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TRANSCRIPT
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Psychology 213
Exam Summary
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Psychology 213
Summary of ALL content for exam
Chapter 9: The Radical Behaviourism of BF Skinner
Chapter 10: The Social Cognitive Learning Approach
Chapter 11: The Self-Actualisation Theory of Abraham Maslow
Chapter 12: The Self Concept Theory of Carl Rogers
Chapter 14: The Existential Theory of Viktor Frankl
Chapter 6: The Socially-orientated Psychoanalytical Theories
Chapter 17: African Perspectives
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Summaries of All 5 Essay Questions
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Page Chapter Section
1 - 7 9 The Radical Behaviourism of BF Skinner
8 - 13 10 The Social Cognitive Learning Approach
14 - 21 11 The Self-Actualisation Theory of Abraham
Maslow
22 - 32 12 The Self Concept Theory of Carl Rogers
33 - 40 14 The Existential Theory of Viktor Frankl
41 - 45 6 The Socially-orientated Psychoanalytical Theories
46 - 48 17 African Perspectives
49 - EXTRA Summary of Essay Questions
* NOTE: The section on Jacques Lacan is not included as there is only one essay question on
his work, it is covered in the Summary of Essay Questions.
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Chapter 9
The Radical Behaviourism of BF Skinner
1. Introduction to Behavioural and Learning Theory Approaches
Behaviourism rooted in specific philosophical and historical origins:
1. Empiricism
2. Environmental determinism
3. Positivism
4. Elementalism
5. Evolutionism
Empiricism (John Locke) holds that at birth the human mind is without knowledge or
any other content, and that all knowledge is acquired by means of sensory
experience
Environmental determinism holds that environmental influences account for all of
an individual's attributes and behaviour
Evolutionism (Charles Darwin) states that human behaviour can be explained along
the same principles as lower animals, and it should be studied in the same way
Classical conditioning was discovered by Ivan Pavlov
John Watson is the father of behaviourism, which views psychology as a purely
experimental branch of natural science
Positivism - science can concern itself only with knowable matters. Behaviourists
therefore only study observable behaviour
Elementalism - holds that a phenomenon is explained by analysing it until its
smallest, simplest building blocks have been uncovered
The goal of positivist scientific practice is to predict and control relevant events
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Chapter 10
The Social Cognitive Learning Approach
1. Background
Social cognitive learning theory regards behaviour as primarily learnt and focuses on
studying observable behaviour. However, it is not radical as it takes in to account
several unobservable matters
Observational learning - the behaviour of a person which changes as a result of
observing other people's behaviour
Julian Rotter:
Behaviour is mainly learnt
Salience given to expectations and values attached to outcome of specific
behaviour
Behaviour acquired mainly in social situations and though the mediation of
other individuals
Internal locus of control - people believe that they can exercise considerable
control over what happens to them
External locus of control - people who believe that circumstances beyond
their control determine their fate
Prediction formula BP = f(E,RV)
Behaviour potential (BP) is a function of expectancy (E) and reinforcement
value (RV)
Albert Bandura:
Most important representative of SCLT
Social cognitive learning theory - an individual's behaviour is the outcome of
a process of interaction between the person, the environment and the
behaviour itself
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Chapter 11
The Self-actualisation Theory of Abraham Maslow
1. Background to Person-Orientated Approaches
Existentialism - a human being who is becoming or emerging; humans can be more
than what they are and they can transcend their limitations and rise above their
circumstances
Phenomenology- explores phenomena as they manifest – reality is the world that
we perceive it to be, hence it emphasises the importance of subjectivity in
experience
Holism - emphasises an integrated view of the person
Humanism - humans are seen as beings with worth and dignity who, as a whole,
integrated persons, actively and consciously strive towards the actualisation of their
potential
2. Background of Abraham Maslow
Maslow founded the ‘third force’ of psychology the humanistic movement –
originated in America in 1955
Maslow was initially a behaviourist but Pearl Harbour left a deep impression on him
and encouraged him to rethink his views on human nature
Maslow emphasises the actualisation of human potential and possibility of humans
to influence their own behaviour by choice
Focuses on understanding why some people are exceptional (self-actualisers)
Healthy functioning forms the basis of his theory
3. The View of the Person
Maslow's view of the person is essentially optimistic as it acknowledges the positive
aspects of human nature
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Chapter 12
The Self Concept Theory of Carl Rogers
1. Background
Carl Rogers’ theory is based on three central assumptions:
The individual has constructive potential
The nature of the individual is goal-directed
The individual is capable of changing
Rogers emphasises the importance of people’s subject experience of themselves
(self-concept) and its influence on personality
Individual is central figure in actualisation of their potential with environment as
either a facilitating or inhibiting role
Only achieved in an environment in which the individual feels accepted
Rogers' theory originated mainly from his experience with people in a clinical
therapeutic situation and from his own personal life experiences
2. The View of the Person
Humanistic-phenomenological view - places a high premium on the freedom and
constructiveness of human nature and emphasises the person's role as the architect
of their life
Humanistic - emphasises the study of the individual as a whole and the
active role they play in actualising their own inherent potential
Healthy people are aware of their positive and negative attributes and his
theory is not deterministic
Phenomenological - stresses the importance of the individual's subjective
experience of their world and how this influences their self-concept
Individuals can be trusted to follow the best course in order to become the best they
can be
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Chapter 14
The Existential Theory of Viktor Frankl
1. Background
Frankl's whole life was earmarked by a deep contemplation of the meaning and
purpose of human existence
Frankl opposes efforts to reduce human functioning to the level of machines or
animals
He felt that Freud placed too much emphasis on the will to pleasure and Adler
overemphasised the will to power (Frankl was a student of both)
Frankl believed humans are primarily motivated by a will to meaning
His experiences as Jewish prisoner in WWII convinced him of the significant role of
values in people's lives
Frankl has a positive, transcendent view on existentialism
2. The View of the Person
1. The freedom to be responsible
Humans are primarily spiritual beings that have freedom and responsibility
Humans are not merely highly developed animals shaped by their genes and
their environment
We constantly face choices and have the freedom of choice and are thus not
compelled to act in a particular way
We have free will so can be held responsible for our choices and cannot
ascribe our actions to conditioning
This freedom to choose represents the spiritual or noögenic dimension of the
human being – it is what makes us human
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Chapter 6
The Socially-orientated Psychoanalytical Theories
1. Introduction
Socially-orientated psychoanalysis that rejects Freud's views of biological
determinism
Focuses on the social dimension of human existence and emphasise the roles of
social and cultural factors
Focus on the consciousness and its manifestation in the concept of the 'self'
Individuals can strengthen the self – and not be swamped by society’s demands for
conformity
Regarded more as philosophical theories than personality theories
2. Karen Horney
Background:
She is initially followed the Freudian beliefs of psychoanalysis and biological
determinism
When she moved to America her views changed from intrapsychic to an
interpersonal, even psychosocial foundation
People have an inherent drive and capacity to grow and realise their
potential to the fullest
Optimistic view of humanity - personality inherently tends towards
development, growth and realisation of potential. Individuals are able to
consciously change and shape their personalities
Neurotic people need to be liberated from that which blocks their growth
potential
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Chapter 17
African Perspectives
1. Introduction and Background
Various aspects of Western psychology resonate with Africans but some theories are
overly Western in their orientations, assumptions and focus
Indigenous psychology - the way people in other societies and from other cultures
make sense of themselves and their relationships and make sense of psychic distress
Scientific racism - the use of science to provide justification for racist ideas
Western culture has become the cultural norm
Scientific colonialism refers to the ethnocentric nature of psychology both in terms
of who produces it and where it is produced
African perspectives function to critique existing psychology and as an alternative
psychology responsive to Africans
A paradigm based on indigenous African concepts does not yet exist
Impetus for the quest to Africanise psychology:
Psychology collaborated in the oppression of American blacks and Africans
through the comparison between 'primitive' and 'modern'
Psychology has had little relevance to the problems facing the blacks and the
poor
Psychologies imported to Africa do not accurately portray African life and
mentality
2. The View of the Person
Anthropocentric ontology - implies that humans form the point of departure as well
as the centre of the universe
There are three cosmic orders of reality that can be distinguished, namely the
macro-, meso- and micro-cosmos
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PSYCHOLOGY 213 EXAM: ESSAY QUESTIONS:
Question 1:
Write as essay in which you discuss Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers as representatives of
humanistic psychology. Explain in your answer why both these figures are seen as humanistic
psychologists and focus in particular on both their views on the optimal development of the
personality.
The main points that need to be addressed for EACH Maslow and Rogers are:
A brief introduction of the theorist, their views and their contributions
The major aspects each theorists believes are behind the dynamics of the
personality
What each theorist believes constitutes ideal functioning
The various characteristics of a fully functioning person at optimal
development
A comparison between the two theories about optimal development, leading
to a conclusion backed up by evidence
MASLOW
Maslow emphasises the actualisation of human potential and possibility of humans
to influence their own behaviour by choice. Focuses on understanding why some
people are exceptional (self-actualisers)
Describe Maslow's hierarchy of needs and that deficiency motives (physiological,
safety, love/belonging & esteem) must be met before growth motives (self-
actualisation) and optimal development can be achieved
Optimal development:
Ideal functioning characterised by the achievement of self-actualisation
which this requires that all four lower-level needs are regularly gratified
15 characteristics:
1. Accurate observation of reality
2. Self acceptance, accepting others and human nature
3. Spontaneity, simplicity, and naturalness
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Question 2:
Write an essay in which you discuss Viktor Frankl as a representative of existential philosophy in
psychology, with specific reference to his ideas about meaning and optimal development.
Basic points to discuss:
Give a brief introduction of Frankl, his views and his contributions
Define existential psychology
Describe what the dynamics of the personality are based on
Explain when optimal development is reached and why very few people
achieve it
Describe the different characteristics of optimal development
Evaluate the theory and come to a conclusion
FRANKL
Frankl believed humans are primarily motivated by a will to meaning
Existential psychotherapy is a philosophical method of therapy that operates on the
belief that inner conflict within a person is due to that individual's confrontation with
the givens of existence
His theory is based on the 4 basic assumptions:
1. The freedom to be responsible
2. A level of being beyond animal existence
3. The transhuman dimension
4. A personalised way of being
Dynamics of the personality are based on:
1. The freedom of the will
Each of us experiences our will as free and we continually face choices that
we have to make
2. The will to meaning
People want to experience their lives as meaningful and worthwhile in order
to find significance
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Question 3:
In reference to Augustine Nwoye’s theory of the African self, write an essay in which you critically
evaluate the ideal of an African perspective in the psychology of personhood. In your answer pay
attention to the following:
Why is the African perspective seen as necessary?
What is the world view that is held forth by the African perspective?
To what extent is the African perspective in general, and Nwoye’s theory in particular,
successful in overcoming scientific colonialism in psychology?
Basic ideas that should be discussed:
Define ethnocentrism and scientific colonialism
Discuss the impetus and functions of African perspectives
Give a brief introduction on Nwoye, views and contributions
Describe the importance of Nwoye's account of the fabric of the African self
Describe the eight personality dimensions and how they are linked
Why is the African perspective seen as necessary?
Various aspects of Western psychology resonate with Africans but some theories are
overly Western in their orientations, assumptions and focus
Indigenous psychology - the way people in other societies and from other cultures
make sense of themselves and their relationships and make sense of psychic distress
African perspectives function to critique existing psychology and as an alternative
psychology responsive to Africans
What is the world view that is held forth by the African perspective?
African worldview and view of the person is holistic and context dependent
Anthropocentric ontology - implies that humans form the point of departure as well
as the centre of the universe
There are three cosmic orders of reality that can be distinguished, namely the
macro-, meso- and micro-cosmos
Macro-cosmos - the domain of God and religion
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Question 4:
‘Lacan believed that even Freud had overestimated the powers and responsibilities of the ego.’
With this statement as point of departure, write an essay in which you discuss the work of Lacan as a critical reaction to the ego-/self-psychology of any or all of the theorists
covered in the module (Adler, Fromm and Horney). Focus especially on Lacan’s understanding of the ‘split subject’, the role of language in how he theorises the
unconscious, and how he understands the role of desire.
Basic ideas that should be discussed:
Give a brief introduction on the background, views and contributions of each
Lacan, Horney, Adler and Fromm
With regards to Lacan, discuss:
the “split subject”
the role of language in theorising the unconscious
the role of desire
Discuss how each theorist related their views to those of Freud
Describe the dynamics of each theorist's view on personality
Evaluate and compare the different views and come to a conclusion
LACAN
Background:
Developed a language-centred theory
Studied medicine and neuropsychiatry and focused on paranoia
Believed the unconscious is structured like a language
Departs from notions of “I think, therefore I am”
Seeks to undermine this view by relating the self to the other
Does not regard people as free agents
Relationship to Freud's work:
Lacan: theoretical views were not intended to cover the entire range of
human experience; developed with the goal of reinterpreting Freud’s work –
a return to the true spirit of Freud’s text
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Question 5:
Write an essay in which you discuss Lacan’s understanding of ‘subjectivity’ and how it departs from the dominant Cartesian image of personhood in psychology. Focus on the
role of language, the different orders of subjectivity, and the mirror phase.
Basic ideas that should be discussed:
Cartesian image of personhood
Lacan’s understanding of ‘subjectivity’
The different orders of subjectivity
The role of language
The mirror phase
Cartesian image of personhood:
René Descartes & his ‘thought experiment’
“I think, therefore I am”
Basic ability to think (rather than one’s actual thought content) = the ego
This view of the person leaves us with many problems to solve concerning freedom & responsibility, mainly because it leaves no room for a conception of the unconscious
Lacan challenged the Cartesian starting point for thinking about the nature of things, including persons
Subjectivity:
Signifier – the phonetic sound
Signified – the underlying concept
In language, there is a phonetic sound such as “tree” that signifies a corresponding meaning, the concept of what a tree actually is, and what a tree actually looks like
Besides the fact that the corresponding meaning is based on a random agreement within the language community, the meaning of the signifier is not fixed
The semantic content of the signifier is indeterminate and is determined only by context
No single signifier carries a singular meaning in a language system.