1. INTRODUCTION

Wine is an alcoholic beverage made from fermented grapes or other fruits.

The natural chemical balance of grapes lets them ferment without the addition

of sugars, acids, enzymes, water, or other nutrients. Yeast consumes the

sugars in the grapes and converts them into alcohol. Different varieties of

grapes and strains of yeasts produce different types of wine. The well-known

variations result from the very complex interactions between the biochemical

development of the fruit, reactions involved in fermentation, and human

intervention in the overall process. The final product may contain tens of

thousands of chemical compounds in amounts varying from a few percent to a

few parts per billion.

Wines made from fruits besides grapes are usually named after the fruit from

which they are produced (for example, pomegranate wine, apple

wine and elderberry wine) and are generically called fruit wine. The term

"wine" can also refer to starch-fermented or fortified beverages having higher

alcohol content, such as barley wine or sake.

Wine has a rich history dating back thousands of years, with the earliest known

production occurring around 6000 BC in Georgia. It first appeared in

the Balkans about 4500 BC and was very common in ancient

Greece, Thrace and Rome. Wine has also played an important role in religion

throughout history. The Greek god Dionysus and

the Roman equivalent, Bacchus, represented wine. The drink is also used

in Christian Eucharist ceremonies and the Jewish Kiddush.

The English word "wine" comes from the Proto-Germanic *winam, an early

borrowing from the Latin vinum, "wine" or "(grape) vine", itself derived from

the Proto-Indo-European stem *win-o (cf. Hittite: wiyana; Lycian:oino; Ancient

Greek: οἶνος oinos; Aeolic Greek: ϝοῖνος woinos).

The earliest attested terms referring to wine are the Mycenaean Greek me-tu-wo

ne-wo (μέθυος νέου), meaning "the month of new wine" or "festival of the new

wine", and wo-no-wa-ti-si, meaning "wine garden", written in Linear

B inscriptions.

Some scholars have noted the similarities between the words for wine in 

Kartvelian 

(e.g. Georgian ), IndoEuropeanlanguages (e.g. Russian вино [vino]),

and Semitic (*wayn), pointing to the possibility of a common origin of the word

denoting "wine" in these language families. Some scholars have argued that

Georgian was the origin of this word and that it entered into the Indo-European

languages via Semitic. The proponents of this view have argued that in

Kartvelian languages the semantic connection of the word "wine" (ღვინო -

ghvino, ღვინი - ghvini, ღვინალ - ghvinal) is traced to the verb "ghvivili"

(ღვივილი, to bloom, to arouse, to boil, to ferment) and the root of "ghv" (ღვ),

which is a common semantic root for many common Kartvelian words (e.g.

"gaghvidzeba", გაღვიძება - to awaken, "ghvidzli" - ღვიძლი - liver).

Wines from other fruits, such as apples and berries, are usually named after the

fruit from which they are produced combined with the word "wine" (for

example, apple wine and elderberry wine) and are generically called fruit

wine or country wine (not to be confused with the French term vin de pays).

Besides the grape varieties traditionally used for winemaking, most fruits

naturally lack either a high amount of fermentable sugars, relatively low acidity,

yeast nutrients needed to promote or maintain fermentation or a combination of

these three characteristics. This is probably one of the main reasons why wine

derived from grapes has historically been more prevalent by far than other types

and why specific types of fruit wine have generally been confined to regions in

which the fruits were native or introduced for other reasons.

Other wines, such as barley wine and rice wine (e.g. sake), are made from

starch-based materials and resemble beer more than wine, while ginger wine is

fortified with brandy. In these latter cases, the term "wine" refers to the

similarity in alcohol content rather than to the production process. The

commercial use of the English word "wine" (and its equivalent in other

languages) is protected by law in many jurisdictions.

2. HISTORY

Archaeological evidence suggests that the earliest known production of wine,

made by fermenting grapes, took place from the late Neolithic or

early Chalcolithic, possibly as early as the sixth millennium BC, between

theCaucasus and the Middle East, with evidence of winemaking at different

sites dated from 6000 BC in Georgia, 5000 BC in Iran, and 4100 BC

in Armenia.During an extensive gene-mapping project in 2006, archaeologists

analyzed the heritage of more than 110 modern grape cultivars, narrowing their

origin to a region in Georgia, where wine residues were also discovered on the

inner surfaces of 8,000-year-old ceramic storage jars. Chemical analysis of

7,000-year-old pottery shards indicated early winemaking in the Neolithic

village of Hajji Firuz Tepe in Iran's Zagros Mountains. Other notable areas of

wine production have been discovered in Greece and date back to 4500 BC. The

same sites also contain the world's earliest evidence of crushed

grapes. A winemaking press found in 2011 in the Areni-1 site of Armenia has

been dated to around 4100 BC.

However, the spread of wine culture westwards was most probably due to the

Phoenicians who were centered on the coastal strip of today’s Lebanon – itself

one of the world’s oldest sites of wine production.The wines of Byblos were

exported to Egypt during the Old Kingdom (2686 BC–2134 BC) and throughout

the Mediterranean. Evidences include two Phoenician shipwrecks from 750 BC

discovered by Robert Ballard, whose cargo of wine was still intact.As the first

great traders of wine ('Cherem'), the Phoenicians seem to have protected it from

oxidation with a layer of olive oil, followed by a seal of pinewood and resin -

this may well be the origin of the Greek retsina.

Literary references to wine are abundant in Homer (8th century BC, but

possibly composed even earlier), Alkman (7th century BC), and others.

In ancient Egypt, six of 36 wine amphoras were found in the tomb of

KingTutankhamun bearing the name "Kha'y", a royal chief vintner. Five of

these amphoras were designated as originating from the king's personal estate,

with the sixth from the estate of the royal house of Aten. Traces of wine have

also been found in central Asian Xinjiang in modern-day China, dating from the

second and first millennia BC.

Pressing wine after the harvest;Tacuinum Sanitatis, 14th century

The first known mention of grape-based wines in India is from the late 4th-

century BC writings of Chanakya, the chief minister of Emperor Chandragupta

Maurya. In his writings, Chanakya condemns the use of alcohol while

chronicling the emperor and his court's frequent indulgence of a style of wine

known as madhu.

A 2003 report by archaeologists indicates a possibility that grapes were mixed

with rice to produce mixed fermented beverages in China in the early years of

the seventh millennium BC. Pottery jars from the Neolithic site of Jiahu, Henan,

contained traces of tartaric acid and other organic compounds commonly found

in wine. However, other fruits indigenous to the region, such as hawthorn,

cannot be ruled out. If these beverages, which seem to be the precursors of rice

wine, included grapes rather than other fruits, they would have been any of the

several dozen indigenous wild species in China, rather than Vitis vinifera, which

was introduced there some 6,000 years later.

One of the lasting legacies of the ancient Roman Empire was

the viticultural foundation laid by the Romans in the areas that today are world-

renowned wine regions. In places with garrison towns (e.g. Bordeaux, Trier,

andColchester), the Romans planted vineyards to supply local needs and limit

the cost of long-distance trading.In medieval Europe, the Roman Catholic

Church supported wine because the clergy required it for

the Mass.Monks in France made wine for years, aging it in caves. An old

English recipe that survived in various forms until the 19th century calls for

refining white wine from bastard—bad or tainted bastardo wine.

In the past decade, the archeological proof of winemaking, even wine

technology, has been unearthed in several Neolithic sites in the Zagros

Mountains of North-Eastern Iran[1,2]. The oldest site to date is called Hajji

Firuz Tepe and is dated 5,400-5,000BC. ‘Tepe’ (or rather ‘tappe’, in Farsi)

refers to a small hill or mound, something an archeologist would dig up when

looking for an ancient site.

Six wine jars (each about 10 inches tall, with a capacity of about 2.5 gallons)

were found. The proof that they did contain wine comes from the chemical

analysis of the residue in the jars. The infra-red absorption spectra show the

presence of tartaric acid and its salt, calcium tartrate. Tartaric acid is the main

acid of grapes and occurs naturally only in wine. One often sees the tiny crystals

in the deposit at the bottom of a glass of (a few years old) wine. They look like

tiny grains of salt. The German name is Weinstein, literally ‘wine-stone’.

.

3. GRAPE VARIETIES AND STRUCTURE

Grape vineyard Vitis vinifera sylvestris

Wine is usually made from one or more varieties of the European species Vitis

vinifera,such as  Chardonnay, Cabernet Sauvignon, Gamay,p and Merlot. When

one of these varieties is used as the predominant grape (usually defined by law

as minimums of 75% to 85%), the result is a "varietal" as opposed to a

"blended" wine. Blended wines are not considered inferior to varietal wines,

rather they are a different style of winemaking; some of the world's most highly

regarded wines, from regions like Bordeaux and the Rhone Valley, are blended

from different grape varieties.

Wine can also be made from other species of grape or from hybrids, created by

the genetic crossing of two species. V. labrusca (of which the Concord grape is

a cultivar), V. aestivalis, V. ruprestris, V. rotundifolia andV. riparia are

native North American grapes usually grown to eat fresh or for grape juice, jam,

or jelly, and only occasionally made into wine.

Hybridization is different from grafting. Most of the world's vineyards are

planted with European V. vinifera vines that have been grafted onto North

American species' rootstock, a common practice due to their resistance

to phylloxera, a root louse that eventually kills the vine. In the late 19th century,

most of Europe's vineyards (excluding some of the driest in the south) were

devastated by the infestation, leading to widespread vine deaths and eventual

replanting. Grafting is done in every wine-producing region in the world except

in Argentina, the Canary Islands and Chile—the only places not yet exposed to

the insect.

In the context of wine production, terroir is a concept that encompasses the

varieties of grapes used, elevation and shape of the vineyard, type and chemistry

of soil, climate and seasonal conditions, and the local yeast cultures. The range

of possible combinations of these factors can result in great differences among

wines, influencing the fermentation, finishing, and aging processes as well.

Many wineries use growing and production methods that preserve or accentuate

the aroma and taste influences of their unique terroir.[33] However, flavor

differences are less desirable for producers of mass-market table wine or other

cheaper wines, where consistency takes precedence. Such producers try to

minimize differences in sources of grapes through production techniques such

as micro-oxygenation, tannin filtration, cross-flow filtration, thin-film

evaporation, and spinning cones.

Viticulture

The harvesting of healthy, ripe grapes is the end of a successful annual vineyard

cycle and the beginning of the work in the winery. The grower and winemaker

are both aware that any deficiencies in the quality of fruit will affect not only

quality but also profitability. Although the juice of the grape is seen as the

essential ingredient in the winemaking process, other constituents also have

roles of varying importance.

1.1The structure of the grape berry

1.Pulp

2.Pip Bloom

3.Skin

4.Stem

1.1.1 Stalks

Stalks contain tannins that may give a bitter taste to the wine. The winemaker

may choose to destem the grapes completely before they are crushed.

Alternatively, the stalks, or a small proportion of them, may be left on to

increase the tannin in red wine to give extra structure. However, if the stalks are

not removed, they perform a useful task in the pressing operation by acting as

drainage channels.

1.1.2 Skins

Skins contain colouring matters, aroma compounds, flavour constituents and

tannins. The outside waxy layer with its whitish hue is called bloom. This

contains yeasts and bacteria. Below this we find further layers containing

complex substances called polyphenols, which can be divided into two groups:

(1) Anthocyanins (black grapes) and flavones (white grapes) give grapes their

colour and as phenolic biflavanoid compounds they form antioxidants and

thus give health-giving properties to wine.

(2) Tannins are bitter compounds that are also found in stalks and pips. They

can, if unripe or not handled correctly, give dried mouth feel on the palate.

Tannin levels are higher in red wines where more use is made of the skins and

stalks in the winemaking and with greater extraction than in white and rosé

wines. Some varieties such as Cabernet Sauvignon, Syrah and Nebbiolo contain

high levels of tannins, others such as Gamay have much lower levels.

1.1.3 Yeasts

Yeasts are naturally occurring micro-organisms which are essential in the

fermentation process. Yeasts attach themselves to the bloom on the grape skins.

There are two basic groups of yeast present on the skins: wild yeasts and wine

yeasts. Wild yeasts (mostly of the genus Klöckera and Hanseniaspora), need air

in which to operate. Once in contact with the grape sugars, they can convert

these sugars to alcohol, but only up to about 4% alcohol by volume (ABV), at

which point they die. Wine yeasts, of the genus Saccharomyces, then take over

and continue to work until either there is no more sugar left or an alcoholic

strength of approximately 15% has been reached, at which point they die

naturally.

1.1.4 Pulp

The pulp or flesh contains juice. If you peel the skin of either a green or black

skinned grape, the colour of the flesh is generally the same. The actual juice of

the grape is almost colourless, with the very rare exception of a couple of

varieties that have tinted flesh. The pulp/ flesh contains water, sugars, fruit acids,

proteins and minerals.

• Sugars: when unripe, all fruits contain a high concentration of acids and low

levels of sugar. As the fruit ripens and reaches maturity, so the balance changes,

with sugar levels rising and acidity falling. Photosynthesis is the means by

which a greater part of this change occurs. Grape sugars are mainly represented

by fructose and glucose. Sucrose, although present in the leaves and phloem

tubes of the vine, has no significant presence in the grape berry. As harvest

nears, the producer can measure the rise in sugar levels by using a refractometer.

• Acids: by far the most important acids found in grapes are tartaric acid and

malic acid, the latter being of a higher proportion in unripe grapes. During the

ripening process, tartaric acid then becomes the principal acid. Tartaric acid is in

important role in wine giving a refreshing, mouth- watering taste and also not

commonly in plants other than vines. Acids have an give stability and perhaps

longevity to the finished wine. There are tiny amounts of other acids present in

grapes, including acetic and citric.

• Minerals: potassium is the main mineral present in the grape pulp, with a

concentration of up to 2500mg/l. Of the other minerals present, none has a

concentration of more than 200mg/l, but the most significant are calcium and

magnesium.

1.1.5 Pips

Pips or seeds vary in size and shape according to grape variety. Unlike with

stalks, there is no means of separating them on reception at the winery. If

crushed, they can impart astringency to the wine due to their bitter oils and hard

tannins. As we shall see later, today’s modern presses take account of this.

4. CLASSIFICATION

Wine grapes on a vine

Regulations govern the classification and sale of wine in many regions of the

world. European wines tend to be classified by region

(e.g. Bordeaux, Rioja and Chianti), while non-European wines are most often

classified by grape (e.g. Pinot Noir and Merlot). Market recognition of

particular regions has recently been leading to their increased prominence on

non-European wine labels. Examples of recognized non-European locales

include NapaValley  and  SonomaValley in California; Willamette

Valley in Oregon; Columbia Valley in Washington; Barossa Valley in South

Australia and Hunter Valley in New South Wales; Luján de Cuyo in Argentina;

Central Valley in Chile; Vale dos Vinhedos in Brazil; Hawke's

Bay and Marlborough in New Zealand; and Okanagan Valley and Niagara

Peninsula in Canada.

Some blended wine names are marketing terms whose use is governed

by trademark law rather than by specific wine laws. For

example, Meritage (sounds like "heritage") is generally a Bordeaux-style blend

of Cabernet Sauvignon and Merlot, but may also include Cabernet Franc, Petit

Verdot, and Malbec. Commercial use of the term Meritage is allowed only via

licensing agreements with the Meritage Association.

European classifications

Moscato d'Asti, a DOCGwine

France has various appellation systems based on the concept of terroir, with

classifications ranging from Vin de Table ("table wine") at the bottom,

through Vin de Pays and Appellation d'Origine Vin Délimité de Qualité

Supérieure (AOVDQS), up to Appellation d'Origine Contrôlée (AOC) or

similar, depending on the region. Portugal has developed a system resembling

that of France and, in fact, pioneered this concept in 1756 with a royal charter

creating the Demarcated Douro Region and regulating the production and trade

of wine. Germany created a similar scheme in 2002, although it has not yet

achieved the authority of the other countries' classification

systems. Spain, Greece and Italy have classifications based on a dual system of

region of origin and product quality.

Beyond Europe

New World wines—those made outside the traditional wine regions of Europe

—are usually classified by grape rather than by terroir or region of origin,

although there have been unofficial attempts to classify them by quality.

 Vintages

A "vintage wine" is made from grapes that were all or mostly grown in a

particular year, and labeled as such. Some countries allow a vintage wine to

include a small portion that is not from the labeled vintage. Variations in a

wine's character from year to year can include subtle differences in color, palate,

nose, body and development. High-quality wines can improve in flavor with age

if properly stored. Consequently, it is not uncommon for wine enthusiasts and

traders to save bottles of an especially good vintage wine for future

consumption.

In the United States, for a wine to be vintage-dated and labeled with a country

of origin or American Viticultural Area (AVA) (e.g. Sonoma Valley), 95% of

its volume must be from grapes harvested in that year. If a wine is not labeled

with a country of origin or AVA the percentage requirement is lowered to 85%.

Vintage wines are generally bottled in a single batch so that each bottle will

have a similar taste. Climate's impact on the character of a wine can be

significant enough to cause different vintages from the same vineyard to vary

dramatically in flavor and quality. Thus, vintage wines are produced to be

individually characteristic of the particular vintage and to serve as the flagship

wines of the producer. Superior vintages from reputable producers and regions

will often command much higher prices than their average ones. Some vintage

wines (e.g. Brunello), are only made in better-than-average years.

For consistency, non-vintage wines can be blended from more than one vintage,

which helps winemakers sustain a reliable market image and maintain sales

even in bad years. One recent study suggests that for the average wine drinker,

the vintage year may not be as significant for perceived quality as had been

thought, although wine connoisseurs continue to place great importance on it.

5. RELIGIOUS SIGNIFICANCE

Ancient religions

The use of wine in religious ceremonies is common to many cultures and

regions. Libations often included wine, and the religious mysteries of Dionysus

used wine as a sacramental entheogen to induce a mind-altering state.

Judaism

Wine is an integral part of Jewish laws and traditions. The Kiddush is a blessing

recited over wine or grape juice to sanctify the Shabbat. On Pesach (Passover)

during the Seder, it is a Rabbinic obligation of adults to drink four cups of

wine. In the Tabernacle and in the Temple in Jerusalem, the libation of wine

was part of the sacrificial service. Note that this does not mean that wine is a

symbol of blood, a common misconception that contributes to the myth of

the blood libel. The blessing over wine said before consuming the drink

is: "Baruch atah Hashem (Adonai) Eloheinu melech ha-olam, boray p’ree

hagafen"—"Praised be the Lord, our God, King of the universe, Creator of the

fruit of the vine."

Christianity

All alcohol is prohibited under Islamic law, although there has been a long

tradition of drinking wine in some Islamic areas, especially in Persia.

In Christianity, wine is used in a sacred rite called the Eucharist, which

originates in the Gospel account of the Last Supper (Gospel of Luke 22:19)

describing Jesus sharing bread and wine with his disciples and commanding

them to "do this in remembrance of me." Beliefs about the nature of the

Eucharist vary among denominations (see Eucharistic theologies contrasted).

While some Christians consider the use of wine from the grape as essential for

the validity of the sacrament, many Protestants also allow (or

require) pasteurized grape juice as a substitute. Wine was used in Eucharistic

rites by all Protestant groups until an alternative arose in the late 19th

century. Methodist dentist and prohibitionist Thomas Bramwell Welch applied

new pasteurization techniques to stop the natural fermentation process of grape

juice. Some Christians who were part of the growing temperance

movement pressed for a switch from wine to grape juice, and the substitution

spread quickly over much of the United States, as well as to other countries to a

lesser degree. There remains an ongoing debate between some

American Protestant denominations as to whether wine can and should be used

for the Eucharist or allowed as an ordinary beverage.

Islam

Alcoholic beverages, including wine, are forbidden under most interpretations

of Islamic law. Iran had previously had a thriving wine industry that

disappeared after the Islamic Revolution in 1979. In Greater Persia,mey (Persian

wine) was a central theme of poetry for more than a thousand years, long before

the advent of Islam. Some Alevi sects use wine in their religious services.

Certain exceptions to the ban on alcohol apply. Alcohol derived from a source

other than the grape (or its byproducts) and the date is allowed in "very small

quantities" (loosely defined as a quantity that does not cause intoxication) under

the Sunni Hanafi madhab, for specific purposes (such as medicines), where the

goal is not intoxication. However, modern Hanafi scholars regard alcohol

consumption as totally forbidden

6. WINE MAKING PROCEDURE

Crushing:

The grapes are hand picked and transferred to the crusher. The crusher

punchers the grapes and transfers it to a de-juicer which separates the pulp from

the juice. While the skin, the stems and other remains from the crushing are

used as manure, the juice is sent for fermentation. Grapes can (and might still)

be crushed by stomping on them with your feet in a big vat. But a more

practical way is to use a machine which does the job (and at the same time,

removes the stems). Separation may not immediately occur (especially for red

wines), since skins and stems are an important source of "tannins" which affect

wine's taste and maturity through aging. The skins also determine the color of

the wine. Maceration (the time spent while skins and seeds are left with the

juice) will go on for a few hours or a few weeks. Pressing will then occur. One

way to press the grapes is to use a "bladder press," a large cylindrical container

that contains bags that are inflated and deflated several times, each time gently

squeezing the grapes until all the juice has run free, leaving behind the rest of

the grapes. You can also separate solids from juice through the use of a

centrifuge.

Fermentation :

The grape juice is first chilled in a combination of stainless steel tanks and

oak barrels and then fermented by adding yeast. This process is called the first

fermentation of wine and it takes about 8 weeks.

Maturation :

The first fermentation wine is further stored in tanks and/or oak barrels for 6-

8 months for maturation.

Bottling :

Once the mature wine is ready, it is stabilized through cold treatment. After

testing the stability of the wine, it then is filtered to screen the balance fine

particles. The filtered wine is then packed in bottles, which are washed

internally and externally with double filtered water to remove bacteria and

germs.

Figure 1 Operations in a winery

Figure 2: Flow diagram of Red Grape Wine

Selection of grapes ------- Mature and undamaged grapes

Crushing ------------Traditionally manually, but now by crushers

Pre- fermentation--------- 24 hours to three weeks depending on colour required

Removal of skin----------- Can add sulphur dioxide to inhibit wild yeasts

Fermentation --------------- Ageing to develop aromas and flavours

Maturation

Figure 3: Flow diagram of White Grape Wine

Selection of grapes ------- Mature and undamaged grapes

Crushing ------------------- Traditionally manually, but now by crushers

Removal of skin----------- By standing, filtration or centrifugation

Clarification

Fermentation

Ageing

Fermentation

Yeast also gives flavor to the wine. But the yeast that is on the grape skin when

it is harvested may not have the desired flavor. Other things on the outside of a

grape are not good for wine (for example, acetic bacteria on the grapes can

cause the wine to turn to vinegar). The winemaker can eliminate unwanted

yeast's, molds and bacteria, most commonly by using the "universal

disinfectant," sulfur dioxide. Unfortunately, the sulfites which remain in the

wine may cause a lot of discomfort to some wine drinkers. Some winemakers

prefer NOT to do this, and purposely create wines that are subject to the

vagaries (and different flavors) of the yeast that pre-exist on the grapes ("wild

yeast fermentation"). The winemaker has many different yeast strains to choose

from (and can use different strains at different times during the process for

better control fermentation). The most common wine yeast is Saccharomyces.

A less modern, but still widely used way to ferment wine is to place it in small

oak barrels. "Barrel fermentation" is usually done at a lower temperature in

temperature controlled rooms and takes longer, perhaps around 6 weeks. The

longer fermentation and use of wood contributes to the flavor (and usually

expense) of the wine. The skins and pulp which remain in a red wine vat will

rise to and float on top of the juice. This causes problems (if it dries out, it's a

perfect breeding ground for injurious bacteria), so the winemaker will push this

"cap" back down into the juice, usually at least twice a day. In

large vats, this is accomplished by pumping juice from the bottom of the vat

over the top of the cap. Eventually the yeast is no longer changing sugar to

alcohol (though different strains of yeast, which can survive in higher and

higher levels of alcohol, can take over and contribute their own flavor to the

wine-as well as converting a bit more sugar to alcohol. After all this is

completed what you have left is the wine, "dead" yeast cells, known as "lees and

various other substances.

Malo-lactic fermentation

The winemaker may choose to allow a white wine to undergo a second

fermentation which occurs due to malic acid in the grape juice. When malic acid

is allowed to break down into carbon dioxide and lactic acid (thanks to bacteria

in the wine), it is known as "malo-lactic fermentation," which imparts additional

flavor to the wine. A "buttery" flavor in some whites is due to this process. This

process is used for sparkling wines.

First racking

After fermentation completed naturally or stopped by addition of distilled spirit,

first racking is carried out. This involves the wine to stand still until most yeast

cells and fine suspended material settle out. The wine is then filtered without

disturbing the sediment or the yeast.

Winery aging

The winery may then keep the wine so that there can be additional clarification

and, in some wines, to give it a more complex flavors. Flavor can come from

wood (or more correctly from the chemicals that make up the wood and are

taken up into the wine). The wine may be barrel aged for several months to

several years. No air is allowed to enter the barrels during this period. Ignoring

any additional processing that might be used, you could empty the barrels into

bottles and sell your wine. However, during the winery aging, the smaller

containers may develop differences. So the winemaker will probably "blend"

wine from different barrels, to achieve a uniform result. Also, the winemaker

may blend together different grape varieties to achieve desired characteristics.

Stabilization, filtration

Stabilization is carried out to remove traces of tartaric acid. These tartarates

present in the grape juice tend to crystallize in wine and if not removed

completely can slowly reappear as glass like crystals in final bottles on storage .

Stabilization with respect to tartarates may involve chilling of wine that can

crystallize tartarates and these crystals can be removed by filtration.

Pasteurization

If the wine has an alcohol content less than 14% it may be heat pasteurized or

cold pasteurized through microporous filters just before bottling.

Bottling wine

Producers often use different shaped bottles to denote different types of wine.

Colored bottles help to reduce damage by light. (Light assists in oxidation and

breakdown of the wine into chemicals, such as mercaptan, which are

undesirable). Bottle sizes can also vary.

Storing wine

For wines that should be aged, a cellar should have proper :Temperature which

does not have rapid fluctuation. 55 degrees Fahrenheit is a good, but you can

live with 50 to 57 degrees Fahrenheit (10 to 14 degrees Centigrade). Wide

swings in temperature will harm the wine. Having too high a temperature will

age the wine faster so it won't get as complex as it might have. Having too low a

temperature will slow the wine's maturation.Humidity. About 60 percent is

right. This helps keep the cork moist. The wine will oxidize if the air (and its

oxygen) gets to it. If the cork dries out, it can shrink and let air in. This is

another reason to keep the bottles on their sides. The wine itself will help keep

the cork moist.

Lack of light.

Lack of vibration.

Lack of strong odors.

Whatever it is that is causing the odor stands a good chance of getting through

the cork and into the wine.

7. Tasting and collecting

Judging color is the first step in tasting a wine.

Wine tasting is the sensory examination and evaluation of wine. Wines

contain many chemical compounds similar or identical to those in fruits,

vegetables, and spices. The sweetness of wine is determined by the amount of

residual sugar in the wine after fermentation, relative to the acidity present in

the wine. Dry wine, for example, has only a small amount of residual sugar.

Some wine labels suggest opening the bottle and letting the wine "breathe" for a

couple of hours before serving, while others recommend drinking it

immediately. Decanting (the act of pouring a wine into a special container just

for breathing) is a controversial subject among wine enthusiasts. In addition to

aeration, decanting with a filter allows the removal of bitter sediments that may

have formed in the wine. Sediment is more common in older bottles, but

aeration may benefit younger wines.

During aeration, a younger wine's exposure to air often "relaxes" the drink,

making it smoother and better integrated in aroma, texture, and flavor. Older

wines generally "fade" (lose their character and flavor intensity) with extended

aeration. Despite these general rules, breathing does not necessarily benefit all

wines. Wine may be tasted as soon as the bottle is opened to determine how

long it should be aerated, if at all When tasting wine, individual flavors may

also be detected, due to the complex mix of organic molecules

(e.g. esters and terpenes) that grape juice and wine can contain. Experienced

tasters can distinguish between flavors characteristic of a specific grape and

flavors that result from other factors in winemaking. Typical intentional flavor

elements in wine—chocolate, vanilla, or coffee—are those imparted by aging in

oak casks rather than the grape itself.

Banana flavors (isoamyl acetate) are the product of yeast metabolism, as are

spoilage aromas such as sweaty, barnyard, band-aid (4-ethylphenol and 4-

ethylguaiacol), and rotten egg (hydrogen sulfide). Some varietals can also

exhibit a mineral flavor due to the presence of water-soluble salts as a result of

limestone's presence in the vineyard's soil.

Wine aroma comes from volatile compounds released into the air. Vaporization

of these compounds can be accelerated by twirling the wine glass or serving at

room temperature. Many drinkers prefer to chill red wines that are already

highly aromatic, like Chinon and Beaujolais.

The ideal temperature for serving a particular wine is a matter of debate, but

some broad guidelines have emerged that will generally enhance the experience

of tasting certain common wines. A white wine should foster a sense of

coolness, achieved by serving at "cellar temperature" (55°F/13°C). Light red

wines drunk young should also be brought to the table at this temperature,

where they will quickly rise a few degrees. Red wines are generally perceived

best when served chambré ("at room temperature"). However, this does not

mean the temperature of the dining room—often around 70°F/21°C—but rather

the coolest room in the house and, therefore, always slightly cooler than the

dining room itself. Pinot Noir should be brought to the table for serving at

60°F/16°C and will reach its full bouquet at 65°F/18°C. Cabernet Sauvignon

, zinfandel, and Rhone varieties should be served at 65°F/18°C and allowed to

warm on the table to 70°F/21°C for best aroma.

 Collecting

Château Margaux, a First Growth from the Bordeaux region of France, is highly collectible.

Outstanding vintages from the best vineyards may sell for thousands

of dollars per bottle, though the broader term "fine wine" covers those typically

retailing in excess of US$30–50. "Investment wines" are considered by some to

be Veblen goods: those for which demand increases rather than decreases as

their prices rise. The most common wines purchased for investment include

those from Bordeaux and Burgundy; cult wines from Europeand elsewhere;

and vintage port. Characteristics of highly collectible wines include:

1. A proven track record of holding well over time

2. A drinking-window plateau (i.e., the period for maturity and

approachability) that is many years long

3. A consensus among experts as to the quality of the wines

4. Rigorous production methods at every stage, including grape selection

and appropriate barrel aging

Investment in fine wine has attracted those who take advantage of their victims'

relative ignorance of this wine market sector. Such wine fraudsters often profit

by charging excessively high prices for off-vintage or lower-status wines from

well-known wine regions, while claiming that they are offering a sound

investment unaffected by economic cycles. As with any investment, thorough

research is essential to making an informed decision.

8. WINE FROM SOME OTHER COUNTRIES

FRENCH WINE

GEMANY WINE

ITALIAN WINE

SPAINIES WINE

PROTUESE WINE

FRENCH WINE:

French wine is produced all throughout France, in quantities between 50 and

60 million hectolitres per year, or 7–8 billion bottles. France is the world's

second largest wine producer behind Italy. French wine traces its history to the

6th century BC, with many of France's regions dating their wine-making history

to Roman times. The wines produced range from expensive high-end wines sold

internationally to more modest wines usually only seen within France.

Two concepts central to higher end French wines are the notion of "terroir",

which links the style of the wines to the specific locations where the grapes are

grown and the wine is made, and the Appellation d'Origine Contrôlée (AOC)

system. Appellation rules closely define which grape varieties and winemaking

practices are approved for classification in each of France's several hundred

geographically defined appellations, which can cover entire regions, individual

villages or even specific vineyards.

France is the source of many grape varieties (Cabernet

Sauvignon, Chardonnay, Pinot Noir, Sauvignon Blanc, Syrah) that are now

planted throughout the world, as well as wine-making practices and styles of

wine that have been adopted in other producing countries. Although some

producers have benefited in recent years from rising prices and increased

demand for some of the prestige wines from Burgundy and Bordeaux, the

French wine industry as a whole has been influenced by a slight decline in

domestic consumption, as well as growing competition from both the New

World and other European countries.

Quality levels and appellation system

In 1935 numerous laws were passed to control the quality of French wine. They

established the Appellation d'Origine Contrôlée system, which is governed by a

powerful oversight board (Institut National des Appellations d'Origine, INAO).

Consequently, France has one of the oldest systems for protected designation of

origin for wine in the world, and strict laws concerning winemaking and

production. Many other European systems are modelled after it. The word

"appellation" has been put to use by other countries, sometimes in a much

looser meaning. As European Union wine laws have been modelled after those

of the French, this trend is likely to continue with further EU expansion.

French law divides wine into four categories, two falling under the European

Union's Table Wine category and two falling under the EU's Quality Wine

Produced in a Specific Region (QWPSR) designation. The categories and their

shares of the total French production for the 2005 vintage, excluding wine

destined for Cognac, Armagnac and other brandies, were:

Table wine:

Vin de Table  (11.7%) – Carries with it only the producer and the

designation that it is from France.

Vin de Pays  (33.9%) – Carries with it a specific region within France (for

example Vin de Pays d'Oc from Languedoc-Roussillon or Vin de Pays

de Côtes de Gascogne from Gascony), and subject to less restrictive

regulations than AOC wines. For instance, it allows producers to

distinguish wines that are made using grape varieties or procedures other

than those required by the AOC rules, without having to use the simple

and commercially non-viable table wine classification. In order to

maintain a distinction from Vin de Table, the producers have to submit

the wine for analysis and tasting, and the wines have to be made from

certain varieties or blends.

QWPSR:

Vin Délimité de Qualité Supérieure  (VDQS, 0.9%) – Less strict than

AOC, usually used for smaller areas or as a "waiting room" for potential

AOCs. This category was abolished at the end of 2011.

Appellation d'Origine Contrôlée  (AOC, 53.4%) – Wine from a particular

area with many other restrictions, including grape varieties and

winemaking methods.

The total French production for the 2005 vintage was 43.9 million hl (plus an

additional 9.4 million hl destined for various brandies), of which 28.3% was

white and 71.7% was red or rosé. The proportion of white wine is slightly

higher for the higher categories, with 34.3% of the AOC wine being white.

In years with less favourable vintage conditions than 2005, the proportion of

AOC wine tends to be a little lower. The proportion of Vin de table has

decreased considerably over the last decades, while the proportion of AOC has

increased somewhat and Vin de Pays has increased considerably.

In 2005 there were 472 different wine AOCs in France.

Reforms

The wine classification system of France has been under overhaul since 2006,

with a new system to be fully introduced by 2012. The new system consists of

three categories rather than four, since there will be no category corresponding

to VDQS from 2012. The new categories are:

Vin de France , a table wine category basically replacing Vin de Table, but

allowing grape variety and vintage to be indicated on the label.

Indication Géographique Protégée  (IGP), an intermediate category

basically replacing Vin de Pays.

Appellation d'Origine Protégée (AOP), the highest category basically

replacing AOC wines.

The largest changes will be in the Vin de France category, and to VDQS wines,

which either need to qualify as AOP wines or be downgraded to an IGP

category. For the former AOC wines, the move to AOP will only mean minor

changes to the terminology of the label, while the actual names of the

appellations themselves will remain unchanged.

While no new wines will be marketed under the old designations from 2012,

bottles already in the distribution chain will not be relabelled

Wine styles, grape varieties

All common styles of wine – red, rosé, white (dry, semi-sweet

and sweet), sparkling and fortified – are produced in France. In most of these

styles, the French production ranges from cheap and simple versions to some of

the world's most famous and expensive examples. An exception is French

fortified wines, which tend to be relatively unknown outside France.

In many respects, French wines have more of a regional than a national identity,

as evidenced by different grape varieties, production methods and different

classification systems in the various regions. Quality levels and prices vary

enormously, and some wines are made for immediate consumption while other

are meant for long-time cellaring.

If there is one thing that most French wines have in common, it is that most

styles have developed as wines meant to accompany food, be it a

quick baguette, a simple bistro meal, or a full-fledged multi-course menu. Since

the French tradition is to serve wine with food, wines have seldom been

developed or styled as "bar wines" for drinking on their own, or to impress in

tastings when young.[13]

Grape varieties

Numerous grape varieties are cultivated in France, including both

internationally well-known and obscure local varieties. In fact, most of the so-

called "international varieties" are of French origin, or became known and

spread because of their cultivation in France.[14] Since French appellation rules

generally restrict wines from each region, district or appellation to a small

number of allowed grape varieties, there are in principle no varieties that are

commonly planted throughout all of France.

Most varieties of grape are primarily associated with a certain region, such as

Cabernet Sauvignon in Bordeaux and Syrah in Rhône, although there are some

varieties that are found in two or more regions, such as Chardonnay in

Bourgogne (including Chablis) and Champagne, and Sauvignon Blanc in Loire

and Bordeaux. As an example of the rules, although climatic conditions would

appear to be favourable, no Cabernet Sauvignon wines are produced in Rhône,

Riesling wines in Loire, or Chardonnay wines in Bordeaux. (If such wines were

produced, they would have to be declassified to Vin de Pays or French table

wine. They would not be allowed to display any appellation name or even

region of origin.)

Traditionally, many French wines have been blended from several grape

varieties. Varietal white wines have been, and are still, more common than

varietal red wines.

GERMANY WINE:

German wine is primarily produced in the west of Germany, along the

river Rhine and its tributaries, with the oldest plantations going back to

the Roman era. Approximately 60 percent of the German wine production is

situated in the federal state of Rhineland-Palatinate, where 6 of the 13 regions

(Anbaugebiete) for quality wine are situated. Germany has about

102,000 hectares (252,000 acres or 1,020 square kilometers) of vineyard, which

is around one tenth of the vineyard surface in Spain, France or Italy. The total

wine production is usually around 9 million hectoliters annually, corresponding

to 1.2 billion bottles, which places Germany as the eighth largest wine-

producing country in the world. White wine accounts for almost two thirds of

the total production.

As a wine country, Germany has a mixed reputation internationally, with some

consumers on the export markets associating Germany with the world's most

elegant and aromatically pure white wines while other see the country mainly as

the source of cheap, mass-market semi-sweet wines such as Liebfraumilch.

Among enthusiasts, Germany's reputation is primarily based on wines made

from the Riesling grape variety, which at its best is used for aromatic, fruity and

elegant white wines that range from very crisp and dry to well-

balanced, sweet and of enormous aromatic concentration. While primarily a

white wine country, red wine production surged in the 1990s and early 2000s,

primarily fuelled by domestic demand, and the proportion of the German

vineyards devoted to the cultivation of dark-skinned grape varieties has now

stabilized at slightly more than a third of the total surface. For the red

wines, Spätburgunder, the domestic name for Pinot Noir, is in the lead.

Wine styles

Germany produces wines in many styles: dry, semi-sweet and sweet white

wines, rosé wines, red wines and sparkling wines, called Sekt. (The only wine

style not commonly produced is fortified wine.) Due to the northerly location of

the German vineyards, the country has produced wines quite unlike any others

in Europe, many of outstanding quality. Despite this it is still better known

abroad for cheap, sweet or semi-sweet, low-quality mass-produced wines such

as Liebfraumilch.

The wines have historically been predominantly white, and the finest made

from Riesling. Many wines have been sweet and low in alcohol, light

and unoaked. Historically many of the wines (other than late harvest wines)

were probably dry (trocken), as techniques to stop fermentation did not exist.

Recently much more German white wine is being made in the dry style again.

Much of the wine sold in Germany is dry, especially in restaurants. However

most exports are still of sweet wines, particularly to the traditional export

markets such as Great Britain, which is the leading export market both in terms

of volume and value. The United States (second in value, third in volume) and

the Netherlands (second in volume, third in value) are two other important

export markets for German wine.

Red wine has always been hard to produce in the German climate, and in the

past was usually light coloured, closer to rosé or the red wines of Alsace.

However recently there has been greatly increased demand and darker, richer

red wines (often barrique aged) are produced from grapes such

as Dornfelder and Spätburgunder, the German name for Pinot Noir.

Perhaps the most distinctive characteristic of German wines is the high level

of acidity in them, caused both by the lesser ripeness in a northerly climate and

by the selection of grapes such as Riesling which retain acidity even at high

ripeness levels.

German wine regions

1. Ahr

2. Baden

3. Franconia

4. Hessische

Bergstraße

5. Mittelrhein

6. Mosel

7. Nahe

8. Palatinate

9. Rheingau

10.Rheinhessen

11.Saale-Unstrut

12.Saxony

13.Württemberg

The wine regions in Germany usually referred to are the 13 defined regions for

quality wine. The German wine industry has organised itself around these

regions and their division into districts. However, there are also a number of

regions for the seldom-exported table wine (Tafelwein) and country wine

(Landwein) categories. Those regions with a few exceptions overlap with the

quality wine regions. In order to make a clear distinction between the quality

levels, the regions and subregions for different quality level have different

names on purpose, even when they are allowed to be produced in the same

geographical area.

Common white wine grapes

White grape varieties account for 63% of the area planted in Germany. Principal

varieties are listed below; there are larger numbers of less important varieties

too.

Riesling  is the benchmark grape in Germany and cover the most area in

the German vineyard. It is an aromatic variety with a high level of acidity

that can be used for dry, semi-sweet, sweet and sparkling wines. The

drawback to Riesling is that it takes 130 days to ripen and, in marginal

years, the Riesling crop tends to be poor.

Müller-Thurgau  is an alternative grape to Riesling that growers have been

using, and which is one of the so-called "new crossings". Unlike the long

ripening time of Riesling, this grape variety only requires 100 days to

ripen, can be planted on more sites, and is higher yielding. However, this

grape has a more neutral flavour than Riesling, and as the main ingredient

of Liebfraumilch its reputation has taken a beating together with that

wine variety. Germany's most planted variety from the 1970s to the mid-

1990s, it has been losing ground for a number of years. Dry Müller-

Thurgau is usually labeled Rivaner.

Silvaner  is another fairly neutral, but quite old grape variety that was

Germany's most planted until the 1960s and after that has continued to

lose ground. It has however remained popular in Franconia and

Rheinhessen, where it is grown on chalky soils to produce powerful dry

wines with a slightly earthy and rustic but also food-friendly character.

Kerner

Bacchus

Scheurebe

Gewürztraminer

Grauer Burgunder or Ruländer (Pinot Gris)

Weisser Burgunder (Pinot Blanc)

Common red wine grapes

Red wine varieties account for 37% of the plantations in Germany but has

increased in recent years.

Spätburgunder (Pinot Noir) - a much-appreciated grape variety that

demands good sites to produce good wines and therefore competes with

Riesling. It is considered to give the most elegant red wines of Germany.

Dornfelder  - a "new crossing" that has become much appreciated in

Germany since it is easy to grow and gives dark-coloured, full-bodied,

fruity and tannic wines of a style which used to be hard to produce in

Germany.

Portugieser

Trollinger

Schwarzriesling (Pinot Meunier)

Lemberger

ITALIAN WINE

Italy is home to some of the oldest wine-producing regions in the world and has

overtaken France as the world's largest wine producer. Italian wine is exported

around the world and is also extremely popular in Italy: Italians rank fifth on the

world wine consumption list by volume with 42 litres per capita

consumption. Grapes are grown in almost every region of the country and there

are more than one million vineyards under cultivation.

Etruscans and Greek settlers produced wine in Italy before the Romans started

their own vineyards in the 2nd century BC. Roman grape-

growing and winemaking was prolific and well-organized, pioneering large-

scale production and storage techniques like barrel -making  and bottling

Italian appellation system

Italy's classification system has four classes of wine, with two falling under the

EU category Quality Wine Produced in a Specific Region (QWPSR) and two

falling under the category of 'table wine'. The four classes are:

Table Wine:

Vino da Tavola (VDT) - Denotes simply that the wine is made in Italy.

The label usually indicates a basic wine, made for local consumption.

Indicazione Geografica Tipica (IGT) - Denotes wine from a more

specific region within Italy. This appellation was created in 1992 for

wines that were considered to be of higher quality than simple table

wines, but which did not conform to the strict wine laws for their region.

Before the IGT was created, "Super Tuscan" wines such

as Tignanello were labeled Vino da Tavola.

QWPSR:

Denominazione di Origine Controllata (DOC)

Denominazione di Origine Controllata e Garantita (DOCG)

Both DOC and DOCG wines refer to zones which are more specific than an

IGT, and the permitted grapes are also more specifically defined. The DOC

system began in 1963, seeking to establish a method of both recognizing quality

product and maintaining the international and national reputation of that

product. The main difference between a DOC and a DOCG is that the latter

must pass a blind taste test for quality in addition to conforming to the strict

legal requirements to be designated as a wine from the area in question. After

the sweeping wine laws of 1992, transparent rules were made regarding

requirements for DOCG entry, imposing new limits regarding the production of

grapes per hectare and minimum natural alcohol levels, among others.

The overall goal of the system is to encourage producers to focus on quality

wine making.

Presently, there are 120 IGT zones. In February 2006, there were 311 DOC plus

32 DOCG appellations, according to the PDF document V.Q.P.R.D. Vini

(DOCG – DOC): Elenco e Riferimenti Normativi al 07.02.2006, published by

the Italian Ministry of Agriculture.

Italian wine regions

Italy's twenty wine regions correspond to the twenty administrative regions.

Understanding of Italian wine becomes clearer with an understanding of the

differences between each region; their cuisines reflect their indigenous wines,

and vice-versa. The 36 DOCG wines are located in 13 different regions but

most of them are concentrated in Piedmont and Tuscany. Among these are

appellations appreciated and sought after by wine lovers around the

world: Barolo, Barbaresco, and Brunello di Montalcino(colloquially known as

the "Killer B's").

Italian regions

Aosta Valley

Piedmont

Liguria

Lombardy

Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol

Friuli-Venezia Giulia

Veneto

Emilia-Romagna

Tuscany

Marche

Umbria

Lazio

Abruzzo

Molise

Campania

Basilicata

Apulia

Calabria

Sicily

Sardinia

Italian grape varieties

Italy's Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry (MIRAF), has documented over 350

grapes and granted them "authorized" status. There are more than 500 other

documented varieties in circulation as well. The following is a list of the most

common and important of Italy's many grape varieties.

Bianco (White)

Arneis - A crisp and floral variety from Piedmont, which has been grown

there since the 15th century.

Catarratto - Common in Sicily - this is the most widely planted white

variety in Salaparuta.

Fiano - Grown on the southwest coast of Italy, the wines from this grape

can be described as dewy and herbal, often with notes of pinenut and

pesto.

Garganega - The main grape variety for wines labeled Soave, this is a

crisp, dry white wine from the Veneto wine region of Italy. It's a very

popular wine that hails from northeast Italy around the city of Verona.

Currently, there are over 3,500 distinct producers of Soave.

Malvasia Bianca - Another white variety that peeks up in all corners of

Italy with a wide variety of clones and mutations. Can range from easy

quaffers to funky, musty whites.

Moscato - Grown mainly in Piedmont, it is mainly used in the slightly-

sparkling (frizzante), semi-sweet Moscato d'Asti. Not to be confused

with moscato giallo and moscato rosa, two Germanic varietals that are

grown in Trentino Alto-Adige.

Nuragus - An ancient Phoenician variety found in southern Sardegna.

Light and tart wines that are drunk as an apertif in their homeland.

Pigato - A heavily acidic variety from Liguria, the wines are vinified to

pair with a cuisine rich in seafood.

Pinot Grigio - A hugely successful commercial grape (known as Pinot

Gris in France), its wines are characterized by crispness and cleanness.

As a hugely mass-produced wine, it is usually delicate and mild, but in a

good producers' hands, the wine can grow more full-bodied and complex.

The main problem with the grape is that to satisfy the commercial

demand, the grapes are harvested too early every year, leading to wines

without character.

Ribolla Gialla - A Greek variety introduced by the Venetians that now

makes its home in Friuli, these wines are decidedly old-world, with

aromas of pineapple and mustiness.

Friulano - A variety also known as Sauvignon Vert or Sauvignonasse, it

yields one of the most typical wines of Friuli, full of peachiness and

minerality with a pleasant bitter almond finish. The wine was previously

known as Tocai but the name was changed by the EC to avoid confusion

with the Tokay dessert wine from Hungary.

Trebbiano - This is the most widely planted white varietal in Italy. It is

grown throughout the country, with a special focus on the wines from

Abruzzo and from Lazio, including Frascati. Mostly, they are pale, easy

drinking wines, but trebbiano from producers such as Valentini have been

known to age for 15+ years. It is known as Ugni Blanc in France.

Verdicchio - This is grown in the areas of Castelli di Jesi and Matelica in

the Marche region and gives its name to the varietal white wine made

from it. The name comes from "verde" (green). The white wines are

noted for their high acidity and a characteristic nutty flavour with a hint

of honey.

Vermentino - This is widely planted in northern Sardinia and also found

in Tuscan and Ligurian coastal districts. Wines are particularly popular to

accompany fish and seafood.

Passerina - mainly derives from Passerina grapes (it may even be

produced purely with these), plus a minimum percentage of other white

grapes and may be still, sparkling or passito. In its still version, one

appreciates the acidic profile, which is typical of these grapes, as well as

the delicate aromas.

Pecorino (grape) - Native to Marche and Abruzzo, it is used in the Falerio

dei Colli Ascolani and Offida DOC wines. It is low-yielding, but will

ripen early and at high altitudes. Pecorino wines have a deep, rich,

aromatic and nutty character.

Other important whites include Carricante, Coda de Volpe,

Cortese, Falanghina, Grechetto, Grillo, Inzolia, Picolit, Traminer, Verduzzo,

and Vernaccia.

Non-native varieties that the Italians plant

include Chardonnay, Gewürztraminer (sometimes called traminer

aromatico), Petite Arvine, Riesling, and many others.

Rosso (Red)

Aglianico - Considered the "noble varietal of the south," it is primarily

grown in Basilicata and Campania. The name is derived from Hellenic, so

it is considered a Greek transplant. Thick skinned and spicy, the wines are

often both rustic and powerful.

Barbera - The most widely grown red wine grape of Piedmont and

Southern Lombardy, most famously around the towns of Asti and Alba,

and Pavia. The wines of Barbera were once simply "what you drank

while waiting for the Barolo to be ready." With a new generation of wine

makers, this is no longer the case. The wines are now meticulously

vinified, aged Barbera gets the name "Barbera Superiore" (Superior

Barbera), sometimes aged in French barrique becoming "Barbera

Barricato", and intended for the international market. The wine has bright

cherry fruit, a very dark color, and a food-friendly acidity.

Corvina - Along with the varietals rondinella and molinara, this is the

principal grape which makes the famous wines of the

Veneto: Valpolicella and Amarone. Valpolicella wine has dark cherry

fruit and spice. After the grapes undergo passito (a drying process), the

wine is now called Amarone, and is extremely high in alcohol (16% and

up) and full of raisin, prune, and syrupy fruits. Some Amarones can age

for 40+ years and command spectacular prices. In December 2009, there

was celebration when the acclaimed Amarone di Valpolicella was finally

awarded its long-sought DOCG status.

Dolcetto - A grape that grows alongside Barbera and Nebbiolo in

Piedmont, its name means "little sweet one"", referring not to the taste of

the wine, but the ease in which it grows and makes great wines, suitable

for everyday drinking. Flavors of concord grape, wild blackberries and

herbs permeate the wine.

Malvasia Nera - Red Malvasia varietal from Piedmont. A sweet and

perfumed wine, sometimes elaborated in the passito style.

Montepulciano - The grape of this name is not to be confused with the

Tuscan town of Montepulciano; it is most widely planted on the opposite

coast in Abruzzo. Its wines develop silky plum-like fruit, friendly acidity,

and light tannin. More recently, producers have been creating a rich, inky,

extracted version of this wine, a sharp contrast to the many inferior

bottles produced in the past.

Nebbiolo - The most noble of Italy's varieties. The name (meaning "little

fog") refers to the autumn fog that blankets most of Piedmont where

Nebbiolo is chiefly grown, and where it achieves the most successful

results. A difficult grape variety to cultivate, it produces the most

renowned Barolo and Barbaresco, made in province of Cuneo, along with

the lesser-known Sforzato, Inferno and Sassella made

in Valtellina,Ghemme and Gattinara, made in Vercelli's province. The

wines are known for their elegance and power with a bouquet of wild

mushroom, truffle, roses, and tar. Traditionally produced Barolo can age

for fifty years-plus, and is regarded by many wine enthusiasts as the

greatest wine of Italy.

Negroamaro - The name literally means "black and bitter". A widely

planted grape with its concentration in the region of Puglia, it is the

backbone of the Salice Salentino: spicy, toasty, and full of dark red fruits.

Nero d'Avola - Nearly unheard of in the international market until recent

years, this native varietal of Sicily is gaining attention for its plummy

fruit and sweet tannins. The quality of nero d'avola has surged in recent

years.

Primitivo - A red grape planted found in southern Italy, most notably

in Puglia. Primitivo is robust and rustic, with spicy black fruit notes, and

thrives in very warm climates, where it can achieve very high alcohol

levels.

Sagrantino - A native to Umbria, it is only planted on 250 hectares, but

the wines produced from it (either blended with Sangiovese as Rosso di

Montefalco or as a pure Sagrantino) are world-renowned. Inky purple,

with rustic brooding fruit and heavy tannins, these wines can age for

many years.

Sangiovese - Italy's claim to fame, the pride of Tuscany. Traditionally

made, the wines are full of cherry fruit, earth, and cedar. It produces

Chianti (Classico), Rosso di Montalcino, Brunello di Montalcino, Rosso

di Montepulciano, Montefalco Rosso, and many others. Sangiovese is

also the backbone in many of the acclaimed, modern-styled "Super-

Tuscans", where it is blended with Bordeaux varietals (Cabernet

Sauvignon,Merlot, and Cabernet Franc) and typically aged in French oak

barrels, resulting a wine primed for the international market in the style of

a typical California cabernet: oaky, high-alcohol, and a ripe, jammy, fruit-

forward profile.

"International" varieties such as Cabernet Franc, Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot,

and Syrah are also widely grown.

SPANISH WINE

Spanish wines (Spanish: vino español ) are wines produced in the southwestern

European country of Spain. Located on the Iberian Peninsula, Spain has over

2.9 million acres (over 1.17 million hectares) planted—making it the most

widely planted wine producing nation but it is the third largest producer of wine

in the world, the largest being France followed by Italy. This is due, in part, to

the very low yields and wide spacing of the old vines planted on the dry,

infertile soil found in many Spanish wine regions. The country is ninth in

worldwide consumptions with Spaniards drinking, on average, 10.06 gallons

(38 liters) a year. The country has an abundance of native grape varieties, with

over 400 varieties planted throughout Spain though 80 percent of the country's

wine production is from only 20 grapes—

including Tempranillo, Albariño, Garnacha, Palomino, Airen, Macabe

o,Parellada, Xarel·lo, Cariñena and Monastrell.

Major Spanish wine regions include the Rioja and Ribera del Duero which is

known for their Tempranillo production; Valdepeñas, drunk

by Unamuno and Hemingway, known for high quality tempranillo at low

prices;Jerez, the home of the fortified wine Sherry; Rías Baixas in the northwest

region of Galicia that is known for its white wines made from Albariño

and Catalonia which includes the Cava and still wine producing regions of

thePenedès as well the Priorat region.

Classification

Spanish wine laws created the Denominación de Origen (DO) system in 1932

and were later revised in 1970. The system shares many similarities with the

hierarchical Appellation d'origine contrôlée (AOC) system of France,

Portugal's Denominação de Origem Controlada (DOC) and

Italy's Denominazione di origine controllata (DOC) system. As of 2009, there

were 77 Quality Wine areas across Spain. In addition there isDenominación de

Origen Calificada (DOCa or DOQ in Catalan) status for DOs that have a

consistent track record for quality. There are currently two DOCa/DOQ regions:

Rioja and Priorat. Each DO has aConsejo Regulador, which acts as a governing

control body that enforces the DO regulations and standards

involving viticultural and winemaking practices. These regulations govern

everything from the types of grapes that are permitted to be planted, the

maximum yields that can be harvested, the minimum length of time that the

wine must be aged and what type of information is required to appear on

the wine label. Wineries that are seeking to have their wine sold under DO or

DOC status must submit their wines to the Consejo Regulador laboratory and

tasting panel for testing and evaluation. Wines that have been granted DO/DOC

status will feature the regional stamp of the Consejo Regulador on the label.

Following Spain's acceptance into the European Union, Spanish wine laws were

brought in line to be more consistent with other European systems. One

development was a five-tier classification system that is administered by

each autonomous region. Non-autonomous areas or wine regions whose

boundaries overlap with other autonomous communities (such as Cava, Rioja

and Jumilla) are administered by the Instituto Nacional de Denominaciones de

Origen (INDO) based in Madrid. The five-tier classifications, starting from the

bottom, include:

Vino de Mesa (VdM) - These are wines that are the equivalent of most

country's table wines and are made from unclassified vineyards or grapes

that have been declassified through "illegal" blending. Similar to the

Italian Super Tuscans from the late 20th century, some Spanish

winemakers will intentionally declassify their wines so that they have

greater flexibility in blending and winemaking methods.

Vinos de la Tierra (VdlT) - This level is similar to France's vin de

pays system, normally corresponding to the larger comunidad

autonóma geographical regions and will appear on the label with these

broader geographical designations like Andalucia, Castilla La

Mancha and Levante.

Vino de Calidad Producido en Región Determinada (VCPRD) - This

level is similar to France's Vin Délimité de Qualité Supérieure (VDQS)

system and is considered a stepping stone towards DO status.

Denominación de Origen (Denominació d'Origen in Catalan - DO)- This

level is for the mainstream quality-wine regions which are regulated by

the Consejo Regulador who is also responsible for marketing the wines of

that DO. In 2005, nearly two thirds of the total vineyard area in Spain was

within the boundaries a DO region.

Denominación de Origen Calificada (DOCa/DOQ - Denominació

d'Origen Qualificada in Catalan)- This designation, which is similar

to Italy's Denominazione di Origine Controllata e Garantita (DOCG)

designation, is for regions with a track record of consistent quality and is

meant to be a step above DO level. Rioja was the first region afforded

this designation in 1991 and was followed by Priorat in 2003, and Ribera

del Duero in 2008.

Additionally there is the Denominación de Pago (DO de Pago) designation for

individual single-estates with an international reputation. As of 2009, there were

9 estates with this status.

Spanish labeling laws

Spanish wines are often labeled according to the amount of aging the wine has

received. When the label says vino joven ("young wine") or sin crianza, the

wines will have undergone very little, if any, wood aging. Depending on the

producer, some of these wines will be meant to be consumed very young - often

within a year of their release. Others will benefit from some time aging in the

bottle. For the vintage year (vendimia orcosecha) to appear on the label, a

minimum of 85% of the grapes must be from that year's harvest. The three most

common aging designations on Spanish wine labels are Crianza,

Reserva and Gran Reserva.

Crianza red wines are aged for 2 years with at least 6 months in

oak. Crianza whites and rosés must be aged for at least 1 year with at

least 6 months in oak.

Reserva red wines are aged for at least 3 years with at least 1 year in

oak. Reserva whites and rosés must be aged for at least 2 years with at

least 6 months in oak.

Gran Reserva wines typically appear in above average vintages with the

red wines requiring at least 5 years aging, 18 months of which in oak and

a minimum of 36 months in the bottle. Gran Reserva whites and rosés

must be aged for at least 4 years with at least 6 months in oak.

Wine regions

Spain has a relatively large number of distinct wine-producing regions, more

than half having the classification Denominación de Origen (DO) with the

majority of the remainder classified as Vinos de la Tierra (VdlT). There are two

regions nominated as Denominación de Origen Calificada (DOCa)

- Rioja and Priorat - the flagship regions of Spanish winemaking. While most

make both red and white wine, some wine regions are more dominated by one

style than the other.

Grape varieties

Some records estimate that over 600 grape varieties are planted throughout

Spain but 80% of the country's wine production is focused on only 20 grape

varieties. The most widely planted grape is the white wine grapeAirén, prized

for its hardiness and resistance to drop. It is found throughout central Spain and

for many years served as the base for Spanish brandy. Wines made from this

grape can be very alcoholic and prone tooxidation. The red wine

grape Tempranillo is the second most widely planted grape variety, recently

eclipsing Garnacha in plantings in 2004. It is known throughout Spain under a

variety of synonyms that may appear on Spanish wine labels-including

Cencibel, Tinto Fino and Ull de Llebre. Both Tempranillo and Garnacha are

used to make the full-bodied red wines associated with the Rioja, Ribera del

Duero and Penedès with Garnacha being the main grape of the Priorat region. In

the Levante region, Monastrell and Bobal have significant plantings, being used

for both dark red wines and dry rosé.

In the northwest, the white wine varieties of Albariño and Verdejo are popular

plantings in the Rías Baixas and Rueda respectively. In the Cava producing

regions of Catalonia and elsewhere in Spain, the principal grapes

ofMacabeo, Parellada and Xarel·lo are used for sparkling wine production as

well as still white wines. In the southern Sherry and Malaga producing regions

of Andalucia, the principal grapes are Palomino and Pedro Ximénez. As the

Spanish wine industry becomes more modern, there has been a larger presence

of international grape varieties appearing in both blends and varietal forms-most

notably Cabernet Sauvignon, Chardonnay,Syrah, Merlot and Sauvignon blanc.

Other Spanish grape varieties that have significant plantings

include Cariñena, Godello, Graciano, Mencia, Loureira, and Treixadura.

PORTUGESE WINE

Portuguese wine is the result of traditions introduced to the region by

ancient civilizations, such as the Phoenicians, Carthaginians, Greeks, and

mostly the Romans. Portugal started to export its wines to Rome during

theRoman Empire. Modern exports developed with trade to England after

the Methuen Treaty in 1703. From this commerce a wide variety of wines

started to be grown in Portugal. And, in 1758, one of the first wine-producing

region of the world, the Região Demarcada do Douro was created under the

orientation of Marquis of Pombal, in the Douro Valley. Portugal has two wine

producing regions protected by UNESCO as World Heritage: the Douro

Valley Wine Region (Douro Vinhateiro) and Pico Island Wine Region (Ilha do

Pico Vinhateira). Portugal has a large variety of native breeds, producing a very

wide variety of different wines with distinctive personality.

Grapes

Portugal possesses a large array of native varietals, producing an abundant

variety of different wines. The wide array of Portuguese grape varietals

contributes as significantly as the soil and climate to wine differentiation,

producing distinctive wines from the Northern regions to Madeira Islands, and

from Algarve to the Azores. In Portugal only some grape varietals or castas are

authorized or endorsed in the Demarcated regions, such as:

Vinhos Verdes - White castas Alvarinho, Arinto

(Pedernã), Avesso, Azal, Batoca, Loureiro, Trajadura; red

castas Amaral, Borraçal, Alvarelhão, Espadeiro, Padeiro, Pedral, Rabo de

Anho, Vinhão.

Porto/Douro - Red castas Touriga Nacional, Tinta

Amarela, Aragonez, Bastardo, Castelão, Cornifesto, Donzelinho

Tinto, Malvasia Preta, Marufo, Rufete, Tinta Barroca, Tinta

Francisca, Tinto Cão, Touriga Franca; white

castas Arinto, Cercial, Donzelinho Branco, Folgazão, Gouveio, Malvasia

Fina, Moscatel Galego

Branco, Rabigato, Samarrinho, Semillon, Sercial, Roupeiro, Verdelho, Vi

osinho, Vital.

Dão - Red castas Touriga Nacional, Alfrocheiro, Aragonez, Jaen e

Rufete; White castas Encruzado, Bical, Cercial, Malvasia Fina, Verdelho.

Bairrada - Red casts Baga, Alfrocheiro, Camarate, Castelão, Jaen,

Touriga Nacional, Aragonez; white castas Maria Gomes, Arinto, Bical,

Cercial, Rabo de Ovelha, Verdelho.

Bucelas - White castas Arinto, Sercial e Rabo de Ovelha.

Colares - Red casta Ramisco; White casta Malvasia

Carcavelos - Red castas Castelão and Preto Martinho; White

castas Galego Dourado, Ratinho, Arinto.

Setúbal - Red casta Moscatel Roxo; white casta Moscatel de Setúbal.

Alentejo - Red castas Alfrocheiro, Aragonez, Periquita1, Tinta Caiada,

Trincadeira, Alicante Bouschet, Moreto; White castas Antão Vaz, Arinto,

Fernão Pires, Rabo de Ovelha, Roupeiro

Algarve - Red castas Negra Mole, Trincadeira, Alicante Bouschet,

Aragonez, Periquita; White castas Arinto, Roupeiro, Manteúdo, Moscatel

Graúdo, Perrum, Rabo de Ovelha.

Madeira - Red castas Bastardo, Tinta, Malvasia Cândida Roxa, Verdelho

Tinto e Tinta Negra; white castas Sercial, Malvasia Fina (Boal), Malvasia

Cândida, Folgasão (Terrantez), Verdelho.

Tejo - Red castas Baga, Camarate, Castelão, Trincadeira, Tinta-

Miúda, Preto-Martinho, Aragonez, Touriga-Franca, Touriga-Nacional, Al

frocheiro, Caladoc, Esgana-Cão-Tinto, Jaen, Petit-Verdot, Tinta-

Barroca,Tinta-Caiada, Tinto-Cão, Merlot, Cabernet-Sauvignon, Bastardo, 

Pinot-Noir, Alicante-Bouschet, Grand-Noir, Moreto, Syrah; white

castas Arinto, Fernão Pires, Rabo-de-Ovelha, Tália, Trincadeira-das-

Pratas,Vital, Verdelho, Tamarez, Cerceal-Branco, Alicante

Branco, Chardonnay, Malvasia-Rei, Pinot-Blanc, Sauvignon, Alvarinho, 

Moscatel-Graúdo, Síria, Viosinho.

Appellation system

The appellation system of the Douro region was created nearly two hundred

years before that of France, in order to protect its superior wines from inferior

ones. The quality and great variety of wines in Portugal are due to noble

castas, microclimates, soils and proper technology.

Official designations:

Quality Wine Produced in a Specific Region (QWPSR) or VQPRD

- Vinho de Qualidade Produzido em Região Demarcada

o These are the most protected wine and indicates a specific

vineyard, such as Port Wine, Vinhos Verdes, and Alentejo Wines.

These wines are labeled D.O.C. (Denominação de Origem

Controlada) which secures a superior quality.

Wines that have more regulations placed upon them but are not in a DOC

region fall under the category of Indicação de Proveniência

Regulamentada (IPR, Indication of Regulated Provenance)

Regional Wine - Vinho Regional Carries with it a specific region within

Portugal.

Table Wines - Vinho de Mesa carries with it only the producer and the

designation that it's from Portugal.

Wine regions

Vinho Verde is produced from grapes which do not reach great doses of

sugar. Therefore, Vinho Verde does not require an aging process. Vinho

Verde wines are now largely exported, and are the most exported

Portuguese wines after the Port Wine. The most popular variety in

Portugal and abroad are the white wines, but there are also red and more

rarely rosé wines. A notable variety of Vinho Verde is Vinho

Alvarinhowhich is a special variety of white Vinho Verde, the production

of Alvarinho is restricted by EU law to a small sub-region of Monção, in

the northern part of the Minho region in Portugal. It has more alcohol

(11.5 to 13%) than the other varieties (8 to 11.5%).

Douro wine (Vinho do Douro) originates from the same region as port

wines. In the past they were considered to be a bitter tasting wine. In

order to prevent spoilage during the voyage from Portugal to England, the

English decided to add a Portuguese wine brandy known as aguardente.

The first documented commercial transactions appearing in registries of

export date as far back as 1679. Today's Douro table wines are enjoying

growing favor in the world, maintaining many traits that are reminiscent

of a port wine.

Dão wine is from the Região Demarcada do Dão, a region demarcated in

1908, but already in 1390 there were taken some measures to protect this

wine. The Dão Wine is produced in a mountainous region with temperate

climate, in the area of the Mondego and Dão Rivers in the north region of

central Portugal. These mountains protect

the castas from maritime and continental influences.

Bairrada wine, is produced in the Região Demarcada da Bairrada. The

name "Bairrada" is from "barros" (clay) and due to the clayey soils of the

region. Although the region was classified in 1979, it is an ancient

vineyard region. The vines grow exposed to the sun, favouring the further

maturity of the grapes. The Baga casta is intensely used in the wines of

the region. The Bairrada region produces table, white and red wines. Yet,

it is notable for its sparkling natural wine.

Alentejo wine is produced from grapes planted in vast vineyards

extending over rolling plains under the sun which shines on the grapes

and ripens them for the production.

Health effects

Red table wine

Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)

Energy 355 kJ (85 kcal)

Carbohydrates 2.6 g

- Sugars 0.6 g

Fat 0.0 g

Protein 0.1 g

Alcohol 10.6 g

10.6 g alcohol is 13%vol.

100 g wine is approximately 100 ml (3.4 fl

oz.)

Sugar and alcohol content can vary.

Source: USDA Nutrient Database

Although excessive alcohol consumption has adverse health

effects, epidemiological studies have consistently demonstrated that moderate

consumption of alcohol and wine is statistically associated with a decrease

incardiovascular illness such as heart failure. Additional news reports on

the French paradox also back the relationship. This paradox concerns the

comparatively low incidence of coronary heart disease in France despite

relatively high levels of saturated fat in the traditional French diet. Some

epidemiologists suspect that this difference is due to the higher consumption of

wines by the French, but the scientific evidence for this theory is limited.

Because the average moderate wine drinker is likely to exercise more often, to

be more health conscious, and to be from a higher educational and

socioeconomic background, the association between moderate wine drinking

and better health may be related to confounding factors or represent

a correlation rather than cause and effect.

Population studies have observed a J-curve association between wine

consumption and the risk of heart disease: heavy drinkers have an elevated risk,

while moderate drinkers (up to 20g of alcohol per day, approximately 120 ml

(4 imp fl oz; 4 US fl oz) of 13% ABV wine) have a lower risk than non-

drinkers. Studies have also found that moderate consumption of other alcoholic

beverages may be cardioprotective, although the association is considerably

stronger for wine. Additionally, some studies have found greater health benefits

for red than white wine, though other studies have found no difference. Red

wine contains more polyphenols than white wine, and these are thought to be

particularly protective against cardiovascular disease.

A chemical in red wine called resveratrol has been shown to have both

cardioprotective and chemoprotective effects in animal studies. Low doses of

resveratrol in the diet of middle-aged mice has a widespread influence on the

genetic factors related to aging and may confer special protection on the heart.

Specifically, low doses of resveratrol mimic the effects of caloric restriction—

diets with 20–30% fewer calories than a typical diet. Resveratrol is produced

naturally by grape skins in response to fungal infection, including exposure to

yeast during fermentation. As white wine has minimal contact with grape skins

during this process, it generally contains lower levels of the

chemical. Beneficial compounds in wine also include

other polyphenols, antioxidants, and flavonoids.

To benefit fully from resveratrol in wine, it is recommended to sip slowly when

drinking. Due to inactivation in the gut and liver, most of the resveratrol

consumed while drinking red wine does not reach the blood circulation.

However, when sipping slowly, absorption via the mucous membranes in the

mouth can result in up to 100 times the blood levels of resveratrol.

Red wines from the south of France and from Sardinia in Italy have been found

to have the highest levels of procyanidins, compounds in grape seeds thought to

be responsible for red wine's heart benefits. Red wines from these areas contain

between two and four times as much procyanidins as other red wines tested.

Procyanidins suppress the synthesis of a peptide called endothelin-1 that

constricts blood vessels.

A 2007 study found that both red and white wines are effective antibacterial

agents against strains of Streptococcus. In addition, a report in the October 2008

issue of Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers and Prevention posits that moderate

consumption of red wine may decrease the risk of lung cancer in men.

While evidence from laboratory and epidemiological (observational) studies

suggest a cardioprotective effect, no controlled studies have been completed on

the effect of alcoholic beverages on the risk of developing heart disease or

stroke. Excessive consumption of alcohol can cause cirrhosis of the liver

and alcoholism;[85] the American Heart Association cautions people to "consult

your doctor on the benefits and risks of consuming alcohol in moderation."

Wine's effect on the brain is also under study. One study concluded that wine

made from the Cabernet Sauvignon grape reduces the risk of Alzheimer's

Disease. Another study found that among alcoholics, wine damages the

hippocampus to a greater degree than other alcoholic beverages.

Sulfites in wine can cause some people, particularly those with asthma, to have

adverse reactions. Sulfites are present in all wines and are formed as a natural

product of the fermentation process; many winemakers addsulfur dioxide in

order to help preserve wine. Sulfur dioxide is also added to foods such as

dried apricots and orange juice. The level of added sulfites varies; some wines

have been marketed with low sulfite content.

A study of women in the United Kingdom, called The Million Women Study,

concluded that moderate alcohol consumption can increase the risk of

certain cancers, including breast, pharynx and liver cancer. Lead author of the

study, Professor Valerie Beral, has asserted that there is scant evidence that any

positive health effects of red wine outweigh the risk of cancer. She said, "It's an

absolute myth that red wine is good for you." Professor Roger Corder, author

of The Red Wine Diet, counters that two small glasses of a very tannic,

procyanidin-rich wine would confer a benefit, although "most supermarket

wines are low-procyanidin and high-alcohol."

SERVICE OF WINES