Journal of Applied Linguistics

Prepared by:

Applied Linguistics Group on Facebook

5th level students

Second Trem 1435 / 1436

Supervised by:

Hanan Ahmed Sanad

EFL Lecturer

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Dean of the College

Dr. Khalid Al-Shafi

كلية العلوم و الدراسات

To the Reader

The Journal of Applied Linguistics is a sort of documentation to our Facebook

group “Applied Linguistics’. The main purpose of the journal is to shed light on

main topics studied and investigated throughout the term in the course “Applied

Linguistics”. As students in the college of Sciences and Humanities, Alghat, it

was a great opportunity to make use of social media as a learning environment that

enhanced our participation greatly. The topics here represent our participations

beside the power point presentations , links and images that can be accessed on our

Facebook page.

At the end , It’s a very positive experience we passed by and want you to share us.

5th level students

Second term

1435 /1436

Follow us on : h.sanad2015@hotmail.com

https://www.facebook.com/groups/1438504793106920/

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Supervised by

Lecturer:

Hanan Ahmed SanadDean of the college

Dr. Khalid Alshafi

Applied Linguistics Group

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Linguistics and Applied Linguistics

Linguistics is the study of language in all its aspects including its structure, its diversity, how it changes and evolves, how people learn and make use of it to communicate, and how it is implicated in relations of power. It provides students with an insight into the most fundamental of all human faculties, develops strong analytical skills and a foundation for work in many diverse areas. Linguistics and Applied Linguistics in the School of Languages and Linguistics has strengths in many significant areas of research. It has an outstanding record in attracting nationally competitive publication and research grants and has established extensive collaborative networks with local and international scholars in the field.

What are Linguistics and Applied Linguistics about?

Anyone can study Linguistics and Applied Linguistics. It is not necessary to know a language other than English, or to be good at learning languages, to do well in Linguistics and Applied Linguistics. The field offers rigorous intellectual training which stands one in good stead wherever clear, independent, creative thinking is valued. Applied Linguistics will be of particular interest to those studying second or foreign languages, and to anybody seriously interested in practical issues to do with communication in social contexts. It is also a useful general preparation for a career in second or foreign language teaching, including teaching English as a Foreign Language (TEFL) or as a Second Language (TESL).

Linguistics and Applied Linguistics is inherently a multi-disciplinary study, drawing on methodologies and theories from many fields, including archaeology, psychology, anthropology, history, literature, philosophy, sociology, social theory, education, the mathematical sciences and computer science. Thus it has contributions to make to a range of study and professional practice areas.

Linguistics

Linguistics is the study of human language in all its aspects. It provides a methodology for exploring the structure of particular languages; it investigates what is universal to all human languages: how language varies over time and between different societies, how language is learnt, and how language is used for human communication.

Why was Navajo the one code that was never broken during World War II? Are our thought patterns so determined by the language we speak? Why do men and women understand so much of each other's conversation? How can three words kaan bathun birri, from the Australian Aboriginal language Lardil, mean 'here they two come from the west, who are related as people separated by an even number of generations'? How can a seven-year old child of average intelligence have a better knowledge of their mother tongue than the most sophisticated computers? What can the study of language tell us about human prehistory? These are just some of the questions linguistics examines.

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Applied Linguistics

Applied Linguistics is concerned with practical issues involving language in the life of the community. The most important of these is the learning of second or foreign languages. Others include language policy, multilingualism, language education, the preservation and revival of endangered languages, and the assessment and treatment of language difficulties.

Other areas of interest include professional communication, for example, between doctors and their patients, between lawyers and their clients and in courtrooms, as well as other areas of institutional and cross-cultural communication ranging from the boardroom to the routines on an answer phone.

Linguistics and Applied Linguistics is a challenging and stimulating discipline, offering many opportunities for original work.

Source:

http://languages-linguistics.unimelb.edu.au/linguistics-applied-linguistics

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The Nine Types of IntelligenceBy Howard Gardner

1. Naturalist Intelligence (“Nature Smart”)

Designates the human ability to discriminate among living things (plants, animals) as well as sensitivity to other features of the natural world (clouds, rock configurations). This ability was clearly of value in our evolutionary past as hunters, gatherers, and farmers; it continues to be central in such roles as botanist or chef. It is also speculated that much of our consumer society exploits the naturalist intelligences, which can be mobilized in the discrimination among cars, sneakers, kinds of makeup, and the like.

2. Musical Intelligence (“Musical Smart”)

Musical intelligence is the capacity to discern pitch, rhythm, timbre, and tone. This intelligence enables us to recognize, create, reproduce, and reflect on music, as demonstrated by composers, conductors, musicians, vocalist, and sensitive listeners. Interestingly, there is often an affective connection between music and the emotions; and mathematical and musical intelligences may share common thinking processes. Young adults with this kind of intelligence are usually singing or drumming to themselves. They are usually quite aware of sounds others may miss.

3. Logical-Mathematical Intelligence (Number/Reasoning Smart)

Logical-mathematical intelligence is the ability to calculate, quantify, consider propositions and hypotheses, and carry out complete mathematical operations. It enables us to perceive relationships and connections and to use abstract, symbolic thought; sequential reasoning skills; and inductive and deductive thinking patterns. Logical intelligence is usually well developed in mathematicians, scientists, and detectives. Young adults with lots of logical intelligence are interested in patterns, categories, and relationships. They are drawn to arithmetic problems, strategy games and experiments.

4. Existential Intelligence

Sensitivity and capacity to tackle deep questions about human existence, such as the meaning of life, why do we die, and how did we get here.

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5. Interpersonal Intelligence (People Smart”)

Interpersonal intelligence is the ability to understand and interact effectively with others. It involves effective verbal and nonverbal communication, the ability to note distinctions among others, sensitivity to the moods and temperaments of others, and the ability to entertain multiple perspectives. Teachers, social workers, actors, and politicians all exhibit interpersonal intelligence. Young adults with this kind of intelligence are leaders among their peers, are good at communicating, and seem to understand others’ feelings and motives.

6. Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence (“Body Smart”)

Bodily kinesthetic intelligence is the capacity to manipulate objects and use a variety of physical skills. This intelligence also involves a sense of timing and the perfection of skills through mind–body union. Athletes, dancers, surgeons, and craftspeople exhibit well-developed bodily kinesthetic intelligence.

7. Linguistic Intelligence (Word Smart)

Linguistic intelligence is the ability to think in words and to use language to express and appreciate complex meanings. Linguistic intelligence allows us to understand the order and meaning of words and to apply meta-linguistic skills to reflect on our use of language. Linguistic intelligence is the most widely shared human competence and is evident in poets, novelists, journalists, and effective public speakers. Young adults with this kind of intelligence enjoy writing, reading, telling stories or doing crossword puzzles.

8. Intra-personal Intelligence (Self Smart”)

Intra-personal intelligence is the capacity to understand oneself and one’s thoughts and feelings, and to use such knowledge in planning and directioning one’s life. Intra-personal intelligence involves not only an appreciation of the self, but also of the human condition. It is evident in psychologist, spiritual leaders, and philosophers. These young adults may be shy. They are very aware of their own feelings and are self-motivated.

9. Spatial Intelligence (“Picture Smart”)

Spatial intelligence is the ability to think in three dimensions. Core capacities include mental imagery, spatial reasoning, image manipulation, graphic and artistic skills, and an active imagination. Sailors, pilots, sculptors, painters, and architects all exhibit spatial intelligence. Young adults with this kind of intelligence may be fascinated with mazes or jigsaw puzzles, or spend free time drawing or daydreaming.

From: Overview of the Multiple Intelligences Theory. Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development and Thomas Armstrong.com

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Teaching approaches: the grammar-translation method

By Tim Bowen

At the height of the Communicative Approach to language learning in the 1980s and early 1990s it became fashionable in some quarters to deride so-called "old-fashioned" methods and, in particular, something broadly labelled "Grammar Translation". There were numerous reasons for this but principally it was felt that translation itself was an academic exercise rather than one which would actually help learners to use language, and an overt focus on grammar was to learn about the target language rather than to learn it.

As with many other methods and approaches, Grammar Translation tended to be referred to in the past tense as if it no longer existed and had died out to be replaced world-wide by the fun and motivation of the communicative classroom. If we examine the principal features of Grammar Translation, however, we will see that not only has it not disappeared but that many of its characteristics have been central to language teaching throughout the ages and are still valid today.

The Grammar Translation method embraces a wide range of approaches but, broadly speaking, foreign language study is seen as a mental discipline, the goal of which may be to read literature in its original form or simply to be a form of intellectual development. The basic approach is to analyze and study the grammatical rules of the language, usually in an order roughly matching the traditional order of the grammar of Latin, and then to practise manipulating grammatical structures through the means of translation both into and from the mother tongue.

The method is very much based on the written word and texts are widely in evidence. A typical approach would be to present the rules of a particular item of grammar, illustrate its use by including the item several times in a text, and practise using the item through writing sentences and translating it into the mother tongue. The text is often accompanied by a vocabulary list consisting of new lexical items used in the text together with the mother tongue translation. Accurate use of language items is central to this approach.

Generally speaking, the medium of instruction is the mother tongue, which is used to explain conceptual problems and to discuss the use of a particular grammatical structure. It all sounds rather dull but it can be argued that the Grammar Translation method has over the years had a remarkable success. Millions of people have successfully learnt foreign languages to a high degree of proficiency and, in numerous cases, without any contact whatsoever with native speakers of the language (as was the case in the former Soviet Union, for example).

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There are certain types of learner who respond very positively to a grammatical syllabus as it can give them both a set of clear objectives and a clear sense of achievement. Other learners need the security of the mother tongue and the opportunity to relate grammatical structures to mother tongue equivalents. Above all, this type of approach can give learners a basic foundation upon which they can then build their communicative skills.

Applied wholesale of course, it can also be boring for many learners and a quick look at foreign language course books from the 1950s and 1960s, for example, will soon reveal the non-communicative nature of the language used. Using the more enlightened principles of the Communicative Approach, however, and combining these with the systematic approach of Grammar Translation, may well be the perfect combination for many learners. On the one hand they have motivating communicative activities that help to promote their fluency and, on the other, they gradually acquire a sound and accurate basis in the grammar of the language. This combined approach is reflected in many of the EFL course books currently being published and, amongst other things, suggests that the Grammar Translation method, far from being dead, is very much alive and kicking as we enter the 21st century.

Without a sound knowledge of the grammatical basis of the language it can be argued that the learner is in possession of nothing more than a selection of communicative phrases which are perfectly adequate for basic communication but which will be found wanting when the learner is required to perform any kind of sophisticated linguistic task. 

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The Audio-Lingual Method

With the outbreak of World War II armies needed to become orally proficient in the languages of their allies and enemies as quickly as possible. This teaching technique was initially called the Army Method, and was the first to be based on linguistic theory and behavioral psychology. Timeline showing the popularity of the Audio-lingual method View large version with all methods

Explanation

Based on Skinner’s Behaviorism theory, it assumed that a human being can be trained using a system of reinforcement. Correct behaviour receives positive feedback, while errors receive negative feedback. This approach to learning is similar to the Direct Method, in that the lesson takes place entirely in the target language. Emphasis is on the acquisition of patterns in common everyday dialogue. The Audio-lingual Method was widely used in the 1950s and 1960s, and the emphasis was not on the understanding of words, but rather on the acquisition of structures and patterns in common everyday dialogue. These patterns are elicited, repeated and tested until the responses given by the student in the foreign language are automatic.

Some characteristics of this method are:

Drills are used to teach structural patterns. Set phrases are memorized with a focus on intonation Grammatical explanations are kept to a minimum Vocabulary is taught in context Audio-visual aids are used Focus is on pronunciation Correct responses are positively reinforced immediately

Modern Usage.

The Audio-lingual Method : is still in use today, though normally as a part of individual lessons rather than as the foundation of the course. These types of lessons can be popular as they are relatively simple, from the teacher’s point of view, and the learner always knows what to expect. Some of the most famous supporters of this method were Giorgio Shenker, who promoted guided self -learning with the Shenker method in Italy, and Robin Callan, who created the Callan method.

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Developments & Problems

This extensive memorization, repetition and over-learning of patterns was the key to the method’s success, as students could often see immediate results, but it was also its weakness. It was discovered that language was not acquired through a process of habit formation.

The method’s insistence on repetition and memorization of standard phrases ignored the role of context and knowledge in language learning. As the study of linguistics developed, it was discovered that language was not acquired through a process of habit formation, and that errors were not necessarily bad. It was also claimed that the methodology did not deliver an improvement in communicative ability that lasted over the long term.

Summary

When – 1950 to 1970, some sporadic or selective use todayFocus – Sentence and sound patternsCharacteristics – Listening and speaking drills and pattern practice only in EnglishSupporters – B.F. Skinner, Leonard Bloomfield, Robin Callan

https://www.facebook.com/groups/1438504793106920/permalink/1466359536988112/

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Social Learning Theory

How People Learn By Observation

By Kendra Cherry Psychology Expert

What is Social Learning Theory?

The social learning theory proposed by Albert Bandura has become perhaps the most influential theory of learning and development. While rooted in many of the basic concepts of traditional learning theory, Bandura believed that direct reinforcement could not account for all types of learning.

While the behavioral theories of learning suggested that all learning was the result of associations formed by conditioning, reinforcement, and punishment, Bandura's social learning theory proposed that learning can also occur simply by observing the actions of others.

His theory added a social element, arguing that people can learn new information and behaviors by watching other people. Known as observational learning (or modeling), this type of learning can be used to explain a wide variety of behaviors.

Bandura explained:

"Learning would be exceedingly laborious, not to mention hazardous, if people had to rely solely on the effects of their own actions to inform them what to do. Fortunately, most human behavior is learned observationally through modeling: from observing others one forms an idea of how new behaviors are performed, and on later occasions this coded information serves as a guide for action."-Albert Bandura, Social Learning Theory, 1977

Basic Social Learning Concepts

There are three core concepts at the heart of social learning theory. First is the idea that people can learn through observation. Next is the notion that internal mental states are an essential part of this process. Finally, this theory recognizes that just because something has been learned, it

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does not mean that it will result in a change in behavior. Let's explore each of these concepts in greater depth.

1. People can learn through observation.

Observational Learning

In his famous Bobo doll experiment, Bandura demonstrated that children learn and imitate behaviors they have observed in other people. The children in Bandura’s studies observed an adult acting violently toward a Bobo doll. When the children were later allowed to play in a room with the Bobo doll, they began to imitate the aggressive actions they had previously observed.

Bandura identified three basic models of observational learning:

1. A live model, which involves an actual individual demonstrating or acting out a behavior.2. A verbal instructional model, which involves descriptions and explanations of a behavior.3. A symbolic model, which involves real or fictional characters displaying behaviors in

books, films, television programs, or online media.

2. Mental states are important to learning.

Intrinsic Reinforcement

Bandura noted that external, environmental reinforcement was not the only factor to influence learning and behavior. He described intrinsic reinforcement as a form of internal reward, such as pride, satisfaction, and a sense of accomplishment. This emphasis on internal thoughts and cognitions helps connect learning theories to cognitive developmental theories. While many textbooks place social learning theory with behavioral theories, Bandura himself describes his approach as a 'social cognitive theory.'

3. Learning does not necessarily lead to a change in behavior.

While behaviorists believed that learning led to a permanent change in behavior, observational learning demonstrates that people can learn new information without demonstrating new behaviors.

The Modeling Process

Not all observed behaviors are effectively learned. Factors involving both the model and the learner can play a role in whether social learning is successful. Certain requirements and steps must also be followed. The following steps are involved in the observational learning and modeling process:

Attention:In order to learn, you need to be paying attention. Anything that distracts your attention is

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going to have a negative effect on observational learning. If the model interesting or there is a novel aspect to the situation, you are far more likely to dedicate your full attention to learning.

Retention:The ability to store information is also an important part of the learning process. Retention can be affected by a number of factors, but the ability to pull up information later and act on it is vital to observational learning.

Reproduction:Once you have paid attention to the model and retained the information, it is time to actually perform the behavior you observed. Further practice of the learned behavior leads to improvement and skill advancement.

Motivation:Finally, in order for observational learning to be successful, you have to be motivated to imitate the behavior that has been modeled. Reinforcement and punishment play an important role in motivation. While experiencing these motivators can be highly effective, so can observing other experience some type of reinforcement or punishment. For example, if you see another student rewarded with extra credit for being to class on time, you might start to show up a few minutes early each day.

Final Thoughts

In addition to influencing other psychologists, Bandura's social learning theory has had important implication in the field of eduction. Today, both teachers and parents recognize the importance of modeling appropriate behaviors. Other classroom strategies such as encouraging children and building self-efficacy are also rooted in social learning theory.

References

Bandura, A. (1965). Influence of models' reinforcement contingencies on the acquisition of imitative responses. Journal of Personality and

Social Psychology, 1, 589-595.

Bandura, A., Ross, D. & Ross, S.A. (1961). Transmission of aggression through imitation of aggressive models. Journal of Abnormal and

Social Psychology, 63, 575-82.

Bandura, A. (1977). Social Learning Theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

http://psychology.about.com/od/developmentalpsychology/a/sociallearning.htm

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Direct Method of Teaching EnglishBy William Lake |

The direct method of teaching was developed around 1900 in Germany and France. It is sometimes called the natural method because the aim is to teach students in a similar way that they acquire their first language.

The direct method of teaching came as a response to the shortfalls of the grammar-translation method, which works to teach grammar and translate vocabulary from the native language of the student.

Therefore, the grammar-translation method relies heavily on the written language, whereas the direct method places the emphasis on both listening and speaking.

Although the direct method isn’t limited to teaching foreign language, it is however, often used for this purpose. In fact, you can see evidence of it being used in many English classrooms around the world today. The aim of this method for teaching English is to immerse the students in English, the teacher would use realia, visual aids and demonstrations to teach English to students.

The teacher would in this instance focus on repetitive patterns of teaching with grammar being taught inductively. This means that the rules of grammar are not taught directly, instead students would learn to change different parts of the sentence. For example, “I go to school”, the word go could be changed for other verbs like walk, run, jog, drive, etc.

Methodology

The direct method of learning English is fairly simple. In consists, primarily, of just five parts.

Show – The student is shown something so that they understand the word. For example, they might be shown realia or other visual aids such as flash cards for nouns. The teacher might use gestures to explain verbs, and so on.

Say – The teacher verbally presents the word or sentence, taking care to pronounce the word correctly.

Try – The student then tries to repeat what the teacher is saying. Mould – The teacher corrects the students and ensures that they are pronouncing words

correctly. Repeat – Finally, the students repeat the word a number of times. Here the teacher uses a

number of methods for repetition, including group repetition, single student repetition and other activities designed to get the students to repeat the word.

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Advantages

Probably the biggest advantage of this method of teaching English is that it actually teaches the language and doesn’t teach about the language. Furthermore, due to its emphasis on speech, it is better for students who have a need of real communication in English. Finally, this method introduced the use of teaching vocabulary using realia, which is still widely used today when teaching English to speakers of other languages.

Disadvantages

One major disadvantage for this method is that is works on the assumption that a second language is learnt exactly the same way as the first. Second language acquisition varies considerably from first language acquisition.

Another criticism of the direct method is that it was hard for public schools to integrate it. In his book, R. Brown (1994:56) explains that the direct method wasn’t successful in public schools because of “constraints of budget, classroom size, time, and teacher background (native speakers or native like fluency) made such a method difficult to use.”

Direct Method of Teaching English

Although parts of this method are still used today, it was largely been overtaken by the audio-lingual method where the focus wasn’t vocabulary, instead students were drilled in the use of English grammar. This audio-lingual method is no longer a popular method of teaching, instead more  communicative methods are more widely used today. Lessons now try to mimic real, everyday, occurrences, for example, a class would usually be taught things like ‘asking for things’ in different social settings.

http://blog.about-esl.com/direct-method-of-teaching-english/

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Differences between social learning & behaviorism

Written by: bryant harland

Behaviorism and social learning theory are two psychological theories used for explaining behaviour. Although the two both deal with behaviour, they focus on somewhat different elements in their attempts to explain why people behave the way they do. Behaviorism and social learning have strong bases of support, so there is no clear answer to which one does a better job at explaining behaviour.

Behaviorism

Behaviorism is a psychological theory that attempts to explain why people behave the way they do. Behaviorism focuses on what can be observed. To behaviourists, all behaviour can be traced back to an external stimuli. Further, behaviourists believe that behaviour can be modified through reinforcements and punishments. Reinforcements are stimuli designed to encourage a particular behaviour to occur again; punishments are stimuli designed to discourage a particular behaviour. Early behaviourists, such as John B. Watson, and B.F. Skinner, developed behaviorism to move the focus of psychology into the observable.

Social Learning

Social learning theory expands the ideas found presented by behaviorism. Like behaviorism, social learning attempts to explain why people behave the way they do; however, social learning says that behaviour is based on a combination of observable stimuli, and internal psychological processes. Social learning suggests three requirements for someone to learn a behaviour: retention, reproduction and motivation. Retention is the individual's ability to remember behaviour that he observed, and reproduction is the individual's ability to reproduce that behaviour. Motivation is the individual's desire to engage in that behaviour.

Behaviorism vs. Social Learning

Although social learning theory shares some similarities with behaviorism, it adds an element of internal thought processes to behaviour, which behaviorism does not study. Social learning says that, in addition to behaviorism's external reinforcements, individuals learn through observation, and by imitating the behaviour of the people around them.

Applications

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Both behaviorism and social learning theory have applications for society, and for everyday life. For example, parents who give their children an allowance for doing chores are using the behaviour-modification process that behaviorism outlines. Similarly, parents choosing not to smoke in front of their children are following the tenants of social learning theory; they don't want their children to observe them engaging in an unhealthy habit because their children may want to imitate what they observe.

http://www.ehow.co.uk/info_8515497_differences-between-social-learning-behaviorism.html

Characteristics of a Good Language Learner

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Rubin, J., & Thompson, I., How to be a more successful language learner. Boston: Heinle & Heinle, 1982.

1. Good language learners find their own way and take charge of their learning. They determine the methods that are best for them as individual learners. They learn form others and experiment with different methods.

2. Good language learners organize their study of the language, and they organize information about the language they study.

3. Good language learners are creative. They understand that language is creative. They experiment with the language and play with grammar, words, and sounds.

4. Good language learners make their own opportunities for practicing the language inside and outside of the classroom.

5. Good language learners learn to live with uncertainty by focusing on the meaning of what they can understand, by not getting flustered, and by continuing to talk or listen without necessarily understanding every word.

6. Good language learners use mnemonics and other memory strategies to recall what they are learning.

7. Good language learners make errors work for them and not against them.8. Good language learners use linguistic knowledge, including knowledge of their first

language, in learning a second language.9. Good language learners use contextual clues to aid their comprehension of the language.

They maximize use of all potential contexts around the language attended to for enhancing comprehension.

10. Good language learners learn to make intelligent guesses.11. Good language learners learn chunks of language as wholes and formalized routines to

help them perform beyond their competence. For example, they may learn idioms, proverbs, or other phrases knowing what the whole phrase means without necessarily understanding each individual part.

12. Good language learners learn certain tricks that keep conversations going.13. Good language learners learn certain production techniques that also fill in the gaps in

their own competence.14. Good language learners learn different styles of speech or writing to learn to vary their

language according to the formality of the situation.

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Discover your learning style

VARK

Learning Styles: Visual, Auditory, Read/Write, Kinesthetic

There are many models and theories about learning styles. This particular system about an individual’slearning preference is known as VARK—Visual, Auditory, Read/Write, and Kinesthetic (hands-on)

Know your tutee’s learning style. Why?

To find out if he or she processes, learns, and retains information most effectively by seeing, listening, reading/writing, or through movement/touch. Each individual has a preferred learning style, and many have multiple learning styles. One particular style is not better than the others and a preferred style does not mean you cannot learn in other ways; it is simply what may work best to process, learn and retain information. Students may become better learners if they know their learning style and use the respective strategies.

Visual Learning Style

These learners need to see the teacher’s body language and facial expression to fully understand the content of a lesson. They generally prefer to sit at the front of the classroom. These individuals think in pictures and may learn best from visual displays including: diagrams, illustrated textbooks, overhead transparencies, videos, flipcharts, use of interactive whiteboards, and handouts. During a lesson or classroom discussions, visual learners often prefer to take detailed notes to absorb the information.

Learning strategies:

• Highlight important points in text; key words • Create flashcards for key information; be concise • Limit amount of words/information; allows for mental imagery • Convert notes and translate words into symbols, diagrams, and/or pictures • Create visual reminders of information • Practice turning visuals back into words • Color-code, underline, and/or highlight information• Be creative with charts, diagrams, mind maps Auditory Learning Style

These individuals learn best through verbal lessons, discussions, talking things through, and listening to what others

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have to say. Auditory learners interpret the underlying meanings of speech through listening to the voice tone, pitch, and speed. These learners often benefit from reading the text and notes out loud and/or listening to recorded notes and information from texts.

Learning strategies:

• Work in groups or with a study partner; i.e. discussions: listening, talking • Review assignments and text reading before class • Read notes and text out loud • Recite information that is important to remember • Record notes, key information, and lectures; listen to recordings regularly • Use books-on-tape • Mathematical/technical information: State the problem out loud Think through a process or sequence of steps: write out, then read out loud Discuss questions/problems in a group or with a study-buddy

Learn through seeing

Unlock the knowledge… know your learning style!

Read/Write Learning Style

Individuals with this preference prefer output; i.e. reading and writing in all its forms.

Internet, lists, dictionaries, thesauri, and Learning strategies:

• Rewrite notes • Read/review notes every day • Rewrite ideas and principles into other words• Organize diagrams/graphs into statements• Turn reactions, actions, charts, etc. into words• Write exam answers • Practice with multiple choice questions• Write paragraphs, beginnings and endings• Write lists (a,b,c,1,2,3,4) • Arrange words into hierarchies and points

Kinesthetic Learning Style

Kinesthetic learners learn best through a hands learning preference to sit still for long periods. Kinesthetic learner scan become distracted by their need for movement and activity.

Learning strategies:

• Skim through reading material• Move around as you read aloud or • Record notes and listen to them • Take frequent study breaks

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• Listen to music while studying • Sit in the front of the classroom• Stay actively engaged in class: take notes, • Create hands-on learning when possible: Use models, extra lab time, visit museums• Create cards for processes: Color code like information Limit information: use key words, symbols Arrange in order; shuffle and repeat• Type over notes from text and class• Create spreadsheets, tables, charts to organize

Sources:

1. Introduction to the DVC Learning Style Survey for College

written by: Catherine Jester, Learning Disability Specialist© Copyright 2000

adapted for the Web by: Suzanne Miller, Instructor, Math and Multimedia © Copyright 2000

2. Central Piedmont Community College. Academic Learning Center skills/learning_styles-vak.pdf

3. VARK, A Guide to Learning Styles. http://www.vark-learn.com Springfield, MO

VAK Learning Styles Survey22

Note: Please read the Introduction as it brings up some important points about learning styles. To learn more about VAK please read, Visual, Auditory, and Kinesthetic (VAK) learning styles.

This survey is designed to help you gain an understanding of learning styles so that you can incorporate the various learning styles in your daily learning activities. It is NOT meant to show you your best way of learning as the research does not promote it. Rather, it is a tool for learning-to-learn (metalearning) that increases self-awareness about your strengths and weaknesses. This will help you will to try the various styles of learning so that you may choose the best one for the situation, rather than sticking with your preferred methods.

For a learning style survey based on the two continuums of Processing and Perception, see the Learning Style Survey.

VAK Survey

Read each statement carefully. To the left of each statement, write the number that best describes how each statement applies to you by using the following guide:

1 2 3 4 5

Almost Never Applies

Applies Once in a While

Sometimes Applies

Often AppliesAlmost Always

Applies

Answer honestly as there are no correct or incorrect answers. It is best if you do not think about each question too long, as this could lead you to the wrong conclusion.

Once you have completed all 36 statements (12 statements in three sections), total your score in the spaces provided below. 

Section One - Visual

_____ 1. I take written notes and/or draw mind maps.

_____ 2. When talking to someone else I have a difficult time understanding those who do not maintain good eye contact with me.

_____ 3. I make lists and notes because I remember things better if I write them down.

_____ 4. When reading a novel, I pay a lot of attention to passages that help me to picture the clothing, description, scenery, setting, etc.

_____ 5. I need to write down directions so that I can remember them.

_____ 6. I need to see the person I am taking to in order in order to keep my attention focused on the subject.

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_____ 7. When meeting a person for the first time, I notice the style of dress, visual characteristics, and neatness first.

_____ 8. When I am at a party, one of the things I love to do is stand back and observe the people.

_____ 9. When recalling information I can see it in my mind and remember where I saw it.

_____ 10. If I had to explain a new procedure or technique, I would prefer to write it out.

_____ 11. In my free time I am most likely to watch television or read.

_____ 12. If my boss has a message for me, I am most comfortable when she sends a memo.

 

Total For Visual _______ (note: the minimum is 12 and maximum is 60)

Section Two - Auditory

_____ 1. I read out loud or move my lips to hear the words in my head.

_____ 2. When talking to someone, I have a difficult time understanding those who do not talk or respond with me.

_____ 3. I do not take a lot of notes, but I still remember what was said. Taking notes often distracts me from the speaker.

_____ 4. When reading a novel, I pay a lot of attention to passages involving conversations, talking, speaking, dialogues, etc.

_____ 5. I like to talk to myself when solving a problem or writing.

_____ 6. I can understand what a speaker says, even if I am not focused on the speaker.

_____ 7. I remember things easier by repeating them over and over.

_____ 8. When I am at a party, one of the things I love to do is talk in-depth about a subject that is important to me with a good conversationalist.

_____ 9. I would rather receive information from the radio, rather than read a newspaper.

_____ 10. If I had to explain a new procedure or technique, I would prefer talking about it.

_____ 11. With my free time I am most likely to listen to music.

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_____ 12. If my boss has a message for me, I am most comfortable when he or she calls me on the phone.

 

Total For Auditory _______ (note: the minimum is 12 and maximum is 60)

  Section Three - Kinesthetic

_____ 1. I am not good at reading or listening to directions. I would rather just start working on the task or project at hand.

_____ 2. When talking to someone, I have a difficult time understanding those who do not show any kind of emotional or physical support.

_____ 3. I take notes, doodle, and/or make mind-maps, but I rarely go back and look at them.

_____ 4. When reading a novel, I pay a lot of attention to passages revealing feelings, moods, action, drama, etc.

_____ 5. When I am reading, I move my lips.

_____ 6. I often exchange words, such as places or things, and use my hands a lot when I can't remember the right thing to say.

_____ 7. My desk appears disorganized.

_____ 8. When I am at a party, one of the things I love to do is enjoy the activities such as dancing, games, and totally losing myself in the action.

_____ 9. I like to move around. I feel trapped when seated at a meeting or a desk.

_____ 10. If I had to explain a new procedure or technique, I would prefer actually demonstrating it.

_____ 11. With my free time I am most likely to exercise.

_____ 12. If my boss has a message for me, I am most comfortable when she talks to me in person.

 Total For Kinesthetic _______ (note: the minimum is 12 and maximum is 60)

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Visual, Auditory, and Kinesthetic

Learning Styles (VAK)The VAK learning style uses the three main sensory receivers: Visual, Auditory, and Kinesthetic (movement) to determine the dominant learning style. It is sometimes known as VAKT (Visual, Auditory, Kinesthetic, & Tactile). It is based on modalities—channels by which human expression can take place and is composed of a combination of perception and memory.

VAK is derived from the accelerated learning world and seems to be about the most popular model nowadays due to its simplicity. While the research has shown a connection with modalities and learning styles (University of Pennsylvania, 2009), the research has so far been unable to prove the using one's learning style provides the best means for learning a task or subject. This is probably because it is more of a preference, rather than a style.

Learners use all three modalities to receive and learn new information and experiences. However, according to the VAK or modality theory, one or two of these receiving styles is normally dominant. This dominant style defines the best way for a person to learn new information by filtering what is to be learned. This style may not always to be the same for some tasks. The learner may prefer one style of learning for one task, and a combination of others for a different task.

Classically, our learning style is forced upon us through life like this: In grades kindergarten to third, new information is presented to us kinesthetically; grades 4 to 8 are visually presented; while grades 9 to college and on into the business environment, information is presented to us mostly through auditory means, such as lectures.

According to the VAK theorists, we need to present information using all three styles. This allows all learners the opportunity to become involved, no matter what their preferred style may be.

While there is some evidence for modality specific strengths and weaknesses (Rourke, et al. 2002), what has has not been established is matching the instructional style to individual learning strength improves their learning abilities. For example, one study (Constantinidou and Baker,

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2002), found that visual presentation through the use of pictures was advantageous for all adults, irrespective of a high or low learning-style preference for visual images. Indeed, it was especially advantageous for those with a strong preference for verbal processing.

Hints for Recognizing and Implementing the Three VAK Styles

Auditory learners often talk to themselves. They also may move their lips and read out loud. They may have difficulty with reading and writing tasks. They often do better talking to a colleague or a tape recorder and hearing what was said. To integrate this style into the learning environment:

Begin new material with a brief explanation of what is coming. Conclude with a summary of what has been covered. This is the old adage of “tell them what they are going to lean, teach them, and tell them what they have learned.”

Use the Socratic method of lecturing by questioning learners to draw as much information from them as possible and then fill in the gaps with you own expertise.

Include auditory activities, such as brainstorming, buzz groups, or Jeopardy. Leave plenty of time to debrief activities. This allows them to make connections of what they leaned and how it applies to their situation.

Have the learners verbalize the questions. Develop an internal dialogue between yourself and the learners.

Visual learners have two sub-channels—linguistic and spatial. Learners who are visual-linguistic like to learn through written language, such as reading and writing tasks. They remember what has been written down, even if they do not read it more than once. They like to write down directions and pay better attention to lectures if they watch them. Learners who are visual-spatial usually have difficulty with the written language and do better with charts, demonstrations, videos, and other visual materials. They easily visualize faces and places by using their imagination and seldom get lost in new surroundings. To integrate this style into the learning environment:

Use graphs, charts, illustrations, or other visual aids. Include outlines, concept maps, agendas, handouts, etc. for reading and taking notes. Include plenty of content in handouts to reread after the learning session. Leave white space in handouts for note-taking. Invite questions to help them stay alert in auditory environments. Post flip charts to show what will come and what has been presented. Emphasize key points to cue when to takes notes. Eliminate potential distractions. Supplement textual information with illustrations whenever possible. Have them draw pictures in the margins. Have the learners envision the topic or have them act out the subject matter.

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Kinesthetic learners do best while touching and moving. It also has two sub-channels: kinesthetic (movement) and tactile (touch). They tend to lose concentration if there is little or no external stimulation or movement. When listening to lectures they may want to take notes for the sake of moving their hands. When reading, they like to scan the material first, and then focus in on the details (get the big picture first). They typically use color high lighters and take notes by drawing pictures, diagrams, or doodling. To integrate this style into the learning environment:

Use activities that get the learners up and moving. Play music, when appropriate, during activities. Use colored markers to emphasize key points on flip charts or white boards. Give frequent stretch breaks (brain breaks). Provide toys such as Koosh balls and Play-Dough to give them something to do with

their hands. To highlight a point, provide gum, candy, scents, etc. which provides a cross link of scent

(aroma) to the topic at hand (scent can be a powerful cue). Provide high lighters, colored pens and/or pencils. Guide learners through a visualization of complex tasks. Have them transfer information from the text to another medium such as a keyboard or a

tablet.

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Learning stylesIntroduction

by Teresa Dybvig

Learning stylesby Dr. Sarah

Church

INTRODUCTION Since 1998, I've worked with education consultant Dr. Sarah Church on incorporating the principles of the Dunn and Dunn Learning Styles system into my private teaching. The results have been extraordinary. Put simply, as Sarah says, "Students perk up when you teach them the way they learn best." Learning to spot their general processing style (where they are on the global - analytical continuum), their preferred modalities (kinesthetic, tactile, auditory, visual), and their needs with respect to authority and structure, can speed up learning and clarify their practice.

Since we tend to teach the way we learn best ourselves, we often find it mysteriously difficult to reach students who learn differently. When we don't teach in the way the student learns best, lessons can be a struggle, even though we may like the student and believe in their talent and intelligence. When I consult with teachers on learning styles, the most common comment I receive is, "I never thought of teaching something that way" -- always referring to teaching in a way they themselves would not prefer to learn.

Music demands many things of us, though, so one thing we need to do is help students shore up their strengths in areas in which they don't learn as easily. Global processors need to find a way to work out details, auditory learners need to learn to look carefully, tactile learners need to learn to use their arms and hands as well as their fingers.

You can see a poster I presented a poster at the National Conference on Keyboard Pedagogy in Oakbrook, IL (just outside Chicago), on August 3-6, 2005. Strengthening Musical Memory Using the Dunn & Dunn Learning Styles Perceptual Modalities gives some ideas on how to make use of one set of the Dunn and Dunn Learning Styles elements.

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LEARNING STYLES by Dr. Sarah Church

What is learning style? It is the way a person processes, internalizes, and studies new and challenging material. The cornerstone of the Dunn and Dunn Learning Styles Model is that most people can learn, and individuals each have their own unique ways of mastering new and difficult subject matter (Dunn, 2000). For many people, learning to play the piano presents a big learning challenge. For some, that challenge is a grueling ordeal if the way they are taught does not match the way they learn.

The Dunn and Dunn Learning Style Model

The Dunns' Learning-Style Model is complex and encompasses 5 strands of 21 elements that affect each individual's learning. Some of these elements are biological and others are developmental. Style changes over time. A summary of these elements is provided below (Dunn, 2000).

1. Environmental. The environmental strand refers to these elements: lighting, sound, temperature, and seating arrangement. For example, some people need to study in a cool and quiet room, and others cannot focus unless they have music playing and it is warm (sound and temperature elements).

2. Emotional. This strand includes the following elements: motivation, persistence, responsibility, and structure. For example, some people must complete a project before they start a new one, and others work best on multiple tasks at the same time (persistence element).

3. Sociological. The sociological strand represents elements related to how individuals learn in association with other people: (a) alone or with peers, (b) an authoritative adult or with a collegial colleague, and (c) learning in a variety of ways or in routine patterns. For example, a number of people need to work alone when tackling a new and difficult subject, while others learn best when working with colleagues (learning alone or with peers element).

4. Physiological. The elements in this strand are: perceptual (auditory, visual, tactile, and kinesthetic), time-of-day energy levels, intake (eating or not while studying) and mobility (sitting still or moving around). For example, many people refer to themselves as night owls or early birds because they function best at night or in the morning (time-of-day element).

5. Psychological. The elements in this strand correspond to the following types of psychological processing: hemispheric, impulsive or reflective, and global versus analytic. The hemispheric element refers to left and right brain processing modes; the impulsive versus reflective style describes how some people leap before thinking and others scrutinize the situation before moving an inch. Global and analytic elements are unique in comparison to other elements because these two elements are made up of distinct clusters of elements found in the other four strands. The elements that determine global and analytic processing styles are: sound, light, seating arrangement, persistence, sociological preference, and intake. Global and analytic processing styles will be discussed in detail in the next section.

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Differences Among Students' Learning Styles

Do learning styles vary in predictable ways? There are four factors that significantly differ between groups and among individuals: global versus analytic processing styles, age, gender, and high- versus low-academic achievement (Dunn & Griggs, 1998). The educational implications of these four variables are important to fully comprehend and employ because they provide direction and structure for effective teaching strategies, especially for low-achieving students.

1. Global and analytic. When learning new and challenging topics, people tend to have one of two processing styles-global or analytic. Certain learning-style elements cluster to form these two processing styles in the following ways. Global learners prefer to work in an environment with soft lighting and informal seating. People with this processing style need breaks, snacking, mobility, and sound. Analytic learners prefer to work in an environment with bright light and formal seating. They work best with few or no interruptions, in a quiet environment, and little or no snacking. The majority of young children are global processors.

2. Age. Learning styles change with age. Some learning styles are developmental and many people's styles alter as they grow older. These style elements are: sociological, motivation, responsibility, and internal vs. external structure. Children tend to prefer to work with peers instead of alone and prefer an authoritative versus a collegial teacher. For many people auditory and visual perceptual elements strengthen with age.

3. Gender. Boys and girls, and men and women, tend to learn differently from each other. The perceptual strengths of males are often visual, tactile, and kinesthetic. They tend to need more mobility than females, and function better in an informal environment. Frequently, males are peer-motivated and nonconforming. On the other hand, females tend to be more auditory, need quiet while studying, work best in a formal setting, and

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need less mobility. Often they are more conforming, authority-oriented, and parent- and self-motivated than males.

4. High- versus low-academic achievement. High and low achieving students learn in statistically different ways from one another. In other words, the teaching strategies that are successful for one group will not produce similar outcomes in the other group.

References

Dunn, R. (2000). Learning styles: Theory, research, and practice. National Forum of Applied Educational Research Journal, 13, (1), 3-22.

Dunn, R., & Griggs, S. (1998). Learning styles: Link between teaching and learning. In Dunn, R. & Griggs, S. (Eds.), Learning styles and the nursing profession (pp. 11-23). New York: NLN Press.

http://www.teresadybvig.com/learnsty.htm

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Classical Conditioningby Saul McLeod published 2008, updated 2014Behaviorism as a movement in psychology appeared in 1913 when John Broadus Watson published the classic article Psychology as the behaviorist views it. John Watson proposed that the process of classical conditioning (based on Pavlov’s observations) was able to explain all aspects of human psychology. Everything from speech to emotional responses were simply patterns of stimulus and response. Watson denied completely the existence of the mind or consciousness. Watson believed that all individual differences in behavior were due to different experiences of learning. He famously said: "Give me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed, and my own specified world to bring them up in and I'll guarantee to take any one at random and train him to become any type of specialist I might select - doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant-chief and, yes, even beggar-man and thief, regardless of his talents, penchants, tendencies, abilities, vocations and the race of his ancestors” (Watson, 1924, p. 104).

Classical Conditioning ExamplesClassical conditioning theory involves learning a new behavior via the process of association. In simple terms two stimuli are linked together to produce a new learned response in a person or animal. There are three stages to classical conditioning. In each stage the stimuli and responses are given special scientific terms:

Stage 1: Before Conditioning:

In this stage, the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) produces an unconditioned response (UCR) in an organism. In basic terms this means that a stimulus in the environment has produced a behavior / response which is unlearned (i.e. unconditioned) and therefore is a natural response which has not been taught. In this respect no new behavior has been learned yet.

For example, a stomach virus (UCS) would produce a response of nausea (UCR). In another example a perfume (UCS) could create a response of happiness or desire (UCR).

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This stage also involves another stimulus which has no affect on a person and is called the neutral stimulus (NS). The NS could be a person, object, place etc. The neutral stimulus in classical conditioning does not produce a response until it is paired with the unconditioned stimulus.

Stage 2: During Conditioning:

During this stage a stimulus which produces no response (i.e. neutral) is associated with the unconditioned stimulus at which point it now becomes known as the conditioned stimulus (CS).

For example a stomach virus (UCS) might be associated with eating a certain food such as chocolate (CS). Also perfume (UCS) might be associated with a specific person (CS).

Often during this stage the UCS must be associated with the CS on a number of occasions, or trials, for learning to take place. However, one trail learning can happen on certain occasions when it is not necessary for an association to be strengthened over time (such as being sick after food poisoning or drinking too much alcohol).

Stage 3: After Conditioning:

Now the conditioned stimulus (CS) has been associated with the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) to create a new conditioned response (CR).

For example a person (CS) who has been associated with nice perfume (UCS) is now found attractive (CR). Also chocolate (CS) which was eaten before a person was sick with a virus (UCS) is now produces a response of nausea (CR).

Classical Conditioning in the ClassroomThe implications of classical conditioning in the classroom are less important than those of operant conditioning, but there is a still need for teachers to try to make sure that students associate positive emotional experiences with learning. If a student associates negative emotional experiences with school then this can obviously have bad results, such as creating a school phobia

For example, if a student is bullied at school they may learn to associate school with fear. It could also explain why some students show a particular dislike of certain subjects that continue throughout their academic career. This could happen if a student is humiliated or punished in class by a teacher.

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Critical EvaluationClassical conditioning emphasizes the importance of learning from the environment, and supports nurture over nature. However, it is limiting to describe behavior solely in terms of either nature or nurture, and attempts to do this underestimate the complexity of human behavior. It is more likely that behavior is due to an interaction between nature (biology) and nurture (environment).A strength of classical conditioning theory is that it is scientific. This is because it's based on empirical evidence carried out by controlled experiments. For example, Pavlov (1902) showed how classical conditioning can be used to make dog salivate to the sound of a bell.Classical conditioning is also a reductionist explanation of behavior. This is because complex behavior is broken down into smaller stimulus - response units of behavior. Supporters of a reductionist approach say that it is scientific. Breaking complicated behaviors down to small parts means that they can be scientifically tested. However, some would argue that the reductionist view lacks validity. Thus, whilst reductionism is useful, it can lead to incomplete explanations.A final criticism of classical conditioning theory is that it is deterministic. This means that it does not allow for any degree of freewill will in the individual. According a person has no control over the reactions they have learned from classical conditioning, such as a phobia. The deterministic approach also has important implications for psychology as a science. Scientists are interested in discovering laws which can then be used to predict events. However, by creating general laws of behavior, deterministic psychology underestimates the uniqueness of human beings and their freedom to choose their own destiny.

ReferencesPavlov, I. P. (1897/1902). The work of the digestive glands. London: Griffin.Watson, J. B. (1913). Psychology as the behaviorist views it. Psychological Review, 20, 158–177.Watson, J. B., & Rayner, R. (1920). Conditioned emotional reactions. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 3(1), pp. 1–14.Watson, J. B. (1924). Behaviorism. New York: People's Institute Publishing Company.McLeod, S. A. (2008). Classical Conditioning. Retrieved from http://www.simplypsychology.org/classical-conditioning.html

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Skinner - Operant Conditioningby : Saul McLeod published 2007, updated 2015

By the 1920s John B. Watson had left academic psychology and other behaviorists were becoming influential, proposing new forms of learning other than classical conditioning. Perhaps the most important of these was Burrhus Frederic Skinner. Although, for obvious reasons he is more commonly known as B.F. Skinner. Skinner's views were slightly less extreme than those of Watson (1913). Skinner believed that we do have such a thing as a mind, but that it is simply more productive to study observable behavior rather than internal mental events.Skinner believed that the best way to understand behavior is to look at the causes of an action and its consequences. He called this approach operant conditioning.

Skinner's theory of operant conditioning was based on the work of Thorndike (1905). Edward Thorndike studied learning in animals using a puzzle box to propose the theory known as the 'Law of Effect'.

BF Skinner: Operant Conditioning Skinner is regarded as the father of Operant Conditioning, but his work was based on Thorndike’s law of effect. Skinner introduced a new term into the Law of Effect - Reinforcement. Behavior which is reinforced tends to be repeated (i.e. strengthened); behavior which is not reinforced tends to die out-or be extinguished (i.e. weakened).

Skinner (1948) studied operant conditioning by conducting experiments using animals which he placed in a 'Skinner Box' which was similar to Thorndike’s puzzle box.

B.F. Skinner (1938) coined the term operant conditioning; it means roughly changing of behavior by the use of reinforcement which is given after the desired response. Skinner identified three types of responses or operant that can follow behavior.

• Neutral operants: responses from the environment that neither increase nor decrease the probability of a behavior being repeated.

• Reinforcers: Responses from the environment that increase the probability of a behavior being repeated. Reinforcers can be either positive or negative.

• Punishers: Responses from the environment that decrease the likelihood of a behavior being repeated. Punishment weakens behavior.

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We can all think of examples of how our own behavior has been affected by reinforcers and punishers. As a child you probably tried out a number of behaviors and learned from their consequences. 

For example, if when you were younger you tried smoking at school, and the chief consequence was that you got in with the crowd you always wanted to hang out with, you would have been positively reinforced (i.e. rewarded) and would be likely to repeat the behavior. If, however, the main consequence was that you were caught, caned, suspended from school and your parents became involved you would most certainly have been punished, and you would consequently be much less likely to smoke now.

Positive ReinforcementSkinner showed how positive reinforcement worked by placing a hungry rat in his Skinner box. The box contained a lever in the side and as the rat moved about the box it would accidentally knock the lever. Immediately it did so a food pellet would drop into a container next to the lever. The rats quickly learned to go straight to the lever after a few times of being put in the box. The consequence of receiving food if they pressed the lever ensured that they would repeat the action again and again.

Positive reinforcement strengthens a behavior by providing a consequence an individual finds rewarding. For example, if your teacher gives you £5 each time you complete your homework (i.e. a reward) you are more likely to repeat this behavior in the future, thus strengthening the behavior of completing your homework

Negative ReinforcementThe removal of an unpleasant reinforcer can also strengthen behavior. This is known as negative reinforcement because it is the removal of an adverse stimulus which is ‘rewarding’ to the animal or person. Negative reinforcement strengthens behavior because it stops or removes an unpleasant experience.

For example, if you do not complete your homework you give your teacher £5. You will complete your homework to avoid paying £5, thus strengthening the behavior of completing your homework.

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Skinner showed how negative reinforcement worked by placing a rat in his Skinner box and then subjecting it to an unpleasant electric current which caused it some discomfort. As the rat moved about the box it would accidentally knock the lever. Immediately it did so the electric current would be switched off. The rats quickly learned to go straight to the lever after a few times of being put in the box. The consequence of escaping the electric current ensured that they would repeat the action again and again.

In fact Skinner even taught the rats to avoid the electric current by turning on a light just before the electric current came on. The rats soon learned to press the lever when the light came on because they knew that this would stop the electric current being switched on.

These two learned responses are known as Escape Learning and Avoidance Learning.

Punishment (weakens behavior)

Punishment is defined as the opposite of reinforcement since it is designed to weaken or eliminate a response rather than increase it. It is an aversive event that decreases the behavior that it follows

Like reinforcement, punishment can work either by directly applying an unpleasant stimulus like a shock after a response or by removing a potentially rewarding stimulus, for instance, deducting someone’s pocket money to punish undesirable behavior.Note: It is not always easy to distinguish between punishment and negative reinforcement.

There are many problems with using punishment, such as:

Punished behavior is not forgotten, it's suppressed - behavior returns when punishment is no longer present.

Causes increased aggression - shows that aggression is a way to cope with problems.

Creates fear that can generalize to undesirable behaviors, e.g., fear of school.

Does not necessarily guide toward desired behavior - reinforcement tells you what to do, punishment only tells you what not to do.

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Operant Conditioning in the Classroom

Behavior modification therapy is much used in clinical and educational psychology, particularly with people with learning difficulties. In the conventional learning situation it applies largely to issues of class- and student management, rather than to learning content. It is very relevant to shaping skill performance.

A simple way of giving positive reinforcement in behavior modification is in providing compliments, approval, encouragement, and affirmation. A ratio of five compliments for every one criticism is generally seen as being the most effective in altering behavior in a desired manner. 

Operant Conditioning Summary

Looking at Skinner's classic studies on pigeons’ / rat's behavior we can identify some of the major assumptions of the behaviorist approach.

Psychology should be seen as a science , to be studied in a scientific manner. Skinner's study of behavior in rats was conducted under carefully controlled laboratory conditions.

Behaviorism is primarily concerned with observable behavior, as opposed to internal events like thinking and emotion. Note that Skinner did not say that the rats learned to press a lever because they wanted food. He instead concentrated on describing the easily observed behavior that the rats acquired.

The major influence on human behavior is learning from our environment. In the Skinner study, because food followed a particular behavior the rats learned to repeat that behavior, e.g. operant conditioning.

There is little difference between the learning that takes place in humans and that in other animals. Therefore research (e.g. operant conditioning) can be carried out on animals (Rats / Pigeons) as well as on humans. Skinner proposed that the way humans learn behavior is much the same as the way the rats learned to press a lever.

So, if your layperson's idea of psychology has always been of people in laboratories wearing white coats and watching hapless rats try to negotiate mazes in order to get to their dinner, then you are probably thinking of behavioral psychology.

Behaviorism and its offshoots tend to be among the most scientific of the psychological perspectives. The emphasis of behavioral psychology is on how we learn to behave in

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certain ways. We are all constantly learning new behaviors and how to modify our existing behavior. Behavioral psychology is the psychological approach that focuses on how this learning takes place.

McLeod, S. A. (2007). Skinner - Operant Conditioning. Retrieved from http://www.simplypsychology.org/operant-conditioning.html

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Course DesignEffective course design begins with understanding who your students are, deciding what you want them to learn; determining how you will measure student learning; and planning activities, assignments, and materials that support student learning. For all interactions with students plan ahead by ask yourself:

1. Who are the students?2. What do I want students to be able to do? 3. How will I measure students’ abilities?

By asking yourself these questions at the onset of your course design process you will be able to focus more concretely on learning outcomes, which has proven to increase student learning substantially as opposed to merely shoehorning large quantities of content into a quarters worth of class meetings.

1. Who are the students?

Before the class begins, find out as much as you can about the students.  Consider the level of your course and the type and level of student that typically enrolls in this course.  If you are new to teaching the course you may want to consult with colleagues who have previously taught the course to gather some of this information. It is also helpful to review your class roster before the quarter starts.  Additionally, The Office of the Registrar publishes a snap shot view of enrolled UW students for a given quarter.

Are your students new to the university?  Are they new to the topic of the course, or the department?

What are students’ motivations for taking the course? What might you expect students to know before the first class?  Consider previous

courses they may or may not have taken.  Are the students majors in your department or are they fulfilling a distribution credit?

What range of backgrounds and previous experience is typically represented among students in this class?

What problems do students typically have with this material, at this level?

2.  What do I want students to be able to do?

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Once you have considered who the students in your course are, ask yourself what they should be able to do at the end of the course.  Try to answer this question as specifically as you can by using terms that emphasize student abilities you can measure or easily recognize.  For example, it can be more challenging to measure students abilities based on what they may “know” or “understand” as opposed to measuring their abilities to preform tasks such as “identify,” “differentiate,” “apply,” or “produce.”  This process will help you solidify your course goals.

Tools that can help you design course objectives:

Understanding by Design (Center for Teaching, Vanderbilt): Describes the Backward Design process as outlined in Understanding By Design by Grant Wiggins and Jay McTighe

Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives Course Design Tutorial although this tool draws examples from geoscience, its basic

principles can be applied to a wide range of fields

3.  How will I measure students’ abilities?

Designing your course around activities that are most likely to lead students towards the goals you have defined will help them acquire and retain skills longer.  Some goals can be achieved through listening to lecture or reading assigned texts.  Others may require more active experimentation, practice, or discussion.  For example, writing, discussions, field work, service learning, problem solving, small group collaboration.  No matter what combination of activities you choose always keep in mind how the core activity, as opposed to subject content, will progress students’ abilities.

What will provide you with reliable evidence during the course that your students are learning and, at the end of the course, that they have obtained/mastered the abilities you envisioned at the beginning of the course?  This is the part where you choose assignments, activities, and other methods of assessment.  For example, will you have weekly quizzes? objective tests? original research papers? presentations? performances? group or individual projects? Assessment is an important aspect of student learning. Make sure to think carefully when pairing assessment to with learning objectives. 

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Syllabus Design

The syllabus provides the instructor and students with a contract, a common reference point that sets the stage for learning throughout the course.  Make sure that your students have easy access to the course syllabus by handing out hard copies on the first day of class and (if applicable) posting a digital copy on the course website.

Common Components Included in a Syllabus

The form and content of a syllabus vary widely by discipline, department, course, and instructor.  However, there are common components that most successful syllabi contain. These components communicate to your students an accurate description of the course including the topics that will be cover, assignments and assessments students will be responsible for, as well as a clear source for policies and expectations.

Course Description

Course Content: What is the basic content of the course, and what makes it important or interesting?  How does the course fit into the context of the discipline?

Learning Objectives: What should students be able to do by the end of the course?  Objectives are most helpful when they are expressed in terms of knowledge and skills that can be readily identified and assessed.  For example, the ability to recognize, differentiate, apply, or produce is much more readily identifiable than the ability to appreciate or understand.

Characteristics of Class Meetings:  What types of activities should students be prepared for?  Discussion?  Lecture?  Small groups?  Student presentations?

Logistics:  What are the instructor’s and TAs’ names?  How can they be contacted?  How are course materials obtained?  When and where does the class meet?

Course Topics and Assignments

Schedule of Topics and Readings: What will the main topics of the course be and when will they be addressed?  What will students need to do to prepare for each class?  Most instructors include a weekly or daily schedule of topics they intend to address, along with a list of assigned readings and other course materials.

Assignments, Projects, and Exams: How will students demonstrate their learning?  Include learning goals, estimated scope or length, assessment criteria, and dates.  Instructors typically include a breakdown, in point values or percentages, of how much each assignment or test contributes to a student’s final grade.

Course Policies and Values

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What values will shape your teaching in the course and what policies will guide you?  Policies and values that you might want to communicate through your syllabus include:

Inclusiveness:  How can your syllabus help you create an inclusive atmosphere that welcomes all students?  Some instructors include statements inviting participation from all students, honoring student diversity and differing points of view, or inviting requests for disability accommodations.

Integrity:  What are policies and procedures regarding academic integrity and misconduct in relation to materials and assignment for this course?  For example, considering the types of work you are asking students to do, what do you want to communicate about working with data?  representing original sources? accountability for contributions to group projects?

Responsibility:  What do students need to know about your expectations regarding assignments, attendance, online participation, or classroom interactions?  Other possibilities include policies regarding late work, make-up exams, and preparation for class participation.

Expectations for Success:   How can students learn most successfully in your course?  In your syllabus, you can express confidence that all students are capable of doing well, and you can suggest strategies for success.  For example, what strategies for learning are particularly important for this material?  What resources – such as study centers, web tutorials, or writing centers – are available to help students succeed in your course?

Information for TAs: Syllabus Design

As a TA your responsibilities regarding course design will vary.  However, it is always a good idea whether you’re planning a ten-week course, a 50 min section meeting, or a 20 min office hour, to think about your teaching and learning goals. Plan ahead by asking yourself:

What do I want students to learn? What challenges to learning are students likely to face? How can I help students meet those challenges? How will I be able to tell what they have learned?

Have a Syllabus:

It is a good idea for TAs to provide students with a syllabus.  Use the syllabus to answer questions about your expectations, your role in the course, and students’ responsibilities. If you are teaching a quiz section or lab, you may not be involved in the development of the course syllabus. However, your students will appreciate receiving a syllabus providing information regarding the section or lab policies and procedures (info. on participation, email policies, grading details, etc…).  Also make sure to include your office location and hours so students know where and when to find you.

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http://www.washington.edu/teaching/teaching-resources/preparing-to-teach/designing-your-course-and-syllabus/

Writing a Syllabus

What is a comprehensive syllabus?

A comprehensive syllabus:

Sets the tone for the course. (Posner & Rudnitsky, 1994)

Communicates what, when, and how students will learn.

Makes clear to students what they need to do in order to be successful.

Communicates expectations in terms of student responsibilities.

Deters misunderstandings about course policies.

How can you create an effective syllabus?

Getting started

Establish course learning outcomes. Consider what you would like students to know or be able to do as a result of taking your course.

Design your course. This Course Decisions Guide can guide you in the process. Consult our Syllabus Template to review some recommended best practices for syllabus

construction. Type in your course material and information without having to format. Use this Syllabus Rubric as a tool for reviewing your course syllabus. Review the course description established by your department or syllabi of the same

course from previous instructors. Check online for sample syllabi of the same or similar courses from colleagues at other

universities. Consider questions students may have about the course. (Davis, 2009)

The following ideas are adapted from Nilson (2010, p. 33-36).

How to set the tone for the course

Provide course information such as course number, location and time, prerequisites, and other requirements.

Share your teaching philosophy. Announce office hours and location.

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Share some information about yourself, such as your educational and professional background.

Describe how the course relates to the program, discipline, or field. Provide information about campus services that can aid students with their

studies. Reflect on the overall tone of your writing: is it encouraging or punitive?

How to communicate what, when, and how students will learn

Articulate course learning outcomes. List major topics your course will cover. Provide a list of reading materials (briefly annotated). List textbooks and other course materials and where to find them. List all graded course requirements such as assignments, exams, attendance,

participation, etc. Provide a detailed schedule, weekly or daily. Include what will be covered,

assignment and test dates, learning activities such as group work or presentations, guest speakers, field trips, library information sessions, etc.

Consider using a graphic syllabus to supplement your syllabus. A graphic syllabus is a “flowchart, graphic organizer, or diagram of the sequencing and organization of your course’s major topics through the term. It may also note the calendar schedule of the topics, the major activities and assignments, and the tests” (Nilson, 2010, p.38)..

How to communicate what students need to do in order to succeed in the course

Next to learning outcomes, list what you believe students need to do in order to be successful (how many hours per week they should dedicate, class attendance and participation, etc.). Note that students may vary in their learning and that achieving course goals requires work on the students' part.

Provide detailed information on how graded assignments or activities will be evaluated.

How to communicate expectations in terms of student responsibilities

Next to learning outcomes, add a disclaimer stating that students may vary in their learning and that attaining competencies requires work on the student’s part.

Establish ground rules for classroom interactions. Ask for student input and make adjustments to your original list of expectations.

Make clear any course policies you may have on attendance, tardiness, missed or late exams or assignments, personal use of technology, and safety procedures in laboratories.

How to deter misunderstandings about course policies

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Articulate institutional, departmental or course policies on academic integrity,

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examples of what constitutes violations of your policies and provide specific information on the consequences.

Note that any of the course activities listed in your syllabus may be subject to change under certain circumstances such as by mutual agreement or to enhance student learning.

How can you motivate students to refer to the syllabus?

Introduce the syllabus in class as a learning activity. Ask students to quiz each other, or conduct a jigsaw activity:

1. Break the syllabus up into different sections.2. Divide students into different groups.3. Give each group a different section of the syllabus for review (expert groups).4. Re-form groups so that each group includes a member from each of the previous

expert groups.5. Have the experts teach their section of the syllabus to their new groups.

Be strategic in where you place the syllabus. You can include it in the student course pack, on Blackboard, or on a course website.

If students ask questions that the syllabus answers, ask a student who has the course syllabus to find the answer on the spot.

Ask students to contribute to the syllabus. Have them review it in class and make suggestions for changes.

References1. Davis, B. G. (2009). Tools for teaching (2nd ed). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Fink, L. D. (2003). Creating significant learning experiences: An integrated approach to designing college courses. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Hara, B. (2010). Graphic display of student learning objectives. The Chronicle of Higher Education. Retrieved from: http://chronicle.com/blogs/profhacker/graphic-display-of-student-learning-objectives/27863

Nilson, L.B. (2010). Teaching at its best: A research-based resource for college instructors (3rd. ed.). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

O'Brien, J. G., Millis, B. J., & Cohen, M. W. (2008). The course syllabus: A learning-centered approach. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass

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Benjamin Bloom's Taxonomy of Behavioral Objectives

In 1956, Benjamin Bloom headed a group of educational psychologists who developed a classification of levels of intellectual behavior important in learning. This became a taxonomy including three overlapping domains; the cognitive, affective and psychomotor.

Cognitive learning is demonstrated by knowledge recall and the intellectual skills: comprehending information, organizing ideas, analyzing and synthesizing data, applying knowledge, choosing among alternatives in problem-solving, and evaluating ideas or actions. This domain on the acquisition and use of knowledge is predominant in the majority of courses. Bloom identified six levels within the cognitive domain, from the simple recall or recognition of facts, as the lowest level, through increasingly more complex and abstract mental levels, to the highest order which is classified as evaluation. Verb examples that represent intellectual activity on each level are listed here, and each level is linked to questions appropriate to the level.

1. Knowledge : arrange, define, duplicate, label, list, memorize, name, order, recognize, relate, recall, repeat, reproduce state.

2. Comprehension : classify, describe, discuss, explain, express, identify, indicate, locate, recognize, report, restate, review, select, translate,

3. Application : apply, choose, demonstrate, dramatize, employ, illustrate, interpret, operate, practice, schedule, sketch, solve, use, write.

4. Analysis : analyze, appraise, calculate, categorize, compare, contrast, criticize, differentiate, discriminate, distinguish, examine, experiment, question, test.

5. Synthesis : arrange, assemble, collect, compose, construct, create, design, develop, formulate, manage, organize, plan, prepare, propose, set up, write.

6. Evaluation : appraise, argue, assess, attach, choose compare, defend estimate, judge, predict, rate, core, select, support, value, evaluate.

Affective learning is demonstrated by behaviors indicating attitudes of awareness, interest, attention, concern, and responsibility, ability to listen and respond in interactions with others, and ability to demonstrate those attitudinal characteristics or values which are appropriate to the test situation and the field of study. This domain relates to emotions, attitudes, appreciations, and values, such as enjoying, conserving, respecting, and supporting. Verbs applicable to the affective domain include accepts, attempts, challenges, defends, disputes, joins, judges, praises, questions, shares, supports, and volunteers.

Psychomotor learning is demonstrated by physical skills; coordination, dexterity, manipulation, grace, strength, speed; actions which demonstrate the fine motor skills such as use of precision instruments or tools, or actions which evidence gross motor skills such as the use of the body in dance or athletic performance. Verbs applicable to the psychomotor domain include bend, grasp,

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handle, operate, reach, relax, shorten, stretch, write, differentiate (by touch), express (facially), perform (skillfully).

Bloom's Taxonomy: Three Learning Domains

1. Bloom's Taxonomy - Cognitive Domain - (intellect - knowledge - 'think')

An adjusted model of Bloom's Taxonomy 1956 Cognitive Domain was produced by Anderson and Krathwhol in 2001 in which the levels five and six (synthesis and evaluation) were inverted and all the levels became verbs, suggesting that learning is an active process (reference: Anderson & Krathwohl, A Taxonomy for Learning, Teaching, and Assessing: A Revision of Bloom's Taxonomy of Educational Objectives, 2001). This is why you may see different versions of this Cognitive Domain model. While debate continues as to the order of levels five and six, this version is gaining wider acceptance overall.

Cognitive Domain

Category or 'level'

Behavior Descriptions

Examples of activity to be trained, or demonstration and evidence to be measured

'Key words' (verbs which describe the activity to be trained or measured at each level)

Remembering Recall or recognize information

Multiple-choice test, recount facts or statistics, recall a process, rules, definitions; quote law or procedure

Arrange, define, describe, label, list, memorize, recognize, relate, reproduce, select, state

Understanding Understand meaning, re-state data in one's own words, interpret, extrapolate, translate

Explain or interpret meaning from a given scenario or statement, suggest treatment, reaction or solution to given problem, create examples or metaphors

Explain, reiterate, reword, critique, classify, summarize, illustrate, translate, review, report, discuss, re-write, estimate, interpret, theorize, paraphrase, reference, example

Applying Use or apply knowledge, put theory into practice, use knowledge in

Put a theory into practical effect, demonstrate, solve a problem, manage an activity

Use, apply, discover, manage, execute, solve, produce,

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response to real circumstances

implement, construct, change, prepare, conduct, perform, react, respond, role-play

Analyzing Interpret elements, organizational principles, structure, construction, internal relationships; quality, reliability of individual components

Identify constituent parts and functions of a process or concept, or de-construct a methodology or process, making qualitative assessment of elements, relationships, values and effects; measure requirements or needs

Analyze, break down, catalogue, compare, quantify, measure, test, examine, experiment, relate, graph, diagram, plot, extrapolate, value, divide

5. Evaluating Assess effectiveness of whole concepts, in relation to values, outputs, efficacy, viability; critical thinking, strategic comparison and review; judgment relating to external criteria

Review strategic options or plans in terms of efficacy, return on investment or cost-effectiveness, practicability; assess sustainability; perform a SWOT analysis in relation to alternatives; produce a financial justification for a proposition or venture, calculate the effects of a plan or strategy; perform a detailed risk analysis with recommendations and justifications

Review, justify, assess, present a case for, defend, report on, investigate, direct, appraise, argue, project-manage

6.Creating Develop new unique structures, systems, models, approaches, ideas; creative thinking, operations

Develop plans or procedures, design solutions, integrate methods, resources, ideas, parts; create teams or new approaches, write protocols or contingencies

Develop, plan, build, create, design, organize, revise, formulate, propose, establish, assemble, integrate, re-arrange, modify

Based on the Anderson and Krathwhol in 2001

2. Bloom's Taxonomy - Affective Domain - (feeling, emotions - attitude - 'feel')

Bloom's Taxonomy second domain, the Affective Domain, was detailed by Bloom, Krathwhol and Masia in 1964 (Taxonomy of Educational Objectives: Volume II, The Affective Domain. Bloom, Krathwohl and Masia.) Bloom's theory advocates this structure and sequence for developing attitude - also now commonly expressed in the modern field of personal development

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as 'beliefs'. Again, as with the other domains, the Affective Domain detail provides a framework for teaching, training, assessing and evaluating the effectiveness of training and lesson design and delivery, and also the retention by and affect upon the learner or trainee.

Affective Domain

Category or 'level'

Behavior descriptions

Examples of experience, or demonstration and evidence to be measured

'Key words' (verbs which describe the activity to be trained or measured at each level)

1. Receiving Open to experience, willing to hear

Listen to teacher or trainer, take interest in session or learning experience, take notes, turn up, make time for learning experience, participate passively

Ask, listen, focus, attend, take part, discuss, acknowledge, hear, be open to, retain, follow, concentrate, read, do, feel

2. Responding React and participate actively

Participate actively in group discussion, active participation in activity, interest in outcomes, enthusiasm for action, question and probe ideas, suggest interpretation

React, respond, seek clarification, interpret, clarify, provide other references and examples, contribute, question, present, cite, become animated or excited, help team, write, perform

3. Valuing Attach values and express personal opinions

Decide worth and relevance of ideas, experiences; accept or commit to particular stance or action

Argue, challenge, debate, refute, confront, justify, persuade, criticize,

4. Organizing or Conceptualizing Values

Reconcile internal conflicts; develop value system

Qualify and quantify personal views, state personal position and reasons, state beliefs

Build, develop, formulate, defend, modify, relate, prioritize, reconcile, contrast, arrange, compare

5. Internalizing or Characterizing Values

Adopt belief system and philosophy

Self-reliant; behave consistently with personal value set

Act, display, influence, solve, practice,

Based on the 'Taxonomy Of Educational Objectives: Volume 2, The Affective Domain' (Bloom, Masia, Krathwohl) 1964. See also 'Taxonomy Of Educational Objectives: Handbook 1, The Cognitive Domain' (Bloom, Engelhart, Furst, Hill, Krathwohl) 1956. This table is adapted and reproduced with permission from Allyn & Bacon, Boston USA, being the publishers and copyright owners of 'Taxonomy Of Educational Objectives' (Bloom et al 1956).

3. Bloom's Taxonomy - Behavioral (Psychomotor) Domain - (physical - skills - 'do')

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The Psychomotor Domain was established to address skills development relating to the physical dimensions of accomplishing a task. Because, 'motor' skills extend beyond the originally traditionally imagined manual and physical skills, always consider using this domain, even if you think your environment is covered adequately by the Cognitive and Affective Domains. Whatever the situation, it is likely that the Psychomotor Domain is significant.

Dave’s Psychomotor (Behavioral) Domain

Category or 'level'

Behavior Descriptions

Examples of activity or demonstration and evidence to be measured

'Key words' (verbs which describe the activity to be trained or measured at each level)

Imitation Copy action of another; observe and replicate

Watch teacher or trainer and repeat action, process or activity

Copy, follow, replicate, repeat, adhere, attempt, reproduce, organize, sketch, duplicate

Manipulation Reproduce activity from instruction or memory

Carry out task from written or verbal instruction

Re-create, build, perform, execute, implement, acquire, conduct, operate

Precision Execute skill reliably, independent of help, activity is quick, smooth, and accurate

Perform a task or activity with expertise and to high quality without assistance or instruction; able to demonstrate an activity to other learners

Demonstrate, complete, show, perfect, calibrate, control, achieve, accomplish, master, refine

Articulation Adapt and integrate expertise to satisfy a new context or task

Relate and combine associated activities to develop methods to meet varying, novel requirements

Solve, adapt, combine, coordinate, revise, integrate, adapt, develop, formulate, modify, master

Naturalization Instinctive, effortless, unconscious mastery of activity and related skills at strategic level

Define aim, approach and strategy for use of activities to meet strategic need

Construct, compose, create, design, specify, manage, invent, project-manage, originate

Based on RH Dave's version of the Psychomotor Domain ('Developing and Writing Behavioral Objectives', 1970. The theory was first presented at a Berlin conference 1967, hence you may see Dave's model attributed to 1967 or 1970).

Adapted from: http://www.businessballs.com

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Theories of Language Learning

Behaviorist Theories (include The Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis)Basic Tenets o    Based on Skinner o    The idea that animal and human learning are similar based on Darwin’s theory. o    All behavior is a response to stimuli.o    No innate pre-programming for language learning at birth (Hadley 2001, pg. 57)o    Learning can also occur through imitation.o    Corrective feedback to correct bad habits o    Language is learned just as another behavior   

Critique o    Chomsky criticized this theory. o    Does not explain the creativity of children in generating language. i.e how can kids overcome grammatical errors without their parents’ correction?

Universal Grammar TheoryBasic Tenetso    A mentalist viewpoint related to nativism and cognitive theory.o    The idea that of Chomsky that all children are born with Language Acquisition Device (Hadley 2001 pg 58).o    Language learning depends on biological mechanisms. o    Children are innately programmed to learn language.o    Each language has its own “parameter settings”.o    The principles that children discover represent their “core grammar” which relates to general principles that correspond to all languages.o    All human brain contains language universals that direct language acquisition  ( Horwitz 2008)o    It can be tested    

Critique o    Is based on first language learning so it may not apply to second language acquisition.o    The way adults and children learn is different.o    Does not consider social factors or individual differences that affect language

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learning. . o    Motivation and attitudes towards the target language does not come into play in this theory. o    It is very Complex o    Only looks at product data

Krashen’s Monitor TheoryBasic Tenetso    Adults have two ways of developing competence in the second language acquisition (subconscious learning) and learning (conscious learning). o    The natural order hypothesis: acquisition of grammatical structures follow a predicable order when is natural (Hadley 2001).o    The monitor Hypothesis: Acquisition is responsible for all second language utterances and fluency. On the contrary, learning is the “editor” and “monitor” for the output (Hadley 2001). o    The input hypothesis: speaking fluency emerges over time. Acquisition on language will happen when we are exposed to the language that is beyond our level. o    Effective filter hypothesis: low effective filter contributes to good learning.o    Error correction should be minimized and only use when the goal is learning. o    Students should not be required to produce speech until they’ re ready.    

Critiqueo    There is a debate between the distinction of learning and acquisition. Krashen’s claim cannot be tested. o    Munsell and Cart (1981) criticized the implication of this theory that language learning is distinct from other types of learning (Hadley 2001).o    There are not clear definitions for some of the terms implemented by Krashen such as “comprehensible input” and acquisition vs. learning. o    Krashen does not explain how effective filters develops and does not take individual differences into account.

Cognitive Theory(Ausubel, McLaughlin, Bialystok, Ellis, Anderson, and others)Basic tenets o    Based on internal and mental processes.o    Focuses on transferring, simplification, generalization, and restructuring that involve second language acquisition. o    Language learning is the result from internal mental activity.

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o    Emphasizes that knowledge and new learning is organized in a mental structure.o    Learner acts, constructs, and plans its own learningo    Analyzes own learningo    Positive and negative feedback is important for restructuring. o     Proficiency develops trough practice and then it becomes automatic.  o    Once new information it’s acquired, existed knowledge is reorganized.  o    Ausubel emphasizes that learning language needs to be meaningful in order to be effective and permanent (Hadley 2001, pg 69).   

Critiqueo    Needs more clarification when referring to complex cognitive skill. o    Does not explain when and how some features of the first language are transfer to the second language and why some don’t transfer.

Conversation TheoriesBasic Tenets o    The idea of learning a second language by participating in conversations o    Importance use of scaffolding o    Gives feedback and suggest ways of improvement o    Does not require production of full sentences but encourages speakingo    Errors should be corrected    

Critique o    Does not focus on teaching grammar

Schumann’s Acculturation TheoryBasic Tenetso    Based on a Social Theory o    Focuses on the multiple perspective of the learner o    Learning a language to function in the target language culture.o    Examines how social forces affect language learning. o    Attitudes and stereotypes towards the target language affect learning. o    Lower social and psychological distance will lead to successful learning o    Errors can be corrected for better acculturation o    There are external factors that affect language acquisition     Critique o    Does not focus on teaching specific grammar

http://ows.edb.utexas.edu/site/sara%C3%ADs-e-porfolio/theories-language-learning

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Learning Strategies

Learning strategies are used by students to help them understand information and solve problems. A learning strategy is a person's approach to learning and using information. Students who do not know or use good learning strategies often learn passively and ultimately fail in school. Learning strategy instruction focuses on making the students more active learners by teaching them how to learn and how to use what they have learned to solve problems and be successful.

The Learning Strategies Curriculum has the necessary breadth and depth to provide a well-designed scope and sequence of strategy instruction. The curriculum is divided into strands, or categories of skills.

One strand addresses how students acquire information. It includes strategies for learning how to paraphrase critical information, picture information to promote understanding and remembering, ask questions and make predictions about text information, and identify unknown words in text.

A second strand helps students study information once they acquire it. It includes strategies for developing mnemonics and other devices to aid memorization of facts as well as strategies for learning new vocabulary. These strategies help prepare students for tests.

A third strand helps students express themselves. It includes strategies to help students write sentences and paragraphs, monitor their work for errors, and confidently approach and take tests.

No single strategy is a panacea. For example, we have reading strategies that help students figure out what a word is, comprehend what they're reading, acquire vocabulary, and understand the structure of text. All of these strategies are essential for a well-integrated, balanced reading program. Likewise, an array of strategies in other areas is necessary for student success..

Strategies for reading

Word Identification Strategy Self-Questioning Strategy Visual Imagery Strategy Inference Strategy Fundamentals of Paraphrasing and Summarizing Paraphrasing Strategy

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Word Mapping Strategy

Strategies for studying & remembering information

FIRST-Letter Mnemonic Strategy Paired Associates Strategy LINCS Vocabulary Strategy Listening and Note-Taking

Strategies for writing

Sentence Writing Strategy (Fundamentals) Sentence Writing Strategy (Proficiency) Paragraph Writing Strategy Theme Writing (Fundamentals) Error Monitoring Strategy InSPECT Strategy (for word-processing spellcheckers) EDIT Strategy

Strategies for improving assignment & test performance

Assignment Completion Strategy Strategic Tutoring Test-Taking Strategy Essay Test-Taking Strategy

Strategies for effectively interacting with others

SLANT - A Classroom Participation Strategy Cooperative Thinking Strategies

o THINK Strategy (Problem Solving)o LEARN Strategy (Learning Critical Information)o BUILD Strategy (Decision Making)o SCORE Skills: Social Skills for Cooperative Groupso Teamwork Strategy

The Community Building Series o Focusing Together o Following Instructions Together o Organizing Together o Taking Notes Togethero Talking Together

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Learning from lectures

The purpose of lectures

Lectures are an opportunity to find out how one lecturer makes sense of the wealth of information and research that has been undertaken on a topic. A good lecturer will use the lecture to give you an overview of the main themes, develop your understanding of the issues, guide you on how to find out more about the subject and the reading you need to undertake. You may also gain details of relevant current issues, explanations of complex material or questions to answer that develop your own thinking and research. The aim is not usually to give you a definitive and comprehensive set of 'facts' on the subject. You are expected to supplement the lecture with reading and interpretations of your own.

Lectures that develop understanding

The finer details of the subject should be available in lecture hand-outs, web-pages or in the recommended reading. This should mean that you do not have to spend the time in the lecture making detailed notes. If you have lecturers like this, your best strategy is:

Focus on listening to the lecture Note how the different themes or issues interconnect, so you gain a good overall grasp of

the subject Make a brief note of key themes Note any additional references Read about the subject of the lecture before and after in order to pick up details. 

Information-rich lectures

Some lecturers will use the lecture to bombard you with information and expect you to take this in at speed. If so, most people will find it difficult to listen and take detailed notes, and it is unlikely that anybody will have a complete set of lecture notes. If you have lecturers like this, your best strategy is:

1. Browse through relevant text books before the lecture. This will give you an idea of what information is in the books - and which you may not need to note in the lecture. You can come back to this after the lecture.

2. It is hard to make sense of lectures where information content is high. Reading something about the subject in advance will help to make more sense of what is said.

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3. Listen carefully for topic headings and references so that you can chase missing information after the lecture.

4. Resist the temptation to write everything down if you can avoid this. It is very hard to catch a complete set of lecture notes.

5. Form a group and go through the lecture notes so you can fill in gaps. Between you, you will have most of the information you need and discussing the notes will help you to understand the subject.

Top tips for learning from lectures

Before the lecture

prepare for lectures - find out what is in the books on the subject so that you are aware of what you do not need to note in the lecture

form an opinion about the subject of the lecture set yourself questions and leave spaces to have these answered during the lecture.

During the lecture

listen to 'make sense' rather than to make notes listen for 'signposts' about what is coming next or for summaries of key points listen for answers to questions you set in advance write yourself questions so you can trace answers and information after the lecture make brief notes of essential points.

After the lecture

read your notes and fill in any gaps discuss the lecture with other people consider how the lecture changed or developed your opinions of the subject label and file your notes.

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Teaching approaches: the communicative classroomBy Tim Bowen

The approach to language teaching that can be broadly labelled as communicative language teaching emerged in the 1970s and 1980s as the emphasis switched from the mechanical practice of language patterns associated with the Audiolingual Method to activities that engaged the learner in more meaningful and authentic language use. Twenty years on it is interesting to look at the legacy of the communicative approach and to observe how current practice has been affected by its basic principles.

Most present-day practitioners would probably like to think that their classes are "communicative" in the widest sense of the word. Their lessons probably contain activities where learners communicate and where tasks are completed by means of interaction with other learners. To this end there will probably be considerable if not extensive use of pair, group and mingling activities, with the emphasis on completing the task successfully through communication with others rather than on the accurate use of form. During these activities the teacher’s role will be to facilitate and then to monitor, usually without interruption, and then to provide feedback on the success or otherwise of the communication and, possibly, on the linguistic performance of the learners in the form of post-activity error correction. In terms of the organization of the lesson, the classic present, practice and perform model, where careful input of a particular structure is typically followed by controlled, less controlled and freer practice is likely to have been replaced by a more task-based approach, possibly on the lines of test, teach, test, where the learners are given a communicative task which is monitored by the teacher and then their language use while performing the task is fine-tuned by the teacher in a lesson stage which focuses on error correction or a particular form that is causing difficulties. This is typically followed by a further task-based stage, where the initial task is repeated or a similar task is performed, ideally with a greater degree of linguistic accuracy than during the first attempt.

Another feature will probably be that the traditional grammatical approach of starting the beginner’s syllabus by presenting the present tense of the verb ‘to be’ will have been replaced by a more communicative focus, with basic introductions, requests and questions enabling learners to begin communicating in English from the very first lesson. It is probably fair to say that, as we look at the language classroom of 2001, there will probably be a certain degree from stepping back from the extremes of the totally communicative classroom, with its obsession about reducing teacher talking time to a minimum and maximizing the opportunities for communication.

This type of approach tended to give the impression of a syllabus without direction and a sense of communication for communication’s sake, producing the valid comment from at least one aggrieved learner: "Groups, groups, groups. Why do I have to talk all the time to my fellow students. I can do this in the coffee-bar!" What we will probably find now is a more balanced

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approach with opportunities for structural input (including practice of language patterns). There will, however, almost certainly be an emphasis on more authentic contexts with example sentences being at the very least semi-authentic and potentially of communicative use rather than arbitrary examples of form with little or no communicative value. In today’s classroom we will probably also see a lot of authentic listening and reading material being used and far fewer contrived texts designed to illustrate grammatical form or present items of vocabulary and with no attempt to communicate a meaningful message to the listener or reader. Perhaps the most enduring legacy of the communicative approach will be that it has allowed teachers to incorporate motivating and purposeful communicative activities and principles into their teaching while simultaneously retaining the best elements of other methods and approaches rather than rejecting them wholesale.

http://www.onestopenglish.com/methodology/teaching-articles/teaching-approaches/teaching-approaches-the-communicative-classroom/146489.article

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The Communicative Approach in English as a Foreign Language Teaching

Leer más: http://www.monografias.com/trabajos18/the-communicative-approach/the-communicative-approach.shtml#ixzz3YSJZv9ku

Enviado por orellana

WHERE DOES COMMUNICATIVE LANGUAGE TEACHING COME FROM?

Its origins are many, insofar as one teaching methodology tends to influence the next. The communicative approach could be said to be the product of educators and linguists who had grown dissatisfied with the audio-lingual and grammar-translation methods of foreign language instruction.

They felt that students were not learning enough realistic, whole language. They did not know how to communicate using appropriate social language, gestures, or expressions; in brief, they were at a loss to communicate in the culture of the language studied. Interest in and development of communicative-style teaching mushroomed in the 1970s; authentic language use and classroom exchanges where students engaged in real communication with one another became quite popular.

In the intervening years, the communicative approach has been adapted to the elementary, middle, secondary, and post-secondary levels, and the underlying philosophy has spawned different teaching methods known under a variety of names, including notional-functional, teaching for proficiency, proficiency-based instruction, and communicative language teaching.

WHAT IS COMMUNICATIVE LANGUAGE TEACHING?

Communicative language teaching makes use of real-life situations that necessitate communication. The teacher sets up a situation that students are likely to encounter in real life. Unlike the audiolingual method of language teaching, which relies on repetition and drills, the communicative approach can leave students in suspense as to the outcome of a class exercise, which will vary according to their reactions and responses. The real-life simulations change from day to day. Students' motivation to learn comes from their desire to communicate in meaningful ways about meaningful topics.

Margie S. Berns, an expert in the field of communicative language teaching, writes in explaining Firth's view that "language is interaction; it is interpersonal activity and has a clear relationship with society. In this light, language study has to look at the use (function) of language in context, both its linguistic context (what is uttered before and after a given piece of discourse) and its

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social, or situational, context (who is speaking, what their social roles are, why they have come together to speak)" (Berns, 1984, p. 5).

WHAT ARE SOME EXAMPLES OF COMMUNICATIVE EXERCISES?

In a communicative classroom for beginners, the teacher might begin by passing out cards, each with a different name printed on it. The teacher then proceeds to model an exchange of introductions in the target language: "Guten Tag. Wieheissen Sie?" Reply: "Icheisse Wolfie," for example. Using a combination of the target language and gestures, the teacher conveys the task at hand, and gets the students to introduce themselves and ask their classmates for information. They are responding in German to a question in German. They do not know the answers beforehand, as they are each holding cards with their new identities written on them; hence, there is an authentic exchange of information.

Later during the class, as a reinforcement listening exercise, the students might hear a recorded exchange between two German freshmen meeting each other for the first time at the gymnasium doors. Then the teacher might explain, in English, the differences among German greetings in various social situations. Finally, the teacher will explain some of the grammar points and structures used.

The following exercise is taken from a 1987 workshop on communicative foreign language teaching, given for Delaware language teachers by Karen Willetts and Lynn Thompson of the Center for Applied Linguistics. The exercise, called "Eavesdropping," is aimed at advanced students.

"Instructions to students" Listen to a conversation somewhere in a public place and be prepared to answer, in the target language, some general questions about what was said.

1. Who was talking?

2. About how old were they?

3. Where were they when you eavesdropped?

4. What were they talking about?

5. What did they say?

6. Did they become aware that you were listening to them?

The exercise puts students in a real-world listening situation where they must report information overheard. Most likely they have an opinion of the topic, and a class discussion could follow, in the target language, about their experiences and viewpoints.

Communicative exercises such as this motivate the students by treating topics of their choice, at an appropriately challenging level.

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Another exercise taken from the same source is for beginning students of Spanish. In "Listening for the Gist," students are placed in an everyday situation where they must listen to an authentic text.

"Objective." Students listen to a passage to get general understanding of the topic or message.

"Directions." Have students listen to the following announcement to decide what the speaker is promoting.

"Passage" "Situacion ideal...Servicio de transporte al Aeropuerto Internacional...Cuarenta y dos habitaciones de lujo, con aire acondicionado...Elegante restaurante...de fama internacional."

(The announcement can be read by the teacher or played on tape.) Then ask students to circle the letter of the most appropriate answer on their copy, which consists of the following multiple-choice options:

a taxi service b. a hotel c. an airport d. a restaurant (Source: Adapted from Ontario Assessment Instrument Pool, 1980, Item No. 13019)

Gunter Gerngross, an English teacher in Austria, gives an example of how he makes his lessons more communicative. He cites a widely used textbook that shows English children having a pet show. "Even when learners act out this scene creatively and enthusiastically, they do not reach the depth of involvement that is almost tangible when they act out a short text that presents a family conflict revolving round the question of whether the children should be allowed to have a pet or not" (Gerngross & Puchta, 1984, p. 92). He continues to say that the communicative approach "puts great emphasis on listening, which implies an active will to try to understand others. [This is] one of the hardest tasks to achieve because the children are used to listening to the teacher but not to their peers. There are no quick, set recipes.

That the teacher be a patient listener is the basic requirement" (p. 98).

The observation by Gerngross on the role of the teacher as one of listener rather than speaker brings up several points to be discussed in the next portion of this digest.

HOW DO THE ROLES OF THE TEACHER AND STUDENT CHANGE IN

COMMUNICATIVE LANGUAGE TEACHING?

Teachers in communicative classrooms will find themselves talking less and listening more--becoming active facilitators of their students' learning (Larsen-Freeman, 1986). The teacher sets up the exercise, but because the students' performance is the goal, the teacher must step back and observe, sometimes acting as referee or monitor. A classroom during a communicative activity is far from quiet, however. The students do most of the speaking, and frequently the scene of a

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classroom during a communicative exercise is active, with students leaving their seats to complete a task.

Because of the increased responsibility to participate, students may find they gain confidence in using the target language in general. Students are more responsible managers of their own learning (Larsen-Freeman, 1986).

Leer más: http://www.monografias.com/trabajos18/the-communicative-approach/the-communicative-approach.shtml#ixzz3YSJnJAct

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How to Write Learning Objectives that Meet Demanding Behavioral Criteria

Dr. Bob Kizlik

Updated December 26, 2014

Accountability is taken to mean a variety of things, and is a major focus of recent education reform efforts being made at national and state levels. Accountability means many things, but one constant is that it requires measureable results based on agreed-upon goals and objectives. Well-stated, clear objectives are fundamental to all professional teaching and measures taken to hold teachers accountable for what their students learn. It also means, in my opinion that the employers of teachers are also accountable for providing the necessary professional resources to the teachers. Anything short of that is simply dishonest. To that end, I have presented this page both on my other site, ADPRIMAX,  and here on the original ADPRIMA site. The information is updated as conditions warrant.

I invite you at this point to check out my program entitled "Catalyst: Tools for Effective Teaching 2.0." It is an update of the original and begins with a thorough tutorial on how to write behavioral learning objectives. It includes modules on lesson planning, classroom management, teaching methods, and much more. Please check it out at http://adprima.com/wlo5.htm

For many, if not most teachers, learning objectives are central to all lesson plans they develop themselves or adapt from those written by others. That said, objectives that are used in education, whether they are called learning objectives, behavioral objectives, instructional objectives, or performance objectives are terms that refer to descriptions of observable student behavior or performance that are used to make inferences about learning - certainly the ultimate aim of all teaching. At some point, almost every teacher, especially new teachers and teacher education students, must learn to write these types of objectives. Here, such objectives are referred to as learning objectives. Acquiring this skill is something of a rite of passage in the process of becoming a teacher, yet it is a skill that requires practice, feedback, and experience. Over the past 30 years or so, the emphasis on, and attention paid to learning objectives has waxed and waned as different ideas change about how best to express instructional intent. To clarify a bit, I have included a rationale for developing and using learning objectives that meet demanding behavioral criteria. It provides in-depth information that you might find helpful. Any skill is learned more effectively if the learner understands the reason for learning and practicing it. Developing this skill in relation composing learning objectives is no exception.

Learning objectives are about curriculum, not instruction. They are concerned with ends, and not necessarily means. This is a key point. Many tend to confuse learning objectives with objectives a teacher may have that relate to student conduct or behavior in a classroom. Properly constructed behavioral learning objectives are about the evidence of learning; they specify what behavior a student must demonstrate or perform in order for a teacher to infer that learning took place. Since learning cannot be seen directly, teachers must make inferences about learning

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from evidence they can see and measure. Learning objectives, if constructed properly, provide an ideal vehicle for making those inferences.

The purpose of a learning objective is to communicate. Therefore, a well-constructed behavioral learning objective should leave little room for doubt about what is intended. A well constructed learning objective describes an intended learning outcome and contains three parts, each of which alone means nothing, but when combined into a sentence or two, communicates the conditions under which the behavior is performed, a verb that describes the behavior itself, and the degree (criteria) to which a student must perform the behavior. If any one of these three components is missing, the objective cannot communicate accurately.

Therefore, the parts of a learning objective are:

1. Conditions (a statement that describes the conditions under which the behavior is to be performed)

2. Behavioral Verb (an action word that connotes an observable student behavior)

3. Criteria (a statement that specifies how well the student must perform the behavior).

A learning objective is the focal point of a lesson plan. It is a description of an intended learning outcome and is the basis for the rest of the lesson. It provides criteria for constructing an assessment for the lesson, as well as for the instructional procedures the teacher designs to implement the lesson. A learning objective determines the criteria for any assessment rubric. As you will see, without a learning objective that clearly communicates specific student behavior or performance, it is difficult, if not impossible to determine exactly what a particular lesson is supposed to accomplish.

In order to write learning objectives, one should begin with an understanding of the particular content to which the objectives will relate. Understanding in more than one way the content to be learned should be a goal of teachers as well as students. This implies that teachers or others who prepare objectives as part of lesson plans or curriculum documents and guides should have more than superficial knowledge of the appropriate content. Writing a series of objectives that are within a body of content, but which have neither internal nor external consistency with that body of content is not a productive use of time. However, the purpose of this is not to delve into the area of curriculum consistency, but rather present some pointers to help the reader write better objectives. So, with that in mind, let's begin.

1. The Conditions

The conditions part of an objective specify the circumstances, commands, materials, directions, etc., that the student is given to initiate the behavior. All behavior relevant to intended student learning outcomes can best be understood within a context of the conditions under which the behavior is to be performed or demonstrated. The conditions part of an objective usually begins with a simple declarative statement such as the following:

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Upon request the student will (this means the student is given an oral or written request to do something).

Given (some physical object) the student will (this means the student is actually given something, such as a map, a number or multiplication problems, a literary passage, etc., that relates to performing the intended behavior).

Notice that in the examples above, there is no mention of the description of the instruction that precedes the initiation of the behavior. The instruction that leads to the behavior should never be included in the actual objective. Instruction that leads students to accomplishing an objective is a separate issue. Here, we want to concentrate on describing only the conditions under which the desired student behavior is to be performed.

2. The Verb

We all learned in elementary school that a verb is an action word. In a learning objective, the verb is also an action word, but it is also a special kind of action word. The verb in a learning objective is an action word that connotes an observable behavior. For example, although we as teachers all want our students to appreciate one thing or another, it is impossible to see when a student "appreciates" something. Understand is another noble word that connotes something we want our students to do, but we cannot see "understanding." The best we can do is make inferences that a student appreciates or understands something based on what the student does or says in a controlled situation.

What then are behavioral verbs? The answer is quite simple. A behavioral verb is a word that denotes an observable action, or the creation of an observable product. Verbs such as identify, name, and describe are behavioral because you can observe the act or product of identifying, naming, or describing. Some verbs are embedded in a phrase that gives them a specific behavioral meaning. Examples are state a rule and apply a rule. In this case the behavior is contextual, and the context is the rule in question.

3. The Criteria

The criteria part of a learning objective is a declarative statement that describes how well the behavior must be performed to satisfy the intent of the behavioral verb. Usually, criteria are expressed in some minimum number, or as what must be, as a minimum, included in a student response. For example, an objective might be of the form: Given a list of the first 100 numbers arranged in ascending order (conditions), the student will identify (verb) at least nine prime numbers (criteria). Notice that the objective doesn't specify which nine numbers, and sets a floor of at least nine as a minimum. Also, the method by which the student identifies the minimum nine prime numbers is not specified; that is determined in the actual assessment. The student could circle the numbers, highlight them, draw line through them, etc. It is also implied that the student will be correct if he identifies more than nine correctly, but does not specify whether it is acceptable to identify nine correctly and one or more incorrectly. According to the objective, it would be acceptable to circle the following numbers and still meet the intent of the objective: 2-3-5-7-11-13-17-19-23-24-26, because he got nine correct, and two (24-26) incorrect. If the

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student must identify only prime numbers, then the objective would need to be modified to include that provision.

Putting it all together

Well-written learning objectives are the heart of any lesson plan. If the objectives you compose are "fuzzy" and difficult, if not impossible to assess, the rest of the lesson plan you create that is based on the objective is likely to be flawed. Before you begin to write an objective, spend a little time thinking about what you are describing, and remember to make the student behavior observable. You will find this process helps you to clarify what you intend, and you will be better able to communicate that intent to your students, regardless of their grade level, age, or subject. On the matter of being "fuzzy," remember this: fuzzy thinking might get you through the day, but it will never get you through a career.

Any time you write a learning objective, ask yourself the question, "Does this objective clearly communicate and describe the intended learning outcome?" If you can find exceptions or loopholes as a way of meeting the objective, then the objective should be rewritten. Learning to write learning objectives that describe what you want takes patience and practice. Make sure you get as much feedback as possible about your efforts.

http://www.adprima.com/verbs.htm

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