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LAURA A. KING
PSYCHOLOGYTHE SCIENCE OF
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BiologicalFoundations
of BehaviorFinding the Secrets of Wisdom, in the Brain
In 2010, Tamar Gefen worked on a project involving adults, called SuperAgers. They were so named because their memory
abilities in their 80’s were equal to or better than those of adults in their 50s. When they died,
many of these SuperAgers donated their remarkable brains to science. So Tamar now is able
to study these individuals by examining their brains for clues (Gefen & others, 2015).
She has found that the brains of the SuperAgers have an unusually large number of cells
called von Economo neurons. These stick-shaped cells, larger than other neurons, are densely
packed in a band of the brain called the anterior cingulate cortex. Their function is not well
understood, but could reveal the secret of healthy cognitive aging. (Gefen & others, 2015).
The secrets of all of human behavior, thoughts, and feelings lie in the incredible organ that is
reading these words right now. Imagine: This intricate 3-pound structure that you are reading
about is the engine that is doing the work of reading itself. The brain is at once the object of
study and the reason we are able to study it.
As you study this chapter, focus on the basic processes of neural functioning, including the
influence of drugs on neurotransmitters. Understand the effects of the endocrine system on
behavior. Be able to divide the nervous system into its subdivisions and functions. Know the
major brain regions, and be able to explain brain lateralization and hemispheric specialization.
Understand how the brain can adapt after injury. Compare modern technologies for
studying the brain, such as imaging techniques, to older research strategies, such
as case studies. Explain the role of genetics on behavior. Be sure to note the
contributions of key figures such as Roger Sperry, Carl Wernicke, and Paul Broca. ●
E X A M P E R C E N T A G E S
8-10% of the AP Psychology Exam questions come from content covered in this chapter.
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Eye
Pituitary gland
Pons
Governs sleep and arousal
Hippocampus
Involved in memory
Spinal cord
Amygdala
Involved in fear and the discrimination of objects necessary for organism’s
survival
Cerebral Cortex
Extensive, wrinkled outer layerof the forebrain; governs higher
brain functions, such as thinking,learning, and consciousness
Hypothalamus
Governs eating, drinking, and sex; plays a role in emotion and stress
Cerebellum
Rounded structure involved in motor coordination
Reticular Formation
Di�use collection of neurons involved in arousal and stereotyped patterns, suchas walking
Medulla (green)
Governs breathing andreflexes
ThalamusRelays information between lower and higher brain centers
FIGURE 11 Structure and Regions in the Human Brain To get a feel for where these structures are in your own brain, use the eye (pictured on the left of the figure) as a landmark. Note that structures such as the thalamus, hypothalamus, amygdala, pituitary gland, pons, and reticular formation reside deep within the brain.
The most ancient part of the brain, the brain stem evolved more than 500 million years ago, when organisms needed to breathe out of water (Hagadorn & Seilacher, 2009). Clumps of cells in the brain stem determine alertness and regulate basic survival func-tions such as breathing, heartbeat, and blood pressure (Chivers, Constantinescu, & Tench, 2015; Lee & others, 2015). Interestingly, just as musical training can influence other areas of the brain, it relates to differences in the brain stem as well (Weiss & Bidelman, 2015). The cerebellum extends from the rear of the hindbrain. It consists of two rounded structures thought to play important roles in motor coordination (Bosch & others, 2015; Hardwick & others, 2013). The cerebellum coordinates leg and arm movements; for example, when we walk, play golf, and practice the piano, the cerebellum is hard at work. When a wide receiver makes an amazing catch, scraping his toes in bounds, or an out-fielder grasps a tricky pop fly, the cerebellum of each deserves credit. If another portion of the brain commands us to send a quick text message to a friend, it is the cerebellum that integrates the muscular activities required to do so. Damage to the cerebellum impairs the performance of coordinated movements. When this damage occurs, people’s movements become awkward and jerky. Extensive damage to the cerebellum makes it impossible to stand up.
MIDBRAIN
The midbrain, located between the hindbrain and forebrain, is an area in which many nerve-fiber systems ascend and descend to connect the higher and lower portions of the brain (Watabe-Uchita & others, 2012). In particular, the midbrain relays information between the brain and the eyes and ears. The ability to attend to an object visually, for example, is linked to one bundle of neurons in the midbrain.
Structures of the Brain and Their Funct ions 79
midbrain Located between the hindbrain and forebrain, an area in which many nerve-fiber systems ascend and descend to connect the higher and lower portions of the brain; in particular, the midbrain relays information between the brain and the eyes and ears.
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C H A P T E R O U T L I N E
1 Types of LearningVI. Learning
2 Classical ConditioningVI.A. Classical Conditioning
3 Operant ConditioningVI.B. Operant Conditioning
4 Observational LearningVI.E. Social Learning
5 Cognitive Factors in LearningVI.C. Cognitive Processes
6 Biological, Cultural, and Psychological Factors in Learning
VI.D. Biological Factors
7 Learning and Health and WellnessVI.D. Biological Factors
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1 What is Psychology?
CHAPTER 2 Psychology’s Scientific Method
CHAPTER 3 Biological Foundations of Behavior
CHAPTER 4 Sensation and Perception
CHAPTER 5 States of Consciousness
CHAPTER 6 Learning
CHAPTER 7 Memory
CHAPTER 8 Thinking, Intelligence, and Language
CHAPTER 9 Human Development
CHAPTER 10 Motivation and Emotion
CHAPTER 11 Gender, Sex, and Sexuality
CHAPTER 12 Personality
CHAPTER 13 Social Psychology
CHAPTER 14 Industrial and Organizational Psychology
CHAPTER 15 Psychological Disorders
CHAPTER 16 Therapies
CHAPTER 17 Health Psychology
AP® Psychology
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