Psychology

• Chapter 1

• Pages 2-23

• Revised May 2014

• Originating in ancient times, psychology is a science consisting of many different fields that study human behavior and mental processes.

PSYCHOLOGY

• Chapter 1• Lecture Questions• Section 1 (pages 3-

7)• Revised May

2014

• Psychology is a science. Like other scientists, psychologists seek to explain and control behavior and mental processes and test their ideas through research methods.

PSYCHOLOGY

• Comes from the Greek word psych, meaning “mind” or “soul,” and the Latin word logia, meaning “study of.”

• It is literally the study of the mind or the soul.

1. Why do we study psychology?

To gain a better understanding of why people act as they do

What factors have influenced this individual?

Why do I act and behave the way that I do?

2. Define psychology

Scientific study of behavior and mental processes.

3. Give examples of behavior

Walking, talking, sleeping, eating, drinking, or turning left or right. It can also include

bodily functions like heart rate, blood pressure, digestion or brain activity.

Behavior can be measured by simple observation or by laboratory instruments.

4. What might an accelerated heart rate in a patient indicate to a

psychologist?

Maybe the patient is experiencing anxiety.

5. Give examples of cognitive activities

Dreams, perceptions, thoughts, or memories.

Any activity that occurs in one’s own head.

Dreams are only known to the dreamer.

Memories are private and cannot be measured.

Some of these activities (brain waves) can be measured, but most can not.

Private mental images.

6. Why are psychologists interested in people’s emotions?

Emotions are important because they can influence both behavior and mental processes.

Anger, fear, nervousness may all impact our behavior in a negative way.

7. What are the five goals of psychology?

To observe, describe, explain, predict and control the events being studied. This process enables psychologists to

explain, predict, and help clients control their behavior.

8. Why might an athlete seek the help of a sports psychologist?

• To perform better in critical situations.• Losing one’s “cool” and failing to perform effectively in a crucial situation can be very hard on a person.

• This type of failure can hurt an individual’s self-confidence.

9. What do sports psychologists do?

• Aid athletes to perform better by using psychology.

• Positive visualization-

Imagine going through a game at a critical time

10. What is a typical process by which a sports psychologist might try to help an athlete improve his or her performance?

• Interview the athlete and get a measure on heart rate or other body processes.

• The psychologist would then seek to explain the athlete’s behavior in terms of anxiety or other distracting factors.

• Thus, they will teach the athlete how to filter out distractions and focus on the game.

11. Why do psychologists get blamed for trying to “control” behavior? Is this their goal?

Their interest in behavior is mistaken for control, like a puppet.

Psychologists know that people should be free to make their own decisions.

However, their goal is just to know what impacts behavior and help when needed.

12. What are the social sciences? What are the physical sciences?The social sciences are: history, anthropology, economics, political science, and sociology.– The social sciences that deal with the

structure of society.

The physical sciences are: biology, chemistry, and physics. – The physical sciences are concerned with

the nature of the physical world.

13. Why do psychologists study animal behavior? Why is this controversial?

Psychologists and other scientists believe that research findings with certain animals can be applied to human beings.

Critics argue that research findings for humans is distinct, thus you must study people, and not animals.

However, only by studying people can we learn about unique human qualities such as morality, values, and love

14. What is psychological theory? What is a principle?

Psychologists organize their research about behavior and mental processes into theories.

A theory is a statement that attempts to explain why things are the way they are and why they happen the way they do. Such as theory about fatigue and it’s relationship to sleep.

A useful psychological theory allows psychologists to predict behavior and mental processes.

If it fails to accurately predict behavior, it should be revised or replaced.

A principle is a basic truth or law, such as the assumption that you will get better grades if you study more.

15. What is a false science?

• Science that does not rely on verifiable evidence or research.– Pseudo-science

• The field of parapsychology; like telepathy, clairvoyance, or precognition have never had verifiable evidence to support them.

16. What is astrology? What is a horoscope?

Position of the stars, moon, and planets affect human personality and destiny.

Based on birth dates, explains what is safe to do on any given day and what may occur on that day. (prediction)

Horoscope example (Leo) July 23-August 22 Your preoccupation with the details of today's tasks

keeps you from seeing the big picture with any clarity. Taking care of your physical safety at home is particularly important today. Paying attention to your surroundings and what you are doing is your best safety mechanism.

Lucky Number 359 Financial Outlook very good Compatible Sign Virgo

17. Does the fact that astrology has a lengthy tradition mean it is true? What do you think? Will believers in astrology be persuaded by facts? Will people continue to read their horoscopes? How often do you read your horoscope?

Astrology has been practiced for many centuries and is part of many cultures.

Astrology seems to provide a path to meaning in life for some.

People in high positions have followed the advice of astrologers. Ronald Reagan Albert Einstein Ben Franklin

PSYCHOLOGY

• Chapter 1

• Lecture Questions

• Section 2 (pages 8-11)

• Psychologists work in many different fields, but they all focus on studying and explaining behavior and mental processes.

1. What group makes up the largest percentage

of psychologists? Clinical

psychologists When you think of a

“psychologist” , you are probably thinking of a clinical psychologist.

Specialty areas include: child mental health, adult mental health, learning disabilities, geriatrics, and general health.

2. What does a clinical psychologists do? Where are they employed?

• Helps people with severe psychological problems. (anxiety, depression, schizophrenia)

• Also help clients overcome problems and adjust to their daily lives.

• They may also help clients who have problems with relationships, drug abuse, or weight control.

• They are employed in hospitals, prisons, college/university clinics, private practice, research, and teaching.

3. What methods do clinical psychologists use

to evaluate problems?• Interviews with

patients• Psychological tests

(MMPI-2,CPI)

4. What is the difference between clinical psychologists and

psychiatrists?A psychiatrist is a MD who specializes in psychological treatment and can prescribe drugs.

A psychologist also specializes in the treatment of psychological problems, but because they are not medical doctors, they may not prescribe medication for their clients. They may work with a psychiatrist to

determine the best treatment for a client.

5. Who do counseling psychologists usually treat? How do they do this? Where are they employed?

Counseling psychologists usually treat people who have adjustment problems like: family conflicts, marital problems, or even career decisions

They also use interviews and tests. Businesses, college/university

counseling centers, or private practice.

6. Why might a business hire a counseling psychologist?

To reduce employee discord and increase the productivity of its workforce. No one needs drama in the work place.

7. What does a school psychologist do? How do they evaluate

students?Identify and help students who have problems that interfere with learning.Typical problems include: peer groups, family, psychological problems, and learning disorders.Interviewing teachers, parents and the students themselves. May also use achievement and intelligence tests.

8. What does an educational psychologist focus on? What are

their research interests? Helping students learn. Course planning and instructional methods for an

entire school system rather than focusing on individual students.

Some prepare standardized tests, such as the SAT.

Also interested in psychological factors, such as motivation, creativity, and intelligence. Other factors could be economic factors and

cultural factors.

9. What does a developmental psychologist do? What type of

changes do they look at? Changes that occur during a person’s life

span. Physical, emotional, cognitive, and social

changes one goes through. Some developmental psychologists are

especially interested in the challenges of adolescence. For example, what are the causes of depression and suicide among teens?

10. What does a personality psychologist do? List some

personality traits. Look for the many different traits

people have, and they study the development of these traits.

Anxiety, friendliness, aggression, shyness are a few of the thousands of personality traits shared by humans.

11. What does a social psychologist do? What issues do

they study?Concerned with people’s behavior in

social situations. The ways in which women and men

typically behave in a given setting.The reasons people tend to conform

to group standards and expectations.How does a person’s behavior

change when they are members of a group?

12. What does an industrial psychologist do? What does an organizational psychologist do? Where are they employed?

Focus on people and work. Behavior of people in organizations, such as

business firms. Employed by business firms to improve working

conditions and increase worker output. Psychologists in these fields are often trained in

both areas.

13. What does an environmental psychologist do? What do they investigate? Focus on the ways in which people

influence and are influenced by their physical environment.

They investigate the psychological effects of extremes in temperature, noise, and air pollution.

Does crowding in cities make people irritable?

14. What does a consumer psychologist do? Study the behavior of shoppers to

explain and predict their behavior. They work with advertisers to

create effective newspaper ads and TV commercials.

They advise store managers about window displays and shelf arrangement to attract customers.

15. What does a forensic psychologist do?

Works within the criminal justice system. Expert witness to testify

about the competence of a defendant.

Assist police officers in handling job stress.

Trains police officers in the handling of dangerous situations.

FBI profiling-creating a personality sketch of a criminal Behavioral evidence

instead of physical evidence.

16. What does a health psychologist do? Examines the ways

in which behavior and mental processes are related to physical health.

Study the effects of stress on health problems such as headaches and heart disease.

17. What are some newer fields in psychology?

Mathematical psychology-uses calculus to develop models of complex behavioral phenomena.

Psychopharmacology-studies the processes to which drugs affect behavior.

Clinical neuropsychology- focuses on the biological bases of abnormal behavior.

Neurocriminology-studies the impact of the brain on criminal behavior.

Human Factors psychology-find the best ways to design products for people to use.

Community psychology-help to create social systems that promote individual well-being.

Rehabilitation psychology-develop strategies for clients to compensate for a disability

PSYCHOLOGY

Chapter 1– Lecture Questions– Section 3 (12-17)

Since ancient times, philosophers and scientists have studied behavior and mental processes. Psychologists throughout history have continued to refine and develop these studies.

1. How long has there been an interest in psychology?

Psychology is as old as human history. People have always been interested in

the behaviors of other people. Interest in the actions, motives, and

thoughts of human beings can be traced as far back as the philosophers and scientists of ancient times.

http://allpsych.com/timeline.html

2. Who was Plato? Who was his mentor? What advice did his

mentor give him? What does this 2,000 year old advice mean?• Plato was a

student of the philosopher Socrates.

• “Know thyself”• Introspection or

“looking within”.• Socrates

suggested that we can learn much about ourselves by carefully examining our thoughts and feelings.

• This phrase has remained a motto of psychological study ever since.

3. Who was one of Plato’s students? What laws did he

outline? How long ago was that? What was Peri Psyches?

Aristotle was one of Plato’s students. Associationism-experiences often remind

us of similar experiences from our past. (learning theory)

2,000 years ago Paper written by Aristotle “about the

mind”. Believed human behavior was subject to

laws.

4. How did the ancient Greeks explain bizarre behavior? What did Hippocrates believe was the

cause of such problems? The gods punished people for wrongdoing

causing them confusion and madness.However, the Greek physician Hippocrates

suggested that such problems are caused by abnormalities in the brain.

This idea that biological factors can affect our thoughts, feelings, and behavior influenced thinking about psychology for more than 2,000 years.

Hippocrates

“There are in fact two things, science and opinion; the former begets knowledge, the latter ignorance.”

5. How was bizarre behavior explained in the Middle Ages? Most Europeans believed that problems

such as agitation and confusion were signs of possession by demons. A popular belief of the time was that

possession was punishment for sins or the result of deals made with the devil.

Trepanning was used to “free” the person of evil spirits. This was done by drilling a hole in the head.

Trepanning

6. What was the water-float test in relationship to behavior?

• Based on the principle that pure metals sink to the bottom during the smelting process whereas impure metals float to the surface.

• Individuals who were suspected of being possessed were tied up and thrown into deep water.

• If they floated, it was assumed that they were impure, and taken out of the water, then executed.

• Those who sank to the bottom, on the other hand, were judged to be pure.

• Unfortunately, some of those enjoyed no better fate--they drowned.

7. WHAT HAPPENED IN SCIENCE BETWEEN THE 1500S

AND THE 1700S?• GREAT SCIENTIFIC AND INTELLECTUAL

ADVANCES.• COPERNICUS CHALLENGED THE VIEW THAT THE SUN

REVOLVED AROUND THE EARTH, SUGGESTING INSTEAD THAT THE EARTH REVOLVES AROUND THE SUN IN THE 1500S

• NEWTON FORMULATED THE LAWS OF GRAVITY AND MOTION IN THE 1600S.

• LOCKE THEORIZED THAT KNOWLEDGE IS NOT INBORN BUT IS LEARNED FROM EXPERIENCE IN THE 1600S.

• LAVOSIER FOUNDED THE SCIENCE OF CHEMISTRY AND EXPLAINED HOW ANIMALS AND PLANTS USE OXYGEN IN RESPIRATION IN THE 1700S.

8. What impact did this have on the field of psychology? Psychologists argued that ideas about

human behavior and mental processes should be supported by evidence.

In the late 1800s psychological laboratories were established in Europe and the United States.

In these laboratories, psychologists studied behavior and mental processes using methods similar to those Lavoisier had used to study chemistry.

9. What year is pointed at as the beginning of modern psychology?

1879 Psychology

viewed as a modern laboratory science.

Psychologist Wilhelm Wundt established a laboratory in Leipzig, Germany.

10. Who was Wilhelm Wundt? What do structuralists believe?

German psychologist who founded a field of experimental psychology that came to be known as structuralism.

Structuralists were concerned with discovering the basic elements of consciousness.

They broke down the content of consciousness into two categories: objective sensations and subjective feelings.– Objective sensations, such as sight and taste, were

assumed to accurately reflect the outside world.– Subjective feelings were thought to include emotional

responses and mental images. Structuralists believed that the human mind functioned by

combining these basic elements of experience. Using the method of introspection, Wundt and his students

carefully examined and reported their experiences.

11. Who was William James? What book did he write? When?

Harvard University professor that founded the school of functionalism.

James wrote The Principles of Psychology which describes the relationship between experience and behavior according to his views.

He wrote The Principles of Psychology in 1890 and it is considered by many to be the first modern psychology textbook

12. What is functionalism?

Concerned with how mental processes help organisms adapt to their environment.

Stressed the application of their findings to everyday situations.

Believed that conscious experience cannot be broken down, that it is a continuous “stream of consciousness.”

Focused on the relationships between experience and behavior.

13. How was structuralism and functionalism different?

•Structuralism only relied on introspection, whereas functionalism included behaviorial observation in the laboratory as well as introspection.

•Structuralists tended to ask, What are the elements of psychological processes?

•Functionalists, on the other hand, tended to ask, What are the purposes of behavior and mental processes? What do certain behaviors and mental processes accomplish for the person?

14. Who was John B. Watson? What did he

believe about psychological study? Founder of the school of behaviorism.

Believed that it was unscientific to study a private event, like consciousness.

Asserted that if psychology was to be a natural science, like physics or chemistry, it must be limited to observable, measurable events- that is, to behavior.

Watson believed that regardless of what we have inside, our behavior is conditioned by external events.

15. Who was B.F. Skinner? What concept did he introduce?

Harvard University psychologist

Introduced the concept of reinforcement.

Skinner showed that when an animal is reinforced, or rewarded, for performing an action, it is more likely to perform that action again in the future.

According to Skinner, people learn in the same way animals do. Like animals, people learn to behave in certain ways because they have been reinforced for doing so.

16. Who was Kenneth B. Clark and what did he pioneer?

In the past, psychology—like many other academic fields—was dominated by white men.

Not only were the psychologists themselves mostly white men, but most of their research used white male participants. They also tended to explore issues that were relevant primarily

to white men. However, in recent decades that has changed. Today many psychologists are women and members of traditionally

underrepresented ethnic groups. In fact, white men now obtain fewer than half of the doctoral

degrees in psychology. The work of African American psychologist Kenneth B. Clark in

the 1940s was pioneering. Clark led several studies showing the negative effect of

segregation on the self-esteem of African-American children.

17. What was Gestalt psychology interested in? Whom founded the

Gestalt school of psychology? Fascinated by the ways

in which context influences people’s interpretation of information.

Gestalt means “shape” or “form”.

German psychologists Max Wertheimer, Kurt Koffka, and Wolfgang Kohler

Optical Illusion

18. Who was the most famous of the early psychologists? What did

he found? Austrian physician

Sigmund Freud Founded the

school of thought called psychoanalysis.

Psychoanalysis emphasizes the importance of unconscious motives and internal conflicts in determining human behavior.

19. What did Freud believe about human behavior?

Freud believed that people had very little “free will” and are subject to the workings of the unconscious mind.

His ideas are that people are driven by hidden impulses, memories, drives, and desires.

Freud’s theory, more than the others, has become part of popular culture. Slip of the tongue (Freudian slip) Meanings of dreams

PSYCHOLOGY

Chapter 1

Lecture Questions

Section 4 (pages 18-21)

1. What does the biological perspective emphasize? Where are its roots?

• Emphasizes the influence of biology on our behavior

• Roots are in associationism.

• Psychologists assume that our mental processes, like our thoughts, fantasies, and dreams, are made possible by the nervous system.

• Also interested in the influences of the brain, genes, and hormones on behavior.

2. What do biologically oriented psychologists look for? What techniques are

used by these psychologists?

• Biological psychologists look for the connections between events in the brain, such as the activity of brain cells, and behavior and mental processes.

• They use several techniques, such as CAT scans and PET scans, to show which parts of the brain are involved in various mental processes.

3. What does the evolutionary perspective focus on? What person is this perspective based? What do they believe?

• The evolutionary perspective is tied to biology and focuses on the evolution of behavior and mental processes.

• British scientist Charles Darwin theorized that in the struggle for survival, the most-adaptive organisms have a greater chance of surviving to maturity.

• Evolutionary psychologists suggest that many kinds of behavior patterns, such as aggressive behavior, also have a hereditary basis.

• They believe that inherited tendencies influence people to act in certain ways.

4. What does the cognitive perspective emphasize? What exactly do these psychologists study? Where are the roots of the cognitive perspective?

The cognitive perspective emphasizes the role that thoughts play in determining behavior.

Cognitive psychologists study mental processes to understand human nature. And how this information is processed.

The cognitive tradition has roots in Socrates’ maxim “Know Thyself” and in his method of introspection for learning about the self. Also has roots in structuralism, functionalism, and

Gestalt psychology.

5. What is stressed in the humanistic perspective? What is considered to be most important in

this perspective? The humanistic perspective stresses the human capacity

for self-fulfillment and the importance of consciousness, self-awareness, and the capacity to make choices. Allowing us to “invent ourselves”

Humanistic psychology considers people’s personal experiences to be the most important aspect of psychology.

This perspective believes people are basically good and desiring to be helpful to others.

6. WHAT DO CRITICS SAY ABOUT THE HUMANISTIC

PERSPECTIVE?• CRITICS OF THE HUMANISTIC PERSPECTIVE,

PARTICULARLY BEHAVIORISTS, INSIST THAT PSYCHOLOGY SHOULD BE SCIENTIFIC AND ADDRESS ONLY OBSERVABLE EVENTS.

• THEY ARGUE THAT PEOPLE’S INNER EXPERIENCES ARE UNSUITED TO SCIENTIFIC OBSERVATION AND MEASUREMENT.

7. What does the psychoanalytic perspective stress? When did it dominate

the practice of psychotherapy?

The psychoanalytic perspective stresses the influence of unconscious forces on human behavior.

It dominated the practice of psychotherapy in the 1940s and 1950s.

Its influences continues to be felt, even today.

Sigmund Freud had a huge impact on the field of psychology.

8. What does the learning perspective emphasize?

• The learning perspective emphasizes the effects of experience on behavior.

• Behaviorist emphasize the importance of environmental influences and focus on the learning of habits through repetition and reinforcement.

9. What do social-learners believe?

Social-learners suggest that people can change their environment or create new ones.Furthermore, social-learning theory holds that people can learn intentionally by observing others.Conscious observation provides people with a storehouse of responses to life’s situations.

10. What does the sociocultural perspective study?

The influences of ethnicity, gender, culture, and socio-economic status on behavior and mental processes.

By taking these factors into account, psychologists can better understand how people act and think. We are a product of our background.

11. What is the biopsychosocial perspective?

The idea that mental processes are influenced by the interaction of biological processes, psychological dispositions, and social factors. For example, the study of heart disease should not

be isolated. One should look at the cultural, social, and

psychological factors also involved in the disease. This holistic approach is actually very old,

dating back to the time of ancient Greeks.