MADE BY – GIREESHA SHARMA

PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT A psychological assessment can include numerous components

such as norm-referenced psychological tests, informal tests and surveys, interview information, school or medical records, medical evaluation and observational data. A psychologist determines what information to use based on the specific questions being asked. For example, assessments can be used to determine if a person has a learning disorder, is competent to stand trial or has a traumatic brain injury. They can also be used to determine if a person would be a good manager or how well they may work with a team.

One common assessment technique, for instance, is a clinical interview. When a psychologist speaks to a client about his or her concerns and history, they're able to observe how the client thinks, reasons and interacts with others. Assessments may also include interviewing other people who are close to the client, such as teachers, coworkers or family members. (Such interviews, however, would only be performed with written consent from the client.)

USAGE OF PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT

Psychological assessment is most often used in the psychiatric, medical, legal, educational, or psychological clinic settings. The types of assessments and the purposes for them differ among these settings.

In the psychiatric setting, the common needs for assessment are to determine risks, whether a person should be admitted or discharged, the location the patients should be held, as well as what therapy the patient should be receiving. Within this setting, the psychologists need to be aware of the legal responsibilities that what they can legally do in each situation.

Within a medical setting, psychological assessment is used to find a possible underlying psychological disorder, emotional factors that may be associated with medical complaints, assessment for neuropsychological deficit, psychological treatment for chronic pain, and the treatment of chemical dependency. 

STANDARDIZATION … standardization, ensures that everything is the same for all

participants.  In the case of intelligence tests, it means that every test-taker must have the same circumstances.

For example, you take an intelligence test that's given to you by Amy, a nice woman who hands the test over, tells you that you have an hour to take it, and then walks away. You are left to figure everything out on your own.

But imagine that your friend takes that same test, but this time it's given by someone named Rosa. Rosa notices when your friend starts to struggle with a question, so she gives him a hint. When he really can't get an answer, she lets him look the answers up online. What if you score the same as your friend? Does that mean that you are equally adept? No, because you didn't have standardization. That is, the test you took was harder than your friend's test, even though it had the same questions, just by virtue of the fact that you didn't have the same help that he did.

As you can probably tell, standardization is very important in an intelligence test and other psychological tests. Making sure that every single person gets the test under standard conditions ensures that everyone gets a fair shot at the test.

STANDARDIZATION IS NOT SAME AS STANDARDIZING

There are quality standards and regulations for standardization and test quality. These are determined by the international psychological associations. This includes the ITC (International Test Commission), EFPA (European Federation of Psychologists Association's), test publisher groups like the European Publisher Group and the nationally recognized certification institutes like the BPS (British Psychological Society) and COTAN (Commissie Testaangelegenheden Nederland).

There are also standards like DIN 33430 “Requirements for procedures and their

use in occupational aptitude appraisals” which provide information on the currentness of the norms and on the correct interpretation of psychological testing procedures. considerably more marked in the group of schizophrenia patients. These impairments could impact adversely on patients’ everyday lives and on the course of the illness.

An interesting point that emerged was that patients with depression tend to underestimate their cognitive abilities, while patients with schizophrenia overestimate them. More specifically it was noted that people with depression have problems in the areas of figural memory, working memory and response inhibition. People with schizophrenia also have deficits on other subdimensions, including cognitive flexibility, planning and processing speed

WHO IS STANDARDIZED… Standardization represents particular effort on the part of the test developer. The

process is both cost- and time-intensive. Test developers that have in-house testing options and can draw upon the appropriate infrastructure have an advantage. It can take between three and six months before the standardization is completed and the evaluation is present. In other cases, if there are no in-house testing options available, tests can be standardized as part of collaborations with clinics, universities, business partners, or other institutes.

The project generally lasts much longer depending on how quickly suitable test persons can be found. “Our search for test persons is done with existing databases of interested persons, through appeals for test person can be made by attachment, insert, or internet forums”, reports the head of the SCHUHFRIED Research Center, Alexander Weidinger. 300 potential test persons can be quickly found this way. However, not all persons are suitable for testing to create a representative sample.

The prerequisite is that the test person must be psychologically healthy and not

under the influence of drugs or medications. “The particular difficulty in standardization lies in complying with the census,” says Alexander Weidinger. Students and other groups of persons with a lot of free time during the day are often interested in making their time available in the interest of science, in particular when their efforts are compensated with an allowance for expenses. For the group of professionally employed adults and the healthy “best age” test subject, however, it is difficult to find suitable test people.

SAMPLING… In order to assess overall performance, most

psychological tests employ a sample which allows the test makers to create a normal distribution which can be used for comparison of any specific future test score.

 Standardization Sample : �a large sample of test takers who represent the population for which the test is intended.� This standardization sample is also referred to as the norm group (or norming group).

 We convert the raw scores of the sample group into percentiles in order to construct a normal distribution to allow us to rank future test takers.

Sampling methods for selecting a norming group  Sample must be representative :� Test children if you are developing a test of

children's IQ;� test adults if you are interested in assessing adult interests.

The closer the match between your sample and your intended population of test takers, the more accurate the distribution will be as a ranking guide.

Simple Random Sampling : every person in the target population has an equal chance of being in the standardization sample.

Stratified Sampling : Test developer takes into account all demographic variables which can accurately describe the population of interest and then selects individual at random, but proportional to the demographic portrait of the test population. Most accurate way of developing norm group. Common demographics to stratify :� age, gender, socioeconomic status, geographic region. 

Cluster Sampling :sampling begins by dividing a geographic region into blocks and then randomly sampling within those blocks. �More likely than random� sampling to come up with a representative sample and less time consuming than stratified sampling.

  

�������������������� Item Sampling

Often, test developers need to produce more than one version of a standardized test. This is particularly important if you believe you will have an individual complete a psychological test more than once.

Item sampling refers to the procedure of giving two norm groups different items from� the same exam. This allows us to shorten the time it takes to conduct our representative sampling.

WHAT ARE NORMS…. Norms are a basic requirement and an essential quality feature for psychological

diagnosis. They are a reference system that places the tested person in relation to other persons, thus making the results interpretable and informative. Tests without norms are only meaningful if several persons were tested and the results are compared with each other in ranking order. For most test users, norms are an absolute requirement.

This presents great challenges for the test publisher because the development of a new test, or updating a test, requires great effort. A distinction is made between two types of norms, the representative norm and the random sample. For a representative norm sample, at least 300 persons must have been tested and the minimum limit must be independent of the number of inhabitants in a country. This norm represents a cross-section of the population (census). This means that the percentage of men and women in a country are depicted in the norm sample. Education and age also play a role. Furthermore, additional demographic aspects can be taken into consideration (e.g., country vs. city, ethnic group membership, etc.). For random samples, meaning samples that are only representative of specific groups of people, professions, or patients, smaller sample sizes of at least 150 people are often required.

For the good of the norm, however, it is not just the absolute number of the sample group size that is critical, but even more so the quality of the composition of the sample, the collection of the data, and the description of the sample.

PURPOSE OF NORMS A variety of norms can be created for test procedures. Generally they are

the frequently mentioned representative norm samples from which partial norms for age group, gender, and education can be drawn. Representative norm samples are country-specific or region-specific because national borders also often represent linguistic or cultural borders which in turn indicate differences between persons from different countries, cultures, age groups, etc. Which norm is to be used depends on the question that is to be posed. Therefore it is important to know with which groups of people the comparison will be made during the standardization. For example, it doesn’t make sense to perform personality tests in Japan with French norms because different values are valid for many characteristics there.

In general, the more complex a test is and the more specific the question, the more important the consideration of sociocultural influences and therefore also the selection of the right standard. For achievement tests, for example, a representative norm sample for Austria is a good basis for general use. If you want to make comparison within a group, it makes sense to take the norm sample from the group in question.

In human resources psychology, an individual professional group norm is drawn upon in order to provide a more precise differentiation in personnel selection. For example, if traffic psychologists want to know whether the driving behavior of a retiree is consistent with their age, then a senior norm group can be consulted. But if you want to know whether older drivers display "normal” driving behavior in comparison to other road users, then the representative norm sample is used in the testing. Child and adolescent norms have a special significance among norms. Because children develop especially quickly, the norms for the many age levels and for each relevant developmental stage must be created. Creating a representative test group requires a large quantity of test persons, and the parents’ permission to perform the testing must be present for each test. The organizational effort to obtain child and adolescent norms is therefore relatively high.

UPDATING NORMS….

Regular updating of test norms is necessary, and we recommend that this be done every seven to ten years. The reason for this is in the continuous change in the population and the associated changes to the census. The number, the composition, and the education level of the public changes. Even the average intelligence changes. The average IQ test result has increased noticeably since 1950. It is clear that the currentness of the representative norm sample decreases over the course of the year. If the use of the tests is to remain meaningful, the norms must be updated. The quality of the test is ultimately strongly dependent on the norms.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN GROUP NORMS AND LOCAL NORMS….

� Sometimes educators are interested how students performed relative to other students in the same grade, or other students in adjacent districts.

��� For these purposes, test scores will develop local norms for statistical comparison, rather than using the group norm supplied with the test. When scoring is done by computer, local norms can be easily developed. 

PSYCHOLOGICAL EVALUATION… Psychological evaluation is defined as a way of testing

people about their behavior, personality, and capabilities to draw conclusions using combinations of techniques. Over the years, it has developed from unethical methods of locking people up for tests to the many different strategies seen today. We currently see evaluation being used in several different settings for multiple purposes, such as education or legal situations. The purpose behind many modern psychological evaluations is to try to pinpoint what is happening in someone's psychological life that may be inhibiting their ability to behave or feel in more appropriate or constructive ways. It is the mental equivalent of physical examination. It is important to use psychological evaluation properly otherwise violations of the professional ethical code can occur, resulting in harm to the client and invalid assessment results.

FORMAL AND INFORMAL EVALUATION

Formal psychological evaluation consists of standardized batteries of tests and highly structured clinician-run interviews

while informal evaluation takes on a completely different tone. In informal evaluation, assessments are based on unstructured, free-flowing interviews or observations that allow both the patient and the clinician to guide the content. 

 A highly unstructured interview and informal observations provide key findings about the patient that are both efficient and effective. A potential issue with an unstructured, informal approach is the clinician may overlook certain areas of functioning or not notice them at all Or they might focus too much on presenting complaints. The highly structured interview, although very precise, can cause the clinician to make the mistake of focusing a specific answer to a specific question without considering the response in terms of a broader scope or life context. They may fail to recognize how the patient's answers all fit together, they lose the forest through the trees.

USE OF TESTS AND BATTERIES….  The benefits to more formal standardized evaluation types such as batteries

and tests are many. First, they measure a large number of characteristics simultaneously. These

include personality, cognitive, and/or neuropsychological characteristics. Second, these tests provide empirically quantified information. The obvious

benefit to this is that we can more precisely measure patient characteristics as compared to any kind of structured or unstructured interview.

Third, all of these tests have a standardized way of being scored and being administered. Each patient is presented a standardized stimulus that serves as a benchmark that can be used to determine their characteristics. These types of tests eliminate any possibility of bias and produce results that could be harmful to the patient and cause legal and ethical issues.

Fourth, tests are normed. This means that patients can be assessed not only based on their comparison to a "normal" individual, but how they compare to the rest of their peers who may have the same psychological issues that they face. Normed tests allow the clinician to make a more individualized assessment of the patient.

Fifth, standardized tests that we commonly use today are both valid and reliable. We know what specific score mean, how reliable they are, and how the results will affect the patient.

Most clinicians agree that a balanced battery of tests is the most effective way of helping patients.

PSYCHOLOGICAL TEST SCORING.. Accurate measurement of human behavior and mental processes

involves the use of assessment tools with established validity (the test measures what it was actually designed to measure) and reliability (the test measures the trait or ability in a consistent manner and without excessive error).

Scoring the Exams   Administrator may be responsible for scoring the exams herself or may

mail them to a service or bring them to a computer grading service.   Scoring Essay Tests : The most subjective category of scoring, can be

made more rigorous by developing a scoring scheme which lists the important facts or theories which should have been included.

  The analytic scoring procedure is preferable to the global scoring

approach because it helps to minimize Halo effects and leniency error

Other recommendations for scoring Essays1.       Score all answers of a specific essay at one time.

2.       Score all answers to a specific essay within one test scoring period.

3.       If both writing quality and essay content are to be graded, they should be assigned separate grades before being combined. 

4.       Have two readers score each essay, and let the final grade be the average of the two scores given to a particular essay.

5.       Write comments next to the examinee's responses, and correct errors on their papers.

Computer Software is now being developed that can grade essays.�

The Intelligent Essay Assessor. The "Software" learns a specific subject area by scanning appropriate documents. Then, the software is fed graded essays to set up the grading standards. Now, ungraded essays can be interpreted and graded by the Software program.

SCORING OBJECTIVE TESTS… Hand Graded :� Due to human error, mistakes may occur.� Having two

graders grade exams help to catch 90% of those simple mistakes in grading.  Machine Scoring : As accurate as the answer code given to the

computer.� 

For some psychological tests of personality and/or adjustment, considerable training is required in order to properly score responses.

  Some testing publishers will only release or sell their products to individuals

who have undergone special training or have a particular degree in a related field.

  Guessing Corrections : Some tests which penalize for wrong answers, do

so because they want to discourage random guessing.�   Professionals in the testing industry generally agree that correcting for

guessing has very little effect on the ranking and distribution of test scores.

TYPES OF SCORING SYSTEM…. There are many possible ways to depict an individual's

score relative to the normative sample. Such data could be represented in the form of 1) standard scores, 2) scaled scores, 3) T-scores, or 4) percentile scores. Each reporting method allows for comparison relative to the normative sample. The method of reporting selected by an individual psychologist may vary based on training and personal discretion.

1. STANDARD SCORES - reflect a traditional method of descriptive reporting most frequently observed in areas of intellectual assessment. For example, a standard score of 100 represents precisely average performance, indicating that 50% of the normative sample scored better than that individual, and 50% scored lower. However, very few individuals obtain such a precisely average score.

SCALED SCROES - offer a somewhat different descriptive framework. A scaled score of 10 represents average (50th percentile) performance with a normal range between 8 and 12. Scaled scores of 6 or 7 represent low average abilities, with scaled scores of 4 and 5 representing a borderline deficient range. Scaled scores below 4 represent deficient performance.

T SCORES - are yet another method of depicting a person’s score. In this context, a T Score of 50 is precisely average, with a normal range of roughly 40 to 60. T Scores below 30 (2nd percentile) or above 70 (98th percentile) represent unusually low or high performance. Many common personality tests use T Scores to represent the findings.

PERCENTILE SCORES - a score in the 50th percentile represents precisely average performance with scores between the 25th and 75th percentile representing the normal range. Scores below the 2nd percentile and above the 98th percentile are very unusual, and thus are traditionally seen as “abnormal.” There is no particular reason to select one scoring method over another other than preference of the test developer. Scoring systems are interchangeable. A T score of 50 means the same as a Standard Score of 100, which means the same as a Scaled Score of 10. All are equivalent to a percentile score of 50. Regardless, these scoring and reporting methods allow for relatively precise quantification of behavior and mental processes, and aid in diagnosis by determining the extent to which a deficiency or abnormality of behavior might be present.