteersw

ho helped make the casino fund raising event

such a success in 2003 as this is one of ourm

ajor fund raising efforts and contributes signif-icantly to w

hat we are able to achieve through-

out the year. In addition, the SMC

Aw

ould liketo thank the ongoing support from

our sponsorsand m

embership.

For being nominated and then subsequently

traveling to Japan with the A

lberta-Hokkaido

sports exchange and Alberta B

adminton, I

would like to especially thank the board of

directors. I represented the SMC

Ain Septem

berof 2003 to the H

okkaido Am

ateur SportsScience A

ssociation in Sapporo and greatlyenjoyed the tim

e spent there experiencing theirculture and sport ˆ although not so m

uch theearthquake!

The com

ing months w

ill see the introduc-

tion of many new

resources for our library, theprinting and publication of our revised A

thleticFirst A

id manual, and the new

Resource

Directory. T

hese items w

ill complem

ent theresources w

e already have to offer our mem

bersas w

ell as the educational courses we offer.

Please see our website for details at

ww

w.sportm

edicinecouncilofalberta.ca<http://w

ww

.sportmedicinecouncilofalberta.ca/>

or contact our staff for more inform

ation at(780) 415-0812.

We look forw

ard to continuing our efforts atsport safety prom

otion and injury prevention inA

lberta and encourage mem

bers and the publicto contact us w

ith any questions or ideas. We

also look forward to the ongoing relationship w

ehave w

ith our provider groups in Alberta ˆ the

Alberta Society of Sport M

edicine, SportPhysiotherapy A

lberta, the Alberta A

thleticT

herapy Association, the Sport Science

Association of A

lberta, and the Sport Nutrition

Specialists of Alberta.

Finally, I would like to w

elcome new

staffm

ember M

ichelle Lyckman to our office w

how

ill sharing the position of Special ProjectsC

oordinator with returning staff m

ember Jana

McC

ubbin. Best w

ishes in 2004 and play safe! Joel W

eaver, MD

, CC

FP, C

ASM

Message fro

m th

e Presid

ent

pulsepulse

Fall 2003 Vol. 16 No. 3

Message fro

m th

e SS

AA

The past year w

as once again a productive one for sport science research in Alberta. T

he SportScience A

ssociation of Alberta w

as involved with funding thirteen different research projects con-

ducted by researchers from the U

niversities of Lethbridge, C

algary and Alberta. T

hese projectsspanned the research continuum

of sport psychology, physiology, biomechanics, m

otor behavior/con-trol and m

edicine. Alberta scientists seem

to be on the cutting edge of sport science research. Agood exam

ple of this is reported in this edition of Pulse and other examples can be found in the

“publications” section of the Sports Medicine C

ouncil Alberta W

eb Site (ww

w.sportm

edicinecoun-cilofalberta.ca). T

hese projects are good evidence for how such a granting program

can bridge thegap betw

een science and practice to benefit the research as well as sporting com

munity. T

his work

can have a direct impact on A

lberta athletes and coaches. Currently, SSA

Ais w

orking on the alloca-tion of funds for the 2004 – 2005 research proposals and w

ill look forward to new

challenges andinform

ation by Alberta researchers in the upcom

ing year. G

ordon J. Bell, P

h.D.

Sport Science Association of A

lberta

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Investigatio

n o

f the effects o

f seven d

ayso

f ph

ysical trainin

g on

cardiac o

utp

ut an

dth

e sub

sequ

ent h

eart rate vs. po

wer o

ut-

pu

t relation

ship

.

Investigatio

n o

f the effects o

f seven d

ayso

f ph

ysical trainin

g on

cardiac o

utp

ut an

dth

e sub

sequ

ent h

eart rate vs. po

wer o

ut-

pu

t relation

ship

.

Heart

Heart

Th

e

OOff tthh

ee mm

aattttee

rr

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Conclusions

Using a pedom

eter combined w

ith HR

, is an effective toolfor m

onitoring energy expenditure during running at low, m

edi-um

and high intensities.

Source of fund

ing:Sport Science A

ssociation of Alberta (SSA

A) through the

Alberta Sport, R

ecreation, Parks and Wildlife Foundation.

For m

ore in

form

ation

con

tact: D

r. Vicki H

arber, Faculty of Physical Education and

Recreation, E

424 Van V

liet Center, U

niversity of Alberta,

Edm

onton, AB

, T6G

2H9.

Com

mentary

The D

igiwalker pedom

eter can estimate the energy cost of

different running intensities for individuals accustomed to run-

ning activity. This easy-to-use and convenient tool for use in the

field may help provide individualized, specific strategies for

energy compensation. E

stablishing energy balance in activeindividuals w

ill help maintain a strong training profile and likely

prevent some of the negative m

etabolic adaptations known to

occur with inadequate energy intake.

Energy expenditureFrom

page16

VJ H

arber, W

Rod

gers, G B

ell, K C

ourneyaFaculty of Physical Education and R

ecreation,U

niversity of Alberta

Introduction

Energy requirem

ents for each athlete are unique. Physicalexercise by m

eans of training or competition w

ill increase dailyenergy expenditure by 480-960 kcal/hr, depending on individualfitness, duration, type and intensity of the sport (B

urke 2001).A

s a result, athletes are challenged to increase food consumption

to meet their energy needs.

Some athletes face num

erous obstacles in providing theirbodies w

ith adequate nutritional support. Aproblem

faced bym

any athletes include the timing of m

eals around multiple daily

training bouts. As w

ell, higher intensity exercise reducesappetite, digestion and absorption and often leads to infrequentor sm

aller volume m

eals (Burke 2001).

Less-than-adequate energy (m

acronutrient and micronutrient)

intake is identified as a risk factor for overtraining. Impaired

recovery, poor rate of skeletal muscle repletion, reduced oppor-

tunity to manipulate m

uscle mass and body fat level, decline in

hormonal and im

mune function are associated w

ith insufficientenergy intake (B

urke 2001). Optim

al function and health arealso com

promised.

The D

igiwalker is an accurate, electronic pedom

eter thatm

onitors the number of steps w

hen worn on a belt or w

aistband.Stride length can be established for each person at varyingspeeds (eg. w

alking, jogging, running). Total distance can bedeterm

ined as a result. Estim

ates of energy expenditure,although available on som

e Digiw

alker models, use a fixed for-

mula of 0.55 kcal/kg body w

eight/step. This form

ula may be

appropriate for general walking speeds but w

ould not be accu-rate for varying speeds of running (B

assett 2000).

Ob

jectiveT

he purpose of this project was to develop a

convenient method for athletes to estim

ate theenergetic cost of individual running w

orkouts.

Design

Quasi-experim

ental design.

Setting

University of A

lberta, Edm

onton.

Sub

jectsM

ale and female subjects (betw

een the ages of24-53 years) w

ere healthy, active and accustomed

to running as a mode of training.

Intervention/Main O

utcome

Measures Inform

ed consent was obtained from

all sub-jects. T

he following tests w

ere then completed:

Test D

ay 1:1. PA

R-Q

2. Height and w

eight3. A

naerobic threshold (AT

) determination

(Rhodes and M

cKenzie, 1984) using a

metabolic cart system

(MedG

raphics).T

est Day 2:

1. 2-4 days following the A

Ttest, subjects

completed 3 - 10 m

inute bouts of exercise on atreadm

ill (Low

= 50 - 55%, M

edium = 65-70%

and High = 85-90%

of AT

) separated by a 5m

inute rest interval. AD

igiwalker pedom

eter was w

orn for each10-m

inute bout to measure the num

ber of steps taken for eachw

orkload. As w

ell, HR

, RE

R, O

2 consumption and C

O2 output

was m

onitored for each workload. T

he caloric cost

(kcal/min/kg; W

eir equation) of each intensity was calculated.

2. Subjects repeated the 3 – 10 minute bouts of exercise (5

min rest intervals) on an indoor track w

earing the HR

monitor

and pedometer. Subjects w

ere instructed to maintain the sam

eH

R (+ 5 bpm

) obtained during the treadmill runs at the different

workloads. H

R (each m

inute) and total steps accumulated w

ererecorded.

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Field versu

s labo

ratory assessm

ent

of en

ergy expen

ditu

re in ru

nn

ers.Field

versus lab

orato

ry assessmen

t o

f energy exp

end

iture in

run

ners.

Continued on page 17

Runningon em

ptyRunning

on empty

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MJ. B

lack & S

R. N

orris Faculty of K

inesiology, Hum

an Performance

Laboratory, University of C

algary, Canada.

Ob

jectiveTo investigate changes in the heart rate vs. pow

er outputrelationship in response to seven days of intense physical train-ing.

DesignA

quasi-experimental tim

e series design with each subject

acting as their own ‘control’by utilizing a pre/during/post m

oni-toring form

at.

Settin

gStudy of local volunteers recruited via w

ord-of-mouth and

notice board ‘flyers’from the com

petitive cycling comm

unity inC

algary, Alberta.

Particip

ants

Ten male volunteers participated in and com

pleted this study(A

ge; 24.9±3.2 yr, Mass; 73.9±7.7 kg, ; 63.0±4.0 m

l.kg-1.min-

1) were recruited. A

ll 10 participants completed the study. A

llsubjects w

ere informed of the purposes of the study and associ-

ated risks as required by the Hum

an Ethics C

omm

ittee, Facultyof K

inesiology, at the University of C

algary.

Interven

tion

Subjects performed a total of four increm

ental protocols (2m

inute stages until ventilatory threshold, 1 minute stages from

threshold to max). T

he first max test (7 days prior to training)

was used to identify the pre-training , H

Rm

ax and maxim

al aer-obic pow

er, and to familiarize the subject w

ith the protocol. On

the day prior to the training intervention, subjects reported to thelaboratory in the m

orning for determination of plasm

a and bloodvolum

e. Two hours after this procedure the subjects perform

ed asecond w

ith simultaneous cardiac output m

easurements. T

hefollow

ing seven days consisted of 1.5 hours per day of highintensity training, w

ith supplementary strength training sessions

on the 2nd, 4th and 6th training days. One day post-training the

subjects completed another plasm

a volume determ

ination fol-low

ed by the protocol with cardiac output m

easurements. A

lltesting and training w

ill take place at the Hum

an Performance

Lab, Faculty of K

inesiology, University of C

algary, Calgary, A

B.

Main

results

Linear regression analysis of the H

R vs. Pow

er Output rela-

tionships across the duration of the investigation revealed statis-tically different slopes (‘flatter’) for days 3, 4, 6 and 7 as com

-pared to the first training day (p<0.05). In contrast, no differ-ences w

ere found in the ‘intercept’values (p>0.05). Maxim

umheart rates achieved w

ere lower on training days 3 to 7 (greatest

decrease on day 7) as compared to day 1 (p<0.05), although

there were no differences if day 1 w

as excluded (p>0.05).Furtherm

ore, there were no differences in the m

aximum

power

output attained or post-test blood lactates during these tests(p>0.05).

Co

nclu

sion

sT

hese results suggest that short-term changes in stroke vol-

ume and, or, arterio-venous oxygen difference allow

ed the sub-jects to perform

the incremental tests to the sam

e peak perform-

ance values.

So

urce o

f Fun

din

g:Sport Science A

ssociation of Alberta (SSA

A) through the

AL

BE

RTA

SPOR

T, RE

CR

EA

TIO

N, PA

RK

S AN

D W

ILD

LIFE

Cardiac O

utputFrom

page 4

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Intro

du

ction

Recent research in sport has suggested that the construct of

perfectionism has both adaptive and m

aladaptive components

(Dunn, C

ausgrove-Dunn, &

Syrotuik, in press; Hall, K

err, &M

atthews, 1998). R

esults from these studies all suggest that cer-

tain aspects of perfectionism m

ay adversely affect (or be relatedto) athletes’cognitions, affect, and behaviors in sport. G

iven thesalient role that anger is believed to play in sport perform

ance(L

azarus, 2000), identifying potential correlates and predictors

All the

All theR

AG

ER

AG

EContinued on page 6

The effect of situation criticality on the experience and expres-sion of com

petitive anger across adaptive and maladaptive

patterns of sport-perfectionism

The effect of situation criticality on the experience and expres-sion of com

petitive anger across adaptive and maladaptive

patterns of sport-perfectionism

J.G.H

. Dunn &

J.K.H

. Vallance

Faculty of Physical Education & R

ecreation,U

niversity of Alberta, Edm

onton

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T. Alentejano and

D. M

arshall.Faculty of Physical Education and R

ecreation,U

niversity of Alberta, A

lberta, Canada.

Intro

du

ction

Synchronized swim

ming (Synchro) is one of the only sports

where the athlete perform

s high intensity exercise while holding

their breath for various periods of time underw

ater. This m

aylead to a lack of oxygen delivery (hypoxia) to the w

orking tis-sues and brain and produce a build up of carbon dioxide (hyper-capnia) am

ong other physiological consequences (Davies et al.,

1995). Many of these physiological consequences as a result of

breath holding during exercise have been assumed from

othertypes of investigations of exercise not specifically perform

edunder w

ater in a sport specific manner. It is not uncom

mon to

hear anecdotal reports of loss of consciousness during Synchropractices or com

petitions, where athletes have held their breath

for an inappropriately long time period.

Ob

jectiveT

his study examined the physiological effects of breath hold-

ing (BH

) during exercise while im

mersed in w

ater in synchro-nized sw

imm

ers and recreational swim

mers.

Design

Two group com

parison.

Setting

University of A

lberta, Edm

onton.

Sub

jectsT

he subjects were a group of synchronized sw

imm

ers (n=15)aged 17.7 ± 2.2 years and a group of recreational sw

imm

ersaged 22.0 ± 2.7 (m

ean;SD). T

he subjects were volunteers and

signed an informed consent form

that was approved by the

Faculty of Physical Education and R

ecreation research ethicscom

mittee. A

ll subjects were required to be able to hold their

breath for at least 45 seconds out of the water. T

he two groups

were m

atched for sitting height in an attempt to control for dif-

ferences in lung volumes and required to have a ratio of forced

vital capacity in one second to total forced vital capacity of atleast 75%

.

Intervention/Main O

utcome M

easures E

ach subject was fam

iliarized with all procedures prior to

data collection. Anthropom

etric (height, body mass, sitting

height), lung capacity and other descriptive data were collected

on each subject. A

n underwater com

bined arm and leg ergom

eter was custom

designed for this study based on Chen et al. (1996). T

his devicew

as positioned in a tank designed for hydrostatic weighing that

allowed subjects to exercise under controlled w

ork rates while

under water. Subjects w

ere imm

ersed to the clavicular notch forall testing and w

ore a weighted belt to ensure they rem

ain sub-m

erged. Water tem

perature was kept constant at 28 degrees C

. Acertified lifeguard w

as present for all testing. D

uring the first testing session, a series of 5 trials of maxi-

mum

breath holding (without exercise), w

ith an interval of 2

minutes rest in betw

een each trial, was perform

ed by each sub-ject. A

fter adequate recovery, an arm cranking ventilatory thresh-

old/ VO

2 peak exercise test was perform

ed. T

he second testing session (3 to 5 days later) consisted ofperform

ing 6 breath holds (10, 20 and 25 s repeated twice) inter-

spersed by two m

inute active recovery periods during arm crank-

ing exercise performed underw

ater at an intensity set below ven-

tilatory threshold. For all exercise testing, subjects w

ere monitored using a

breath by breath metabolic m

easurement system

(MedG

raphicsC

PXD

). Am

odified mouthpiece and tw

o way hose system

was

used to collect the expired air. Heart rate w

as measured using a

telemetric heart rate m

onitor (Polar), and pulse oximetry w

asm

easured.

Main R

esultsT

here were no statistical differences in height, sitting height

and weight betw

een groups, although the synchronized swim

-m

ers were significantly younger than the controls.

During the 5 breath holding trials, breath holding tim

es inboth groups increased from

Trial 1 to T

rial 5 (SS= 71 – 109s;controls=57 – 78s). W

ith the exception of the first breath holdingtrial, w

here there were no differences betw

een the groups, thesw

imm

ers held their breath significantly longer than the controlsin trials 2-5.

Analyses of other physiological param

eters such as HR

andO

2 saturation during breath holding, and oxygen consumption

and saturation before and after breath holding, are ongoing.

Co

nclu

sion

sW

e anticipate that results will show

a physiological adapta-tion in synchronized sw

imm

ers that allows for prolonged breath

holding during underwater perform

ance. Further, we anticipate

providing synchronized coaches with specific recom

mendations

around training and choreography.

Source of fund

ing:Sport Science A

ssociation of Alberta (SSA

A) through the

Alberta Sport, R

ecreation, Parks and Wildlife Foundation.

For m

ore in

form

ation

con

tact: D

ru Marshall, Ph.D

. or Teresa Alentejano, Ph.D

. candidate,Faculty of Physical E

ducation and Recreation, E

424 Van V

lietC

enter, University of A

lberta, Edm

onton, AB

, T6G

2H9.

Water Im

mersion

From page 13

E-mail: zaki196@home.com

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Water im

mersio

n an

d b

reath h

old

ing w

ith

or w

itho

ut cyclin

g and

arm cran

kin

g exercisein

a hyd

rostatic tan

k

Water im

mersio

n an

d b

reath h

old

ing w

ith

or w

itho

ut cyclin

g and

arm cran

kin

g exercisein

a hyd

rostatic tan

k

Water

power

Water

power

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of the anger response in sport is an important research endeavor.

Ob

jectiveT

his study had two m

ajor purposes: (1) to examine the influ-

ence of situation criticality on the experience and expression ofcom

petitive anger across adaptive and maladaptive profiles of

perfectionism in com

petitive youth ice hockey, and (2) to exam-

ine the relationship between m

ultidimensional perfectionism

andtrait anger in youth ice hockey.D

esign

Correlational and B

etween-G

roup Differences.

Settin

gL

ocal hockey arenas throughout the Edm

onton region.

Particip

ants

Two hundred and thirty one com

petitive (Pee Wee T

ier I,B

antam A

A, A

AA

) male youth hockey players (M

age = 14.16years; SD

= 1.03).

Measu

res/Instru

men

ts Players com

pleted one self-report measure of perfectionism

(MPS-Sport; D

unn et al., in press), two self-report m

easures ofstate anger (SA

I; Spielberger, 1999), and one self-report measure

of trait anger (TAI; Spielberger, 1999). Som

e of the originalitem

s on the anger measures w

ere reworded to m

ake them m

orerelevant to the sport of hockey.

Main

Resu

ltsD

imensions of perfectionism

that are generally considered tobe m

aladaptive in nature (i.e., perceived parental pressure [PPP],perceived coach pressure [PC

P], and concern over mistakes

[CO

M]) w

ere positively correlated with state and trait anger sub-

scales which m

easured the likelihood of (a) feeling angry, (b)expressing anger verbally, and (c) ex-pressing anger at som

eone.T

hese perfectionism dim

ensions (i.e., PPP, PCP, C

OM

) were

also positively correlated with predispositions to react w

ithanger, and to harbor an angry tem

perament. In other w

ords,players w

ho scored higher on the maladaptive dim

ensions ofperfectionism

tended to experience and express anger more often

than players with low

er levels of maladaptive perfectionism

.R

esults also suggest that maladaptive perfectionists are m

orelikely to experience higher levels of anger follow

ing mistakes in

competition than adaptive perfectionists. T

he only perfectionismsubscale not related to anger w

as Personal Standards (PS).Tw

o separate multiple regression analyses w

ere conducted toexam

ine if MPS-Sport subscales predicted trait anger. B

oth con-cern over m

istakes and perceived coach pressure were signifi-

cant predictors of angry temperam

ent. Concern over m

istakesw

as the only significant predictor of angry reaction. C

luster analysis was used to divide athletes into groups. O

negroup w

as comprised of adaptive perfectionists (i.e., high PS

scores and low PPP, PC

P, and CO

M scores) and one group w

ascom

prised of maladaptive perfectionists (i.e., high scores on all

four MPS-Sport subscales). A

doubly multivariate repeated

measures m

ultivariate analysis of variance was then conducted

to examine if adaptive and m

aladaptive perfectionists experi-enced different levels of anger as a function of m

aking mistakes

in high and low criticality situations. T

he high criticality situa-tion described the player m

aking a mistake late in the third peri-

od of tied game. T

he low criticality situation described the play-

er making the sam

e mistake m

idway through the first period of

tied game. Irrespective of w

hether mistakes w

ere made in high

or low criticality situations, m

aladaptive perfectionists reportedsignificantly higher levels of anger (i.e., group m

ain effect).R

esults also showed that irrespective of an athlete’s perfectionist

orientations, athletes reported significantly higher levels of angerfollow

ing mistakes in high criticality situations than in low

criti-cality situations (i.e., situation m

ain effect).

Co

nclu

sion

sT

hese results strongly suggest that competitive youth hockey

players with m

aladaptive perfectionist orientations are more

prone to experiencing and expressing anger in hockey than theiradaptive perfectionist counterparts.

So

urce o

f fun

din

g:Sport Science A

ssociation of Alberta through the A

lbertaSport, R

ecreation, Parks and Wildlife Foundation.

For more inform

ation contact: D

r. John Dunn, Faculty of PE

& R

ec, University of A

lberta,E

dmonton, T

6G 2H

9 (780) 492-2831.

Co

mm

entary

To date, research on perfectionism in sport has exam

inedyouth athletes and am

ateur adult athletes. Several prominent

sport psychologists have postulated that it is the adaptive perfec-tionist orientation that is believed to be characteristic of high-level perform

ance. An investigation exam

ining elite level ath-letes and their perfectionist orientations w

ould facilitate a deeperconceptual understanding of adaptive perfectionism

in sport. Itw

ould also be prudent to explore the impact of developing and

using practical techniques that would help athletes to (a) set high

(but achievable) personal standards and performance goals, (b)

avoid the destructive tendency of being overly critical about per-sonal perform

ance, and (c) view perform

ance mistakes as learn-

ing opportunities for skill development. Finally coaches and par-

ents should be aware that the type of standards that they set for

young athletes, and the type of feedback (and rewards) that they

provide for athletes following their perform

ance attempts m

ightinfluence the degree to w

hich athletes develop adaptive or mal-

adaptive perfectionist tendencies.

Practical Im

plicatio

ns

We recom

mend that parents and coaches should encourage

their athletes or children to strive for perfection in sport.H

owever, w

e caution coaches and parents about the dangers ofdem

anding perfection. Such demands (and the standards that go

with them

) are generally unattainable. Such an environment w

illcreate undue pressure on young perform

ers, who w

ill ultimately

become frustrated w

ith their lack of success (i.e., because per-fection is rarely if ever achieved). C

ontinual frustration causedby a perceived lack of success can lead to excessive levels ofanxiety and anger, w

hich can ultimately lead to a general sense

of failure and may contribute to early burnout or dropout from

the sport environment.

Anger in sport

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G. B

ell, C. S

ellar, D. S

yrotuik, C. Field

Faculty of Physical Education and Recreation and

Departm

ent of Agricultural, Food and N

utritionalSciences, U

niversity of Alberta, A

lberta, Canada.

Intro

du

ction

Intense, prolonged exercise is known to influence the ability

of the imm

une system to function properly after exercise

(Mackinnon, 1999, A

dvances In Exercise Im

munology).

Niem

an (2000, MSSE

, 32(7): S406-S411) has suggested that this

period of altered imm

une function may provide an “open-w

in-dow

” for an infection to take hold in the body. As w

ith otherfull-body intense exercise, row

ing exercise has been shown to

cause an alteration in certain aspects of the imm

une system(Shephard, 1998, J. Sport Sci.,16: 603-620) and has been linkedto higher levels of stress horm

ones compared to other form

s ofexercise (Secher, 1993, Sports M

ed., 15(1): 24-42.). This m

ay bepart of the reason w

hy the imm

une system m

ay not functionproperly after exercise (G

leeson and Bishop, 2000 Im

mun. &

Cell B

io., 78: 554-561; Castel et al. E

ur. J. App. Physiol., 73:

Continued on page 9

The effect o

f off-seaso

n train

ing p

rogram

min

g for Ed

mo

nto

n

row

ers and

its effect on

imm

un

e system fu

nctio

n.

The effect o

f off-seaso

n train

ing p

rogram

min

g for Ed

mo

nto

n

row

ers and

its effect on

imm

un

e system fu

nctio

n.

Trainingand the im

mune system

Trainingand the im

mune system

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Kriskchek et al., 1999, R

ompe et al., 1996). T

hese studies havefocussed on patients w

ho have failed non-operative treatments.

Success rates reported in the literature for ESW

Tin L

E range

from 60 to 85%

. This consistent result has yet to be dem

onstrat-ed in any other m

odality of treatment for L

E, including ultra-

sound therapy, ionisation, non-steroid anti-inflamm

atory drug(N

SAID

) therapy, steroid injection, and manipulation (L

abelle etal. 1992). T

here have been no studies to date that have investi-gated E

SWT

as a primary treatm

ent for LE

—that is before phys-

ical therapy and/or corticosteroid injection.

Ob

jective:T

he aim of this study is to determ

ine whether E

SWT

iseffective as a prim

ary therapy for individuals who suffer from

LE

.

Design

Random

ized control trial.

Setting

Sport Medicine C

entre, Faculty of Kinesiology, U

niversity ofC

algary, AB

.

Sub

jectsT

he sample population consisted of 60 consenting skeletally

mature individuals (defined as 18 years of age and older) w

ith aconfirm

ed diagnosis of LE

by the study physician, who had not

yet received treatment for their L

E, w

ho were either referred to

this study by their family physician or w

ho volunteered to partic-ipate in this study and w

ho were not contraindicated to receive

ESW

T. Elite level athletes and W

orker’s Com

pensation Board

claimants w

ere excluded from the study. A

ll subjects signed aconsent form

. This project w

as approved by a University of

Calgary R

esearch Ethics B

oard.

Intervention/Main O

utcome M

easures Subjects w

ere randomly allocated (R

andom per-

muted block random

ization, envelop concealment) to

receive 3 weekly sessions of real (total energy flux

density range 0.03-0.17mJ/m

m2) or sham

ESW

T. All

subjects were taught a hom

e forearm extensor stretch.

Subjects were follow

ed for 8 weeks post-inclusion

and were assessed for over all pain (V

isual Analog

Scale (VA

S)), quality of life (EuroQ

ol questionnaire),and m

aximum

pain-free grip strength. The prim

aryoutcom

e for this study was treatm

ent success/failurebased on fulfilling all of the follow

ing criteria: 1) atleast a 50%

reduction in the overall pain VA

S; 2) am

aximum

allowable overall pain V

AS score of

4.0cm; and 3) no use of pain m

edication for elbowpain betw

een week 6 and w

eek 8. An intention to

treat analysis was perform

ed on the primary outcom

eusing the last-observation-carried-forw

ard approachfor m

issing values. Confidence intervals for V

AS

scores, quality of life and maxim

um pain-free grip

strength, by treatment group, w

ere calculated.

Main R

esultsSubjects w

ere recruited between February 2002

and September 2002. 29 subjects w

ere randomly allo-

cated to the sham E

SWT

group, and 31 subjects were

randomly allocated to the active E

SWT

group. 4 sub-

jects in the sham group and 1 subjects in the active group w

erelost to follow

-up. In the sham group, 9 subjects w

ere classifiedas treatm

ent successes and 20 subjects as treatment failures. In

the active group, 12 subjects were classified as treatm

ent suc-cesses, and 19 subjects as treatm

ent failures. No significant dif-

ference in treatment success/failure w

as detected (_2=0.3880,df=1, p=0.533) betw

een active and sham groups. Scores are pro-

vided in table 1.

Conclusions

Despite the im

provement in pain scores and pain-free m

axi-m

um grip strength w

ithin groups, there does not appear to be adifference betw

een treating previously untreated LE

with E

SWT

with a sim

ple forearm stretching program

or with a sim

ple fore-arm

stretching program alone w

ith respect to resolving painsym

ptoms w

ithin an 8 week period. T

his cohort is still being fol-low

ed for the remainder of their full follow

-up period of oneyear to address secondary outcom

es and study objectives

Source of Fund

ing:Sport Science A

ssociation of Alberta (SSA

A) through the

Alberta Sport, R

ecreation, Parks and Wildlife Foundation.

For m

ore in

form

ation

con

tactD

r. J. Preston Wiley, phone: (403)220-8518

Em

ail: wiley@

ucalgary.ca

Tennis elbowFrom

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Effectiveness o

f Extracorp

oreal S

ho

ckw

aveTh

erapy in

the Treatm

ent o

f Un

treated

Lateral Epico

nd

ylitis

Effectiveness o

f Extracorp

oreal S

ho

ckw

aveTh

erapy in

the Treatm

ent o

f Un

treated

Lateral Epico

nd

ylitisB

. Chung and

J. P. Wiley

Faculty of Kinesiology,

University of C

algary

Introduction

LE

is comm

only observed inthe athletic population, especiallyin sports such as tennis and otherracquet sports as w

ell as golf,bow

ling, martial arts and som

epaddle sports. T

he prevalence ofL

E am

ongst amateur tennis players

has been estimated to be 50%

(Geoffroy et al, 1994). In golf, 27%

of players suffer from L

E. Several

studies have examined the effect of

low-energy extracorporeal shock-

wave therapy (E

SWT

) on LE

(Gigliotti et al., 1999, H

aist, 1999,

Continued on page 13

Elbow Grease

Elbow Grease

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488-490). C

arbohydrate supplementation before, during, and after exer-

cise has been proposed as a means of reducing the negative

effects of exercise on imm

une function following exercise

(Niem

an and Pedersen, 2002, Nutrition and E

xerciseIm

munology). It has been suggested that carbohydrate supple-

mentation w

ill reduce the release of certain stress hormones dur-

ing exercise and provide adequate fuel for imm

une cell function-ing (G

leeson and Bishop, 2000 Im

mun.&

Cell B

io., 78: 554-561). It w

as hypothesized in this study, that carbohydrate sup-plem

entation during prolonged rowing exercise w

ould reducethe negative effects of exercise on the im

mune system

and stresshorm

one production.

Ob

jectiveT

he purposes of this study were to determ

ine the effect of 1-hour of row

ing exercise and carbohydrate supplementation on

the imm

une and hormonal response follow

ing exercise.

DesignQ

uasi-experimental design.

Settin

gU

niversity of Alberta, E

dmonton.

Su

bjects

The subjects (n = 22) w

ere a combination of on-w

ater andindoor-only row

ers from the local row

ing comm

unity.

Interven

tion

/Main

Ou

tcom

e Measu

res E

ach subject completed a 10 w

eek combined strength and

endurance, off-season training program. Follow

ing training, allsubjects com

pleted a 2000-metre sim

ulated rowing race and w

asthen m

atched on time and random

ly assigned to a carbohydrateor placebo group. A

3-day dietary record was obtained and used

to alter the intake of all subjects so that they consumed 55%

car-bohydrate for the three days leading up to a 1-hour row

. Next,

the subjects were provided w

ith a standardized pre-event meal

and completed a 1-hour row

for maxim

um distance during

which tim

e they ingested either a carbohydrate or placebo bever-age at regular intervals before, during, and after their 1-hourrow

. Blood w

as taken from the subjects at rest before and after 5

and 60 minutes of row

ing. All sam

ples were analyzed for blood

glucose, stress hormones, and various im

mune m

easures. All

subjects also completed a com

bined maxim

al oxygen consump-

tion/ ventilatory threshold test (VO

2max/V

Ttest), to determ

inethe relative intensity that the subjects m

aintained during their 1-hour row

. All subjects w

ere required to report any illness for a14-day period follow

ing the 1-hour row.

Main

Resu

ltsT

he subjects rowed at an average of 72%

of VO

2max for the

1-hour bout (estimated using pow

er output from 1-hour row

compared to pow

er output values from the V

O2m

ax/VT

test).T

here were no significant differences in perform

ance between

the carbohydrate and placebo group for the 1-hour row.

There w

ere significant alterations in a number of im

mune

cell measures. T

he circulating levels of leukocytes (white blood

cells), neutrophils, lymphocytes, and natural killer cell activity

were all significantly altered follow

ing exercise when com

paredto resting values. A

ll of these changes indicate that the imm

uneresponse w

as negatively influenced by 1-hour of rowing exer-

cise. Also, the concentrations of adrenocorticotropic horm

oneand cortisol w

ere significantly elevated imm

ediately following

exercise in both groups, which paralleled the changes seen in the

imm

une parameters.

Carbohydrate supplem

entation during the 1-hour row show

edsignificantly higher blood glucose levels com

pared to placebo.T

here was a significantly higher level of circulating lym

phocytesim

mediately after exercise in the placebo group indicating that

supplementation of carbohydrate w

as able to reduce the eleva-tion of these cells, post exercise. T

here were no other differences

observed between the carbohydrate supplem

entation group andthe placebo group. A

lso, there was no difference in the incidence

of illness between the carbohydrate and placebo groups in the 14

days following the 1-hour row

.

Co

nclu

sion

sO

ne hour of rowing exercise w

as sufficient to influence thefunction of the im

mune system

and carbohydrate supplementa-

tion maintained blood glucose levels and reduced the release of

lymphocytes after exercise. It seem

s that ingestion of carbohy-drate w

as unable to show any further effects on the im

mune sys-

tem or horm

one release with row

ing exercise of this durationand intensity. Furtherm

ore, there was no significant increase in

the incidence of illness reported by the subjects for a two-w

eekperiod follow

ing the 1- hour row. T

hus, although carbohydrateingestion during intense long duration exercise is necessary form

etabolic reasons (e.g. maintenance of blood glucose), the effect

of reducing the negative influence of exercise on the imm

unesystem

was m

inimal in the present study.

So

urce o

f fun

din

g:Sport Science A

ssociation of Alberta (SSA

A) through the

Alberta Sport, R

ecreation, Parks and Wildlife Foundation.

For m

ore in

form

ation

con

tact: D

r. Gordon B

ell, Faculty of Physical Education and

Recreation, E

424 Van V

liet Center, U

niversity of Alberta,

Edm

onton, AB

, T6G

2H9.

Co

mm

entary

Com

pletion of a long duration rowing exercise bout sim

ilarthat perform

ed during a typical off-season training sessionshow

ed that this type of exercise can reduce some aspects of

imm

une cell functioning following exercise. W

hile a single boutof row

ing exercise did not increase the incidence of illness inour subjects, there still m

ay be an increased risk following

repeated training bouts. Supplementation w

ith carbohydrate was

shown to have som

e effect on the post exercise imm

uneresponse to one hour of row

ing exercise but this effect was m

ini-m

al. How

ever, it is important to m

aintain proper nutrition duringperiods of training in order to m

aintain metabolic energy supply,

hormone response and im

mune function.

Row

ingFrom

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P. Gervais, J. S

teven LeBlanc, D

erek Kivi, M

.M

oreau and B

rian Maraj

Sports Biom

echanics Lab, Faculty of PhysicalEducation and R

ecreation.University of A

lberta,

Intro

du

ction

In tum

bling the back handspring is most often used as a tran-

sitional skill in combination w

ith a lead in skill such as a round-off into a backw

ard directed skill such as backward som

ersault.

The back handspring is first introduced to gym

nast at a youngage and is a skill that is very frequently executed in training andcom

petition through out a gymnast’s career. K

oh et. al. (1992)and H

all (1982) have suggested that the repetitive loading aboutthe upper extrem

ities and the extreme range of m

otions seen inthe lum

bar spine in back handspring may put the gym

nast at riskof overuse injuries. T

hey also suggest that this risk can beincrease due to poor execution often observed during the earlyphases of learning. G

ymnastics C

anada maintains that a m

ajor

Assessm

ent o

f curren

t practices in

techn

iqu

e d

evelop

men

t for th

e back

han

dsp

ring in

gymn

asticsA

ssessmen

t of cu

rrent p

ractices in tech

niq

ue

develo

pm

ent fo

r the b

ack h

and

sprin

g in gym

nastics

Continued on page 11

Han

dsp

rings

Han

dsp

rings

Doing

Doing

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role of coaching tumbling is the use of training ‘gim

micks’

which perm

it the safe learning of tumbling skills especially dur-

ing the critical early stages of development (K

insman, et. al.,

1986).

Ob

jectiveIt w

as the purpose of this study to examine four different

back handsprings used for teaching and training the back hand-spring in artistic gym

nastics.

Design

Repeated m

easures, quasi-experimental research design.

Setting

Sports Biom

echanics Lab, U

niversity of Alberta, A

lberta.

Sub

jectsFour young m

ale gymnasts (10, 11, 2@

12yrs) were recruited.

These gym

nasts were class 4 national stream

competitors.

Parental consent was acquired for the study. T

he boys were all

familiar w

ith all 4 variations of the back handspring.

Intervention/Main O

utcome M

easuresT

he gymnasts w

ere fitted with reflective m

arkers over thejoint centers on the side of the body closest to the cam

eras. Data

was collected using standard 2D

video techniques using two

JVC

GR

-DV

L9800 cam

eras operating at 120Hz. V

ideo datareduction and analysis w

as performed using the A

PAS system

byA

riel Dynam

ics Inc. The gym

nasts tumbled on a standard tum

-bling m

at 5cm in thickness. A

n AM

TI m

odel OR

6-3 force platew

as mounted under the m

at and was used to m

easure force dur-ing hand contact. Force data w

as collected at 1200Hz.

Synchronization between video data and force m

easures was

achieved using an externally triggered LE

D visible to the cam

-eras and m

onitored on an additional A/D

channel.T

he four trial conditions consisted of 1) a spotted standingback handspring, 2) a standing back handspring perform

ed down

an inclined mat, 3) a back handspring preceded by a round-off

and 4) an “accelerated” back handspring. The incline m

at is acom

mon learning tool used in gym

nast instruction. This m

athad a 2m

base and height of 46cm providing a slope of 13

degrees. For the 2nd condition the gymnasts started w

ith theirfeet on the inclined m

at and had the hands making contact w

iththe level tum

bling mat over the force plate. For the last condi-

tion, the accelerated back handspring, the round-off was initiated

on the incline with the feet landing on the tum

bling mat proceed-

ing into the back handspring. Aone-w

ay AN

OV

Aw

ith repeatedm

easured was used for statistical analysis. T

he p-level was set at

0.05. AL

SD post-hoc test w

as used where w

arranted.

Main R

esults Peak vertical ground reaction forces w

ere found to be signifi-cantly low

er in the spotted standing back handsprings than in theother three back handspring conditions (p<0.01). T

here were no

significant differences in vertical forces between the other three

back handspring conditions. These relationships are illustrated

in Figure 1. The m

ean for the 4 gymnasts under the four condi-

tions for vertical force was 3.57B

W(SD

=0.80BW

). Although

approaching only conventional levels of significance, the

Figure 1

: Peak

vertical grou

nd

reaction

forces o

n th

e han

ds.

two back handsprings utilizing the inclined m

at and the round-off back handsprings produced greater linear m

omentum

in thedirection of progression than the assisted back handsprings.C

ontact time on the hands w

as found to be significantly higherfor the standing back handsprings (1 &

2) when com

pared toconditions 3 and 4, w

hich included a round-off. K

inematic descriptors related to body position at foot and

hand contact did not appear to be significantly different acrossconditions how

ever, based on the angle of incidence at handcontact, the inclined back handspring had gym

nasts landing in am

ore vertical position.

Conclusions

The back handspring perform

ed down the inclined m

atappears to provide the learner w

ith the best translational charac-teristics of the four back handsprings tested. T

here is little evi-dence to suggest that any one of these back handsprings put theyoung gym

nast at a greater risk than another.

Source of fund

ing:Sport Science A

ssociation of Alberta (SSA

A) through the

Alberta Sport, R

ecreation, Parks and Wildlife Foundation.

For m

ore in

form

ation

con

tact:Pierre G

ervais, Ph.D. at: Faculty of Physical E

ducation andR

ecreation, University of A

lberta, Edm

onton, AB

, T6G

2H9.

Com

mentary

The back handspring is a critical fundam

ental skill in artisticgym

nasts that must be m

astered at a young age but in a safe andeffective m

anner. The back handspring taught w

ith the use of aninclined m

at appears to provide a safe and effective means for

young athletes to get the ‘feel’for and practice the back hand-spring.

Gym

nasticsFrom

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