PsychologyPsychology

Chapter 14Chapter 14

Lecture QuestionsLecture Questions

Section 1 (pages 322-324)Section 1 (pages 322-324)

Revised March 2012Revised March 2012

1. What is a personality trait? 1. What is a personality trait? Give some examples.Give some examples.

A trait is an aspect of personality that is considered to be reasonably stable.A trait is an aspect of personality that is considered to be reasonably stable. We assume that a person has certain traits based on how the person We assume that a person has certain traits based on how the person

behaves.behaves. Traits are assumed to account for consistent behavior in different situations.Traits are assumed to account for consistent behavior in different situations. Examples of traits:Examples of traits:

AggressiveAggressive Out-goingOut-going PessimisticPessimistic DemandingDemanding HonestHonest IndependentIndependent QuietQuiet Lazy Lazy DominantDominant FriendlyFriendly SensitiveSensitive PersuasivePersuasive CuriousCurious CreativeCreative MischievousMischievous

2. How did Hippocrates explain personality traits?

The ancient Greeks believed that the body contains fluids called humors.

Hippocrates suggested that traits are a result of different combinations of these bodily fluids.

Hippocrates believed that there are four bodily fluids, or humors, in the body.

3. Explain the four humors 3. Explain the four humors according to the Greeks.according to the Greeks.

Yellow-bileYellow-bile—— Which was associated with a choleric, or quick-Which was associated with a choleric, or quick-

tempered, disposition.tempered, disposition. BloodBlood——

Which was connected with a sanguine, or warm and Which was connected with a sanguine, or warm and cheerful, temperament.cheerful, temperament.

PhlegmPhlegm—— Which was linked with a phlegmatic, or sluggish and Which was linked with a phlegmatic, or sluggish and

cool, disposition.cool, disposition. Black-bileBlack-bile——

Which was associated with a melancholic, thoughtful Which was associated with a melancholic, thoughtful temperament.temperament.

4. What was done if it was 4. What was done if it was believed there was a lack of believed there was a lack of

balance in the humors?balance in the humors?• Certain diseases and disorders were believed Certain diseases and disorders were believed

to reflect a lack of balance in these humors.to reflect a lack of balance in these humors.• Methods such as bloodletting (the removal of Methods such as bloodletting (the removal of

blood from the body) and vomiting were blood from the body) and vomiting were recommended to restore the balance of fluids recommended to restore the balance of fluids and one’s health.and one’s health.

• Although there is no scientific evidence for Although there is no scientific evidence for Hippocrates’ biological theory, the terms Hippocrates’ biological theory, the terms based on his ideas remain in use today.based on his ideas remain in use today.

• A cheerful person, for example, may still be A cheerful person, for example, may still be called sanguine.called sanguine.

Hippocrates Born about 460 B.C., Hippocrates lived in an age when most

people thought illness was caused by demons or magic. Hippocrates believed that poor hygiene and malnutrition cause

disease. He studied diseases carefully and taught his methods to other

physicians. He was competent at setting broken bones and at surgery. He strongly believed that physicians have a moral responsibility

to their patients. Physicians (doctors) today still take the Hippocratic oath, in

which they promise to practice medicine in an ethical and caring way.

5. How many personality 5. How many personality traits did Gordon Allport traits did Gordon Allport find? What was his belief find? What was his belief

about these traits?about these traits? In the 1930s, Allport searched through a dictionary to find In the 1930s, Allport searched through a dictionary to find

every term that could describe a person.every term that could describe a person. He catalogued some 18,000 human traits from a search He catalogued some 18,000 human traits from a search

through lists of descriptive words.through lists of descriptive words. Some of the words, such as Some of the words, such as short short and and brunettebrunette, describe , describe

physical traits.physical traits. Others, such as Others, such as shy shy and and emotional, emotional, describe behavioral describe behavioral

traits.traits. Still others such as Still others such as honest, honest, concern morality.concern morality. Allport assumed that traits can be inherited and that they Allport assumed that traits can be inherited and that they

are fixed in the nervous system.are fixed in the nervous system. Allport’s research led him to conclude that traits are the Allport’s research led him to conclude that traits are the

building blocks of personality.building blocks of personality. He believed that a person’s behavior is a product of his or He believed that a person’s behavior is a product of his or

her particular combination of traits.her particular combination of traits.

6. What did Hans J. Eysenck 6. What did Hans J. Eysenck focus on? What’s an introvert? focus on? What’s an introvert?

What’s an extrovert?What’s an extrovert?

British psychologist Hans J. Eysenck focused British psychologist Hans J. Eysenck focused on the relationships between two personality on the relationships between two personality dimensions: introversion-extroversion and dimensions: introversion-extroversion and emotional stability-instability in the 1950s.emotional stability-instability in the 1950s.– Stable people are usually reliable, composed, and Stable people are usually reliable, composed, and

rational.rational.– Unstable people can be agitated and unpredictable.Unstable people can be agitated and unpredictable.

An An introvert introvert tends to be imaginative and to tends to be imaginative and to look inward rather than to other people.look inward rather than to other people.

An An extrovert extrovert tends to be active, self-tends to be active, self-expressive and gain energy from interaction expressive and gain energy from interaction with others.with others.

7. How is Eysenck’s 7. How is Eysenck’s scheme similar to the scheme similar to the one suggested by one suggested by Hippocrates? (use the Hippocrates? (use the diagram on page 324)diagram on page 324) Eysenck cataloged various personality traits according Eysenck cataloged various personality traits according

to where those traits appear within the dimensions of to where those traits appear within the dimensions of introversion-extroversion and emotional stability-introversion-extroversion and emotional stability-instability.instability.

For instance, an anxious person might be highly For instance, an anxious person might be highly introverted and emotionally unstable.introverted and emotionally unstable.

A reckless or impulsive person might be highly A reckless or impulsive person might be highly extroverted and unstable.extroverted and unstable.

Eysenck’s scheme is similar to the one suggested by Eysenck’s scheme is similar to the one suggested by Hippocrates.Hippocrates.

According to Eyensk’s dimensions, the (yellow-bile) According to Eyensk’s dimensions, the (yellow-bile) choleric type would be extroverted and unstable; the choleric type would be extroverted and unstable; the (blood) sanguine type, extroverted and stable; the (blood) sanguine type, extroverted and stable; the phlegmatic type, introverted and stable; and the phlegmatic type, introverted and stable; and the (phlegmatic) melancholic type, introverted and (phlegmatic) melancholic type, introverted and unstable.unstable.

Eysenck’s Personality Dimensions

8. Describe the five-factor model.8. Describe the five-factor model.

In psychology, the term “five-factor” refers to recent research In psychology, the term “five-factor” refers to recent research suggesting that there may be five basic personality factors.suggesting that there may be five basic personality factors.

EExtroversionxtroversion——• Contrasts talkactiveness, assertiveness, and activity with silence, Contrasts talkactiveness, assertiveness, and activity with silence,

passivity, reserve.passivity, reserve. AgreeablenessAgreeableness——

• Contrasts kindness, trust, and warmth with hostility, selfishness, and Contrasts kindness, trust, and warmth with hostility, selfishness, and distrust.distrust.

ConscientiousnessConscientiousness——• Contrasts organization, thoroughness, and reliability with carelessness, Contrasts organization, thoroughness, and reliability with carelessness,

negligence, and unreliability.negligence, and unreliability. Emotional Stability-InstabilityEmotional Stability-Instability——

• Contrasts reliability and coping ability with nervousness, moodiness, Contrasts reliability and coping ability with nervousness, moodiness, and sensitivity to negative events.and sensitivity to negative events.

Openness to ExperienceOpenness to Experience——• Contrasts imagination, curiosity, and creativity with ;shallowness and Contrasts imagination, curiosity, and creativity with ;shallowness and

lack of perceptiveness.lack of perceptiveness.

9. What are the shortcomings of the 9. What are the shortcomings of the trait approach?trait approach?

The main shortcoming of the trait The main shortcoming of the trait approach is that it describes personality approach is that it describes personality but does not explain where traits come but does not explain where traits come from.from.

PsychologyPsychology

Chapter 14Chapter 14

Lecture QuestionsLecture Questions

Section 2 (pages 324-332)Section 2 (pages 324-332)

1. What does the psychoanalytic approach to personality teach?

The psychoanalytic approach teaches that all people—even the most well-adjusted—undergo inner struggles.

According to this approach, which became popular in the late 1800s, people are born with certain biological drives such as aggression, sex, and the need for superiority.

2. Who originated this concept 2. Who originated this concept of “inner conflict”? How did he of “inner conflict”? How did he

come up with this idea?come up with this idea? The “inner conflict” approach to personality The “inner conflict” approach to personality

theory owes its origin to Sigmund Freud (1856-theory owes its origin to Sigmund Freud (1856-1939).1939).

Freud was trained as a physician (doctor).Freud was trained as a physician (doctor). Early in his practice in Vienna, Austria, he was Early in his practice in Vienna, Austria, he was

astounded to find that some people had lost astounded to find that some people had lost feeling in a hand or had become paralyzed in the feeling in a hand or had become paralyzed in the legs even though nothing was medically wrong legs even though nothing was medically wrong with them.with them.

He concluded that these problems must be He concluded that these problems must be emotional, he said these people were suffering emotional, he said these people were suffering from “hysteria”.from “hysteria”.

3. Explain conscious and 3. Explain conscious and unconscious according to unconscious according to

Freud.Freud.• Freud believed that conscious ideas Freud believed that conscious ideas

and feelings occupy only a small part and feelings occupy only a small part of the mind.of the mind.

• Many of people’s deepest thoughts, Many of people’s deepest thoughts, fears, and urges remain out of their fears, and urges remain out of their awareness.awareness.

• These urges are pushed into an These urges are pushed into an unconscious part of the mind.unconscious part of the mind.

4. What methods did Freud use to explore the unconscious mind? One way in which Freud explored the unconscious is through

psychoanalysis.• In psychoanalysis, people are encouraged to talk about anything that

pops into their minds.• This is called the “talking cure”.

Freud also explored the unconscious through dream analysis.• He believed that people experience unconscious wishes in their

dreams—often in disguised form.• Freud would ask people to record their dreams upon waking.

• He would help them explore the dreams’ possible hidden meanings. Another technique that Freud used was hypnosis.

• He felt that people in a hypnotic state had better access to their unconscious thoughts.

• Freud eventually abandoned hypnosis when people later denied the things they said when they were in a hypnotic state.

5. What are the three 5. What are the three psychological structures psychological structures

according to Freud? Explain according to Freud? Explain each.each.

Freud believed that the mind has three basic Freud believed that the mind has three basic psychological structures: the id, the ego, and the psychological structures: the id, the ego, and the superego.superego.

IdId The id is present at birth.The id is present at birth. Represents basic drives such as hunger.Represents basic drives such as hunger. It demands pleasure through instant gratification and It demands pleasure through instant gratification and

pays no attention to laws, social customs, or the needs pays no attention to laws, social customs, or the needs of others.of others.

It follows what Freud called the It follows what Freud called the pleasure principle—pleasure principle—the urge for an immediate release of energy or the urge for an immediate release of energy or emotion that will bring personal gratification, relief, or emotion that will bring personal gratification, relief, or pleasure.pleasure.

The id is like the stereotypical two-year-old: “I want The id is like the stereotypical two-year-old: “I want what I want, and I want it now.”what I want, and I want it now.”

Prisons are full of id-dominated persons.Prisons are full of id-dominated persons.

Psychological Structures Psychological Structures EgoEgo

The ego develops because a child’s demands for instant The ego develops because a child’s demands for instant gratification cannot be met or because meeting these gratification cannot be met or because meeting these demands may be harmful.demands may be harmful.

Freud wrote that the ego “stands for reason and good sense”.Freud wrote that the ego “stands for reason and good sense”. The ego is guided by the The ego is guided by the reality principlereality principle—the understanding —the understanding

that in the real world we cannot always get what we want.that in the real world we cannot always get what we want. The ego seeks to satisfy the appetites of the id in ways that The ego seeks to satisfy the appetites of the id in ways that

are consistent with reality.are consistent with reality. For example, the id lets you know that you are hungry, but For example, the id lets you know that you are hungry, but

the ego lets you know that certain ways of satisfying your the ego lets you know that certain ways of satisfying your hunger—such as cooking a hamburger—are more appropriate hunger—such as cooking a hamburger—are more appropriate than others—such as eating raw hamburger.than others—such as eating raw hamburger.

The ego does not have an easy job.The ego does not have an easy job. It is caught between the conflicting messages of the id and It is caught between the conflicting messages of the id and

the superego.the superego.

Psychological StructuresPsychological Structures SuperegoSuperego

The superego develops throughout early childhood.The superego develops throughout early childhood. It functions according to the It functions according to the moral principle, moral principle, which which

incorporates the standards and values of parents and incorporates the standards and values of parents and members of the community.members of the community.

It provides us with our moral sense.It provides us with our moral sense. The superego acts as the conscience and floods the ego with The superego acts as the conscience and floods the ego with

feelings of guilt and shame when we think or do something feelings of guilt and shame when we think or do something that society defines as wrong.that society defines as wrong.

For example, the id may urge, “You want to go out with your For example, the id may urge, “You want to go out with your friends, Don’t study now!” while the superego warns, “You friends, Don’t study now!” while the superego warns, “You have to study or you will not pass the test.”have to study or you will not pass the test.”

According to Freud, people with healthy egos—and thus According to Freud, people with healthy egos—and thus healthy personalities—find ways to balance the id’s demands healthy personalities—find ways to balance the id’s demands and the superego’s warnings.and the superego’s warnings.

In this case, the healthy ego would probably conclude, In this case, the healthy ego would probably conclude, “Study now, and after you do well on the test, you can “Study now, and after you do well on the test, you can spend time with your friends.”spend time with your friends.”

6. According to Freud, what are 6. According to Freud, what are defense mechanisms used for? List defense mechanisms used for? List

and describe the eight defense and describe the eight defense mechanisms discussed in the mechanisms discussed in the

chapter.chapter. Defense mechanisms are methods the ego se mechanisms are methods the ego

uses to avoid recognizing ideas or uses to avoid recognizing ideas or emotions that may cause personal anxiety emotions that may cause personal anxiety or worry.or worry.

They help to overcome the sense of dread They help to overcome the sense of dread and help to get on with life.and help to get on with life.

These defenses operate unconsciously.These defenses operate unconsciously.

RepressionRepression

One of the main Freudian defense mechanisms.One of the main Freudian defense mechanisms. Repression removes anxiety-causing ideas from Repression removes anxiety-causing ideas from

conscious awareness by pushing them into the conscious awareness by pushing them into the unconscious.unconscious.– Thus, it is a form of memory loss, intended to lessen Thus, it is a form of memory loss, intended to lessen

anxiety levels.anxiety levels. An example would be repressing an unpleasant or An example would be repressing an unpleasant or

painful memory from your childhood.painful memory from your childhood.– Since this memory is now in your unconscious, you do Since this memory is now in your unconscious, you do

not have to be reminded of it.not have to be reminded of it. Child abuse victims.Child abuse victims. Death of a parent at a young age.Death of a parent at a young age.

RationalizationRationalization Another defense mechanism that protects us from Another defense mechanism that protects us from

unacceptable ideas in a different manner.unacceptable ideas in a different manner. These ideas are not completely “repressed”, but they These ideas are not completely “repressed”, but they

are distorted in one way or another.are distorted in one way or another.– This distortion allows us to feel little or no anxiety.This distortion allows us to feel little or no anxiety.

RationalizationRationalization is the use of self-deception to is the use of self-deception to justify unacceptable behaviors or ideas.justify unacceptable behaviors or ideas.– An example would be a student who cheats during a test An example would be a student who cheats during a test

may explain, “I only cheated on a couple of questions—I may explain, “I only cheated on a couple of questions—I knew most of the material.”knew most of the material.”

– Stealing something from Wal Mart and claiming “they make Stealing something from Wal Mart and claiming “they make billions of dollars a year and this only costs $5.billions of dollars a year and this only costs $5.

– Getting cut from the baseball team, and then stating “I Getting cut from the baseball team, and then stating “I really did not want to be on the team anyway.”really did not want to be on the team anyway.”

DisplacementDisplacement According to Freudian theorists, According to Freudian theorists,

displacement displacement is defined as the transfer of is defined as the transfer of an idea or impulse from a threatening or an idea or impulse from a threatening or unsuitable object to a less threatening unsuitable object to a less threatening object.object.

For example, a football player who is yelled For example, a football player who is yelled at by his coach may go home an yell at his at by his coach may go home an yell at his little brother.little brother.

This used to be called displaced anger or This used to be called displaced anger or aggression.aggression.

Another example would be slamming a Another example would be slamming a door instead of hitting the person that door instead of hitting the person that made you mad.made you mad.

RegressionRegression Freud believed that when an individual is Freud believed that when an individual is

under a great deal of stress he or she will under a great deal of stress he or she will return to behavior that is characteristic of an return to behavior that is characteristic of an earlier stage of development.earlier stage of development.

For example, an adolescent may pout and For example, an adolescent may pout and refuse to speak to his/her parents when refuse to speak to his/her parents when forbidden to go out with friends.forbidden to go out with friends.

Similarly, an adult may become highly Similarly, an adult may become highly dependent on his parents following the dependent on his parents following the breakup of his/her own marriage.breakup of his/her own marriage.– Spend more time or even move back in with their Spend more time or even move back in with their

parent.parent.

ProjectionProjection

Freud believed that people sometimes deal Freud believed that people sometimes deal with unacceptable impulses by projecting with unacceptable impulses by projecting these impulses outward onto other people.these impulses outward onto other people.

In other words, people see their own faults In other words, people see their own faults in other people.in other people.

For example, an individual who has hostile For example, an individual who has hostile feelings towards another person, says feelings towards another person, says “He/she doesn’t like me.”“He/she doesn’t like me.”– They project their own negative feelings onto They project their own negative feelings onto

that person.that person.

Reaction FormationReaction Formation

People who use the defense mechanism People who use the defense mechanism reactionreaction formation formation act contrary to their genuine feelings in order to keep their true feelings hidden.

Someone who is attracted to another person may keep those thoughts out of their mind by being mean to that person.

A person who is angry with a coworker may behave in a “sickly sweet” manner toward that coworker to hide their true feelings from consciousness.

DenialDenial

In the defense mechanism of In the defense mechanism of denial, denial, a a person refuses to accept the reality of person refuses to accept the reality of anything that is bad or upsetting.anything that is bad or upsetting.

For example, people who smoke cigarettes For example, people who smoke cigarettes may ignore the risks of lung cancer and may ignore the risks of lung cancer and heart disease from smoking because they heart disease from smoking because they think, “It can’t happen to me”. think, “It can’t happen to me”.

Another example would be denying that Another example would be denying that your mother’s diagnosis of cancer is your mother’s diagnosis of cancer is correct and thus you seek another opinion.correct and thus you seek another opinion.

SublimationSublimation

Freud also believed that individuals Freud also believed that individuals can channel their basic impulses into can channel their basic impulses into socially acceptable behavior through socially acceptable behavior through a process called a process called sublimation. sublimation.

For example, a hostile student may For example, a hostile student may channel aggressive impulses into channel aggressive impulses into contact sports, like boxing or football.contact sports, like boxing or football.

7. List and describe the five 7. List and describe the five stages of development stages of development

according to Freud.according to Freud. Freud believed that an individual’s personality develops Freud believed that an individual’s personality develops

through a series of five stages.through a series of five stages. These stages of development begin at birth and continue These stages of development begin at birth and continue

to shape human personality through adolescence.to shape human personality through adolescence. Children were said to encounter conflicts during each Children were said to encounter conflicts during each

stage.stage. If the conflicts were not resolved, Freud believed that the If the conflicts were not resolved, Freud believed that the

child might become fixated, or stuck, at an early stage of child might become fixated, or stuck, at an early stage of development.development.

The child would then carry that stage’s traits into The child would then carry that stage’s traits into adulthood.adulthood.

Thus, Freud believed that an adult’s psychological Thus, Freud believed that an adult’s psychological problems might actually stem from unresolved childhood problems might actually stem from unresolved childhood conflicts.conflicts.

The Oral Stage (1The Oral Stage (1stst year) year)

In Freud’s theory, psychological development begins in the In Freud’s theory, psychological development begins in the first year of life.first year of life.

He noted that infants are continually exploring their world He noted that infants are continually exploring their world by picking up objects and putting those objects into their by picking up objects and putting those objects into their mouths.mouths.

Infants also receive their main source of pleasure—food—Infants also receive their main source of pleasure—food—with their mouths.with their mouths.

He theorized that the infant’s survival is dependent on the He theorized that the infant’s survival is dependent on the attention of adults.attention of adults.

A child whose caretakers do not meet his or her needs A child whose caretakers do not meet his or her needs during this stage may become fixated at the oral stage.during this stage may become fixated at the oral stage.

Some examples of this fixation might include smoking, Some examples of this fixation might include smoking, overeating, excessive talking, and nail biting.overeating, excessive talking, and nail biting.

In addition, as an adult, such a person might be inclined to In addition, as an adult, such a person might be inclined to have clinging, dependent interpersonal relationships.have clinging, dependent interpersonal relationships.

The Anal Stage (1½ to 2½)The Anal Stage (1½ to 2½)

According to Freud, during this stage, According to Freud, during this stage, children learn that they can control their children learn that they can control their own bodily functions, and the general own bodily functions, and the general issue of self-control becomes a vital issue issue of self-control becomes a vital issue to children.to children.

Conflict during the anal stage can lead to Conflict during the anal stage can lead to two sets of adult personality traits.two sets of adult personality traits.

So called anal-retentive traits involve an So called anal-retentive traits involve an excessive use of self-control.excessive use of self-control.

They include perfectionism and excessive They include perfectionism and excessive needs for order and cleanlinessneeds for order and cleanliness

Phallic Stage (3Phallic Stage (3rdrd year) year)

Young girls and boys begin to discover the physical Young girls and boys begin to discover the physical differences between the two sexes and become more differences between the two sexes and become more focused on their own bodies.focused on their own bodies.

Children may also develop strong attachments to the Children may also develop strong attachments to the parent of the opposite sex and hostility to the parent parent of the opposite sex and hostility to the parent of the same sex.of the same sex. In psychoanalysis, the Oedipus complex involves a male child, In psychoanalysis, the Oedipus complex involves a male child,

and the Electra complex involves a female child.and the Electra complex involves a female child. Freud argued that the complex emotions of the phallic Freud argued that the complex emotions of the phallic

stage can lead to severe psychological disorders later stage can lead to severe psychological disorders later in life, including depression, excessive guilt, and in life, including depression, excessive guilt, and anxiety.anxiety.

Latency Stage (5 or 6 years Latency Stage (5 or 6 years old)old)

Freud believed by this time, children Freud believed by this time, children would have been in conflict with their would have been in conflict with their parents for several years.parents for several years.

At this point, they would retreat from At this point, they would retreat from the conflict and repress all aggressive the conflict and repress all aggressive urges.urges.

Latent Latent means “hidden” , and during the means “hidden” , and during the latency period, impulses and emotions latency period, impulses and emotions remain hidden, or unconscious.remain hidden, or unconscious.

Genital Stage (puberty)Genital Stage (puberty)

The adolescent does not generally The adolescent does not generally encounter any new psychological encounter any new psychological conflicts during this period but does conflicts during this period but does become more aware of his or her become more aware of his or her own gender identity.own gender identity.

Instead, the conflicts of the early Instead, the conflicts of the early development stages resurface.development stages resurface.

This is the final stage of This is the final stage of psychological development.psychological development.

8. Who was Carl Jung? What was his theory called?

Jung (1875-1961) was one of Freud’s colleagues.

The Swiss psychiatrist fell into disfavor with Freud when he developed his own psychoanalytic theory.

This theory was known as analytic psychology.

It placed a greater emphasis on the influences of mysticism and religion on human behavior.

Jung also granted more importance to conscious thoughts than Freud did.

9. How does Jung’s unconscious differ from Freud’s unconscious?

Jung, like Freud, was intrigued by unconscious processes.

But he dramatically altered Freud’s theory of these processes.

Jung believed that people have not only a personal unconscious which stores material that has been forgotten or repressed.

But also had a collective unconscious which stores human concepts shared by all people across all cultures.

10. What is an archetype?

Archetypes are the structural components of the collective unconscious.

They are ideas and images of the accumulated experience of all human beings.

Examples include: supreme being, the young hero, the fertile and nurturing mother, the wise old man, the hostile brother, and even fairy godmothers, wicked witches, and themes of rebirth or resurrection.

Jung argued that although these images remain unconscious, they often appear to us as figures in our dreams.

He declared that these images influence our thoughts and feelings.

11. Who was Alfred Adler? What is an inferiority complex? 12. What did Adler believe about personality? Adler (1870-1937) was another follower of Freudian

psychoanalysis. Adler believed that people are basically motivated by a

need to overcome feelings of inferiority. To describe these feelings of inadequacy and

insecurity, he coined the term inferiority complex. He believed that all of us have some feelings of

inferiority because of our small size as children.In some people, Adler theorized feelings of inferiority may be based on physical problems and the need to compensate for them.

Adler was crippled by a disease called rickets and suffered from pneumonia.

Adler also introduced the term sibling rivalry to describe thejealousies that are often found among brothers and sisters.

13. Who was Karen Horney and what did she emphasis in her theory of personality development? Horney pronounced (HAWR-ny), who lived from 1885

to 1952, agreed with Freud that childhood experiences play a major role in the development of adult personality.

She believed that the greatest influences on personality are social relationships.

Horney, like Freud, saw parent-child relationships to be of paramount importance.

Small children are completely dependent. When their parents treat them with indifference or

harshness, children develop feelings of insecurity that Horney termed basic anxiety.

14. Who was Erik Erikson and 14. Who was Erik Erikson and where did he place his emphasis where did he place his emphasis

in personality development?in personality development?

Erikson (1902-1994) believed that social Erikson (1902-1994) believed that social relationships are the most important relationships are the most important factors in personality development.factors in personality development.

He placed great emphasis on the general He placed great emphasis on the general emotional climate of the mother-infant emotional climate of the mother-infant relationship.relationship.

Erikson, like Freud, devised a devised a Erikson, like Freud, devised a devised a developmental theory of personality.developmental theory of personality. Erikson, however, expanded on Freud’s five Erikson, however, expanded on Freud’s five

stages of development.stages of development.

15. List the eight stages of 15. List the eight stages of psychosocial development and psychosocial development and

the crisis at each stage.the crisis at each stage.

Infancy (0-1 years)Infancy (0-1 years) Trust vs MistrustTrust vs Mistrust

Coming to trust the mother and the Coming to trust the mother and the environment—to associate good things with environment—to associate good things with one’s surroundings.one’s surroundings.

Early Childhood (2-3)Early Childhood (2-3) Autonomy vs Shame and DoubtAutonomy vs Shame and Doubt

Developing the wish to make choicesDeveloping the wish to make choices

Erikson’s 8 Stages Erikson’s 8 Stages (continued)(continued)

Preschool years (4-5)Preschool years (4-5) Initiative vs GuiltInitiative vs Guilt

Becoming active and on the move.Becoming active and on the move.

Grammar school years (6-12)Grammar school years (6-12) Industry vs inferiorityIndustry vs inferiority

Becoming eagerly absorbed in skills, tasks, and Becoming eagerly absorbed in skills, tasks, and productivity.productivity.

Adolescence (13-18)Adolescence (13-18) Identity vs Role ConfusionIdentity vs Role Confusion

Connecting skills and social roles to formatiion of Connecting skills and social roles to formatiion of career objectives.career objectives.

Erikson’s 8 Stages Erikson’s 8 Stages (continued)(continued)

Young Adulthood (19-30)Young Adulthood (19-30) Intimacy vs IsolationIntimacy vs Isolation

Committing the self to another.Committing the self to another.

Middle AdulthoodMiddle Adulthood Generativity vs stagnationGenerativity vs stagnation

Needing to be needed & guiding the next generation.Needing to be needed & guiding the next generation.

Late AdulthoodLate Adulthood Integrity vs DespairIntegrity vs Despair

Accepting one’s own life cycle; achieving wisdom and Accepting one’s own life cycle; achieving wisdom and dignitydignity

16. What are some criticisms of the 16. What are some criticisms of the psychoanalytic theories?psychoanalytic theories?

Some believe that Freud placed too much emphasis Some believe that Freud placed too much emphasis on unconscious motives.on unconscious motives.

They also believe he neglects the importance of social They also believe he neglects the importance of social relationships.relationships.

Also, Freud and many other psychoanalytic theorists Also, Freud and many other psychoanalytic theorists gathered their evidence only from case studies done gathered their evidence only from case studies done on white, middle-class individualson white, middle-class individuals These individuals may not have provided the most These individuals may not have provided the most

representative sample of the general population.representative sample of the general population.

PsychologyPsychology

Chapter 14Chapter 14

Lecture QuestionsLecture Questions

Section 3-5 (pages 332-339)Section 3-5 (pages 332-339)

The Learning ApproachThe Learning Approach

BehaviorismBehaviorismSocial-learning theorySocial-learning theory

1. What did theorist John B. 1. What did theorist John B. Watson claim? Whom did Watson claim? Whom did Watson influence?Watson influence?

BehaviorismBehaviorism Watson claimed that external forces or Watson claimed that external forces or

influences—not internal influences such influences—not internal influences such as traits or inner conflict—largely shape as traits or inner conflict—largely shape human behavior.human behavior.

B.F. Skinner was influenced by Watson in B.F. Skinner was influenced by Watson in the 1930’s.the 1930’s.

2. According to behaviorism, what is the main influence on how people act? The main influence is to look at how

organisms behave and avoid looking into someone’s mind.

Thus, external forces, not internal forces influence how people act.

3. What did B.F. Skinner emphasize in his theory?

Skinner emphasized the effects of reinforcement on behavior.

Reinforcement is any reward or punishment used to influence behavior. A reward is called positive reinforcement.

If it is used, a particular behavior will probably be repeated.

A punishment is called negative reinforcement. If it is used, a particular behavior will be

extinguished or stopped.

4. What is socialization?

The process by which people learn the socially desirable behaviors of their particular culture and then adopt them as a part of their own personality.

These desirable behaviors are carried out without having to think about them, they are done automatically.

5. What do social-learning 5. What do social-learning theorists focus on?theorists focus on?

Social-learning theory is a Social-learning theory is a contemporary view of learning that is contemporary view of learning that is advocated by Albert Bandura and advocated by Albert Bandura and other psychologists.other psychologists.

Social-learning theorists focus on the Social-learning theorists focus on the importance of learning by importance of learning by observation and on the role of the observation and on the role of the cognitive processes that produce cognitive processes that produce individual differences.individual differences.

6. How do behaviorists and 6. How do behaviorists and social-learning differ?social-learning differ?

• Behaviorists believe people are at the Behaviorists believe people are at the mercy of the environment.mercy of the environment.– To behaviorists, learning is the mechanical To behaviorists, learning is the mechanical

result of reinforcement. (rewards/punishments)result of reinforcement. (rewards/punishments)

• Social-learners argue that people can act Social-learners argue that people can act intentionally to influence the environment.intentionally to influence the environment.– Thus, people engage in purposeful learning and Thus, people engage in purposeful learning and

seek to learn about their environment, thus seek to learn about their environment, thus having a certain amount of control over having a certain amount of control over reinforcement.reinforcement.• Observational learning extends to reading about Observational learning extends to reading about

others or watching them in media such as TV and film.others or watching them in media such as TV and film.

7. List three (3) internal variables 7. List three (3) internal variables that influence our behavior that influence our behavior according to social-learning according to social-learning

theorists.theorists.• Social-learning theorists believe behavior is not solely

based on what is learned from observation.• Internal variables also influence how we act in certain

situations.– They are:

• Skills-include a person’s physical and social abilities.• Values-the value we place on the outcome of certain behavior.• Goals-set a goal & figure out a way to achieve it.• Expectations-predictions of what will happen in certain situations.• Self-efficacy expectations-(Bandura) refers to beliefs people have

about themselves.

8. What are the strengths and 8. What are the strengths and weaknesses of learning theories?weaknesses of learning theories?

WeaknessWeakness– Behaviorism doesn’t deal with thoughts, Behaviorism doesn’t deal with thoughts,

feelings, and the complex inner feelings, and the complex inner workings of individuals.workings of individuals.

StrengthStrength– Learning theorists have made significant Learning theorists have made significant

contributions to the understanding of contributions to the understanding of behavior.behavior.

9. What do humanists believe is important in human behavior?

Self-awareness is the very core of humanity.They focus on people’s pursuits of self-fulfillment and ethical conduct.People are truly free to do as they choose with their lives.

Furthermore, because people are free to choose, they are responsible for the choices that they make.

Maslow’s Hierarchy of NeedsMaslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

10. What did Carl Rogers 10. What did Carl Rogers believe about human believe about human behavior? What is self-behavior? What is self-concept?concept?

Rogers (1902-1987), believed that Rogers (1902-1987), believed that people are to some degree the conscious people are to some degree the conscious architects of their own personalities.architects of their own personalities.

People can build their own personality, People can build their own personality, through free choice and action.through free choice and action. This is termed This is termed self theory.self theory.

Self-concept Self-concept is a view of oneself as an is a view of oneself as an individual.individual.

11. Summarize Roger’s concept of congruence.

Our self-concepts are made up of our impressions of ourselves and our evaluations of our adequacy.

Roger’s believed that the key to happiness and healthy adjustment is congruence.

This refers to the consistency between one’s self-concept and one’s experience.

For example, if you consider yourself to be outgoing and friendly, this self-concept will be reinforced if you have good relationships with other people.

If this doesn’t happen, then you will probably have feelings of anxiety and feel troubled.

12. Using the reading on page 336, do you believe that anyone, regardless of ability, can be trained to become, say, a doctor, lawyer, or musician? Why or why not?• Opinion

13. What are the strengths and weaknesses of the humanistic approach to personality?

Primary strength is their focus on conscious experience.

Weakness is that one’s conscious experience is private and subjective.

14. What does the sociocultural 14. What does the sociocultural perspective focus on?perspective focus on?

It stresses the roles of ethnicity, gender, It stresses the roles of ethnicity, gender, and culture in the formation of personality.and culture in the formation of personality.

15. Explain the difference 15. Explain the difference between individualism and between individualism and collectivist perspectives on collectivist perspectives on

personality.personality. Individualism is a trait valued by many people Individualism is a trait valued by many people

in the U.S. and in many European nations.in the U.S. and in many European nations. Individualists tend to define themselves in Individualists tend to define themselves in

terms of their personal identities.terms of their personal identities. ““I am a nurse. . . teacher . . . accountant, etc.I am a nurse. . . teacher . . . accountant, etc.

Collectivists tend to define themselves in Collectivists tend to define themselves in terms of the groups to which they belong.terms of the groups to which they belong. I am a(n) American . . . mother . . . Catholic, etc.I am a(n) American . . . mother . . . Catholic, etc.

Many people from Africa, Asia, and Central and Many people from Africa, Asia, and Central and South America tend to be more collectivistic. South America tend to be more collectivistic.

16. What is acculturation 16. What is acculturation and how can it affect self-and how can it affect self-

esteem?esteem? Acculturation is the process of adapting to a new or Acculturation is the process of adapting to a new or

different culture.different culture. People who immigrate to the United States undergo People who immigrate to the United States undergo

acculturation.acculturation. If they come from Africa, Asia, or Latin America, they If they come from Africa, Asia, or Latin America, they

are likely to find that differences in language are are likely to find that differences in language are only the tip of the iceberg of cultural differences.only the tip of the iceberg of cultural differences. Some become completely absorbed into the culture and stop Some become completely absorbed into the culture and stop

using the language and customs of their native culture.using the language and customs of their native culture. Others choose to maintain separation and retain their native Others choose to maintain separation and retain their native

language and customs, but become comfortable with the language and customs, but become comfortable with the language and customs of their new culture.language and customs of their new culture.

Research suggests that people who are bicultural have the Research suggests that people who are bicultural have the highest self-esteem.highest self-esteem.

17. According to the sociocultural 17. According to the sociocultural approach, what role do ethnicity, approach, what role do ethnicity,

gender, culture, and socioeconomic gender, culture, and socioeconomic status play in the development of status play in the development of

personality?personality?

• These are the factors which play a significant role in the development of personality.

• These factors are external forces that are internalized and affect all of us.