prohibida documento_0pos_^/t02.pdf · topic 2: teorías generales sobre aprendizaje y la...
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Tema 2: Teorías generales sobre aprendizaje y la adquisición de una lengua extranjera. El concepto de Interlengua. El tratamiento del error.
Madhatter Wylder
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T
Ta
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Teorías generales
Teorías ge
able of con
General pe1.1. Linguis
1.1.1. Stru1.1.2. Cog
1.2. Sociolin1.2.1. The 1.2.2. Spee1.2.3. Mot
1.2.3.1.1.2.3.2.1.2.3.3.1.2.3.4.1.2.3.5.1.2.3.6.
1.2.4. Apti
1.3. Neuroli1.3.1. Hem1.3.2. Age
1.3.2.1.1.3.2.2.1.3.2.3.
Treatment 2.1. Introdu
2.2. Error A2.2.1. Con2.2.2. Cord
Interlangu
Brief summ
bibliograph
sobre aprendizaje
enerales soEl conce
tents
erspectives ostics _______ucturalism ____gnitivism _____
nguistics: __Labovian par
ech accommotivation. _____. Definition of. Intrinsic and. Motivation in. Integrative M. Instrumental. Conclusion itude. _______
inguistics __misphere domie hypothesis. __. Introduction . Critical perio. Critical perio
of errors __uction _____
Analysis (EAntrastive Analyder (1967): In
age _______
mary. ______
hy ________
e y la adquisición
bre aprendepto de Int
on SLA ______________
________________________
__________radigm _____
odation theory ____________f Motivation _
d Extrinsic Mon SLA _____
Motivation. __l Motivation ____________
____________
__________inance ______
_______________________od for first lanod for second
____________________
A): its roots ysis ________ntroduction of
__________
__________
__________
Topic 2:de una lengua ext
Topic 2izaje y la aerlengua. E
_____________________________________________
_______________________
(SAT). _____________________________otivation _________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________nguage acquislanguage acqu
_____________________
and develop____________f the Concept '
__________
__________
__________
tranjera. El conce
2: dquisición
El tratamien
_____________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________ition ________uisition _____
_____________________
pment _________________Error Analysi
__________
__________
__________
pto de Interlengu
de una lengnto del erro
_____________________
________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_____________________
_______________________is' _________
__________
__________
__________
a. El tratamiento
Iván Matella
gua extranjor.
____________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
____________________
__________________________________
__________
__________
__________
del error.
anes’ Notes
2
jera.
_____ 3 ______ 3 ______ 3 ______ 5
______ 6 ______ 6 ______ 7 ______ 8 ______ 8 ______ 9 _____ 10 _____ 10 _____ 10 _____ 11 _____ 11
_____ 12 _____ 12 _____ 13 _____ 13 _____ 14 _____ 14 ____ 16 _____ 16 _____ 17 _____ 18 _____ 18 ____ 20
____ 23
____ 24
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Topic 2: Teorías generales sobre aprendizaje y la adquisición de una lengua extranjera. El concepto de Interlengua. El tratamiento del error.
Iván Matellanes’ Notes
3
1. General perspectives on SLA
1.1. Linguistics There are two major linguistic theories that count for the Acq of the SL:
1.1.1. Structuralism Bloomfield’s work language (1933) stated than:
- Lg consists of externally conditioned habits, so learning a Lg consists of
the acquisition of a new set of habits.
- Habits are acquired through the formation of a paradigm of response
conditioned to a particular stimulus and then generalized to other
similar stimuli (behaviorism).
- Learning a SL means displacing one set of habits or linguistic
structure & replacing it with a new one.
Bloomfield sees the child as acquiring a word separately in
comprehension and production, and only later connecting the two.
This view sees children as learning to imitate the speech of adults.
Bloomfield claims that children do not ever invent words but have an
imperfect exposure to the correct range of meanings. Bloomfield's theories are
testable, however: we are able to observe infants with their mothers and
determine whether or not children imitate adult words with their own similar
utterances. Unfortunately, like many language acquisition researchers of his
time, Bloomfield tends to concentrate on early word use and pronunciation, and
neglects the acquisition of grammar. He has no theory that explains how
syntax is acquired, but he does emphasise (possibly too enthusiastically) the
role of correction by the parent. E.g. A response to "Daddy bringed it" would
be "NO! Daddy brought it!"
Lado’s work linguistics across cultures (1957) introduced a new line of
research based on structural contrasts between Lgs. Similar linguistic structures
imply learning facility due to transfer from one system to another, while
differences imply learning difficulty due to contrast between two different
habits. This was the origin of the Contrastive analysis. CA is a branch of
applied Linguistics introduced in the 1930's which is concerned with
Structuralism
1. Lg is acq of a new set of habits
2. Habits acquired through conditioned responses to stimulus
3. Learning a SL is replacing a set of habits for new ones.
Structuralism 1st Lg Acq a) Children acquire words separately in comprehension & prod.
b) Children imitate Adult speech.
Similar linguistic structures imply learning facility due to transfer from one system to another, while differences imply learning difficulty
Lado’s contrastive analysis
c) Children do not invent words
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Topic 2: Teorías generales sobre aprendizaje y la adquisición de una lengua extranjera. El concepto de Interlengua. El tratamiento del error.
Iván Matellanes’ Notes
4
"producing inverted (i.e. contrastive, not comparative) two-valued
typologies (a CA is always concerned with a pair of languages), and founded
on the assumption that languages can be compared". CA theory claimed
that "speakers tend to hear another language and attempt to produce
utterances in it in terms of the structure of their own language, thus
accounting for their accent 1 in L2,". In SLA-oriented CA, comparable features of
L1 and L2 are identified and described, and mismatches are identified that are
likely to lead to error on the part of the learner; CA is said to be able to
predict and diagnose errors. This application is based on the concept of
linguistic transfer, which is said to happen when knowledge about one
language is applied (correctly or not) to another and intuitively would seem to
explain why language learners make the mistakes they do.
The most serious arguments against CA were that its foundations were in
structuralism and behavioralism, which had begun to lose favour.
Furtheremore, CA was not an effective method for predicting errors that
learners actually make. Briere (1966) reported on an experiment in which
American students were played non-English sounds from Arabic, Vietnamese,
and French and asked to reproduce them. While there were some cases of clear
L1 transfer, Briere found that in other cases the students approximated one
non-English sound with another (/r/ for /fl/), which would not be predicted by
CA. Furthermore, it was observed that some of the non-English sounds were
easier than others for the American students to learn (Briere gives the example
of a voiceless non-aspirated fortis dental stop as being easier than the
dentalized version), a phenomenon for which CA does not provide an
explanation
1 where accent refers not only to phonological accent, but to all elements in the presentation of speech that mark the speaker as foreign (Ferguson, 1989, p.82)
There are some problems with CA Hypothesis: 1. Errors occur that are not due to L1. 2. Errors don’t occur when they are predicted. 3. Paradigm shift from behaviorist to mentalist views in linguistics. 3.1. Errors in child language part of rule formation and not part of child’s linguistic environment. 3.2. Imitation and reinforcement/correction don’t seem to be important to Lg acquisition.
CA theory claimed: Speakers tend to hear another Lg & attempt to produce utterances in it in terms of the structure of their own MT.
CA is said to be able to predict and diagnose errors based on the concept of linguistic transfer
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Topic 2: Teorías generales sobre aprendizaje y la adquisición de una lengua extranjera. El concepto de Interlengua. El tratamiento del error.
Iván Matellanes’ Notes
5
1.1.2. Cognitivism Chomsky’s syntactic Structures (1957) supported Lg creativity against
behaviourist positions. He developed a transformational-generative
grammar & introduced new concepts in Lg structure:
- The distinction between an infinite external behaviour (performance)
and a finite internal set of rules (competence)2. Thanks to this innate
set of rules, a human being can create an infinite number of sentences
from a finite number of rules.
- The existence of a specific cognitive mechanism for Lg acquisition: the
Language Acquisition device (LAD). The LAD is an innate device,
just dedicated to Lg acquisition and only human beings have such
a device. The child’s mind is a black box whose internal workings cannot
be inspected. Into it go the Lg data, out of it comes grammatical
competence, Ss. The child LAD takes an input & produces output. If
smthing is found in the output that cannot be derived from the
input, it must have come from the LAD itself.
- The presence of rules that are shared by all Lgs & consist of a set of
parameters. This set of parameters constitutes a model of Universal
Grammar (UG).
Let us look more closely at how children Acq settings for Parameters.
- The parameters in the child’s mind can be thought of as on/off switches,
each to be turned to suit the Lg that is heard. So, Acq the grammar of
UK means setting all the UG parameters in the UK way.
- Children learn either from positive evidence3 & from indirect
negative evidence4.
- Hearing a few sentences is enough to set the parameter one way or
another.
2 What speakers know (competence) against what speakers actually do on some particular occasions (performance) 3 Occurrence of particular sentences in the speech children hear tells them which sort of Lg they are encountering. 4 The fact that certain forms do not occur in the sentence the children hear may be enough to set a parameter.
Cognitivism
-Infinite external behaviour (performance) and a finite set of rules (competence)
-Specific cognitive mechanism for Lg Acquisition: LAD.
Genetically conditioned: innate
Species conditioned: Human beings
- Rules that are shared by all Lgs & consist of a set of parameters: Universal grammar.
a) parameters in the child’s mind can be thought of as on/off switches, each to be turned to suit the Lg that is heard.
b) Children learn either from both:
Positive evidence: What the children actually hear
Indirect negative evidence: What children do not hear.
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Topic 2: Teorías generales sobre aprendizaje y la adquisición de una lengua extranjera. El concepto de Interlengua. El tratamiento del error.
Iván Matellanes’ Notes
6
We can distinguish 3 logical possibilities for parameters:
1. The switch is in a neutral position; F. ex.: the child is equally
prepared for pro-drop5 or non-pro-drop.
2. The switch is set in one direction; F.ex.: The switch is set to non-
pro-drop.
3. The switch is set in the contrary direction; F.ex.: The switch is set
to pro-drop, the reverse position.
The discussion of Acq is no longer concerned with what happens in one Lg; The
interest lies in finding how the child’s UG can cope equally well with diff Lgs.
1.2. Sociolinguistics: Language is one of the most powerful emblems of social behaviour. In
the normal transfer of information through language, we use language to send
vital social messages about who we are, where we come from, and
who we associate with. It is often shocking to realize how extensively we
may judge a person's background, character, and intentions based simply upon
the person's language, dialect, or, in some instances, even the choice of a
single word. Given the social role of language, it stands to reason that one
strand of language study should concentrate on the role of language in society.
Sociolinguistics has become an increasingly important and popular field of
study, as certain cultures around the world expand their communication base
and intergroup and interpersonal relations take on escalating significance.
Three approaches to Sociolinguistics must be considered here:
1.2.1. The Labovian paradigm William Labov has been more influential than any other researcher in
establishing the notion that Lg varies systematically in accordance with social
characteristics of the speaker. Labov’s theories are based on five axioms:
5 Pro-drop: In some Lgs, the subject (small-pro) can be omitted. English, for example, is a non-pro-drop Lg, because the subject must be present always in a sentence.
c) 3 logical possibilities for parameters settings:
Neutral position
One direction
Contrary direction
Sociolinguistics
We use Lg to send vital social messages about who we are, where we come from, and who we associate with.
William Labov
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Topic 2: Teorías generales sobre aprendizaje y la adquisición de una lengua extranjera. El concepto de Interlengua. El tratamiento del error.
Iván Matellanes’ Notes
7
1. Style shifting: Speakers are able to shift their style in order to
converge or diverge with their interlocutors.
2. Attention to style shifting is necessary to achieve the goals of
convergence or divergence. Otherwise …
3. The vernacular (default style) is the style a speaker turns to when
s/he is not paying attention to style shifting.
4. Formality is a determinant factor in style shifting. The more formal a
conversation is, the more the speakers try to converge in style.
5. A good amount of data is necessary in order to establish relevant
style shifting.
As a poststructuralist approach Labov's approach demonstrates a new way
of doing research on language: the combination of structural elements
with sociological features, but ignoring the statics of structuralism. His way
to describe language change is independent of the variable of time; it
refers to simultaneously existing differences in one language and searches for
reasons why one speaker uses a certain variety.
L. Dickerson extended Labov’s claims for L1 to the L2 situation. She
claimed that:
- There are NO single style speakers.
- The dimension of attention operates whether the Lg is native or non-
native.
- The style where there is the least amount of attention to speech is the
vernacular. When attention is focused on speech, we get the
superordinate style. The vernacular is the more regular & systematic,
the superordinate is the least regular and systematic.
1.2.2. Speech accommodation theory (SAT). SAT explains motivations underlying shifts in people's speech
styles during social encounters (e.g., convergence6 vs. divergence7), and
some of the social consequences arising from them. One of the first
theoretical discussions of the relevance of SAT to SLA was offered by Beebe
6 Speakers adjust their speech to accommodate it to the speech of the interlocutor(s) 7 Speakers adjust their speech to become less similar to the speech of the interlocutor(s)
a) Style shifting in order to converge or diverge with their interlocutors
b) Attention to style shifting is necessary
c) vernacular is the style a speaker turns to when s/he is not paying attention d) Formality is a determinant factor in style shifting
e) good amount of data is necessary to shift style
Extended Labov claims: - No single style speakers. - Dimension of attention works in non-native Lgs. - Vernacular vs. superordinate style.
Speech accommodation theory:
SAT explains motivations underlying shifts in people's speech styles during social encounters (convergence vs. divergence), and some of the social consequences arising from them
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Topic 2: Teorías generales sobre aprendizaje y la adquisición de una lengua extranjera. El concepto de Interlengua. El tratamiento del error.
Iván Matellanes’ Notes
8
and Giles (1984). They discuss learning as occurring when the learner
converges toward the NS’s speech in order to achieve certain
communicative effects or gain social approval from the NS. These
concepts of SAT have been adopted in a few interlanguage pragmatics studies.
Accommodative shifts toward L2 norms of speaking, however, are not
always considered desirable by the learner, especially when it comes to
pragmatic behaviour that reflects their beliefs about who they are. In this
respect, Giles and Byrne’s (1982) Intergroup Theory (IT) of SAT offers a useful
framework for understanding how such factors facilitate or impede NS
proficiency in an L2. According to IT, a learner who perceives using an L2
as a betray to his/her ethnic identity is not likely to achieve NS
proficiency of the TL. On the other hand, a learner who regards L2 learning
as additive and who has integrative motivation and positive attitudes
towards the outgroup culture is more likely to achieve NS proficiency
not only in vocabulary and grammar but also in sociolinguistic mastery of the
L2. Therefore, maximal convergence, Giles’ (1979) term, is not achieved in
many cases of adult pragmatic acquisition because adults tend to have two
competing socio-psychological needs: the need to become proficient in
the L2 versus the need to mark their own ethnic identity by preserving
some of the L1 privilege features. Consequently, most adult learners develop a
unique intercultural system to resolve this conflict.
1.2.3. Motivation.
1.2.3.1. Definition of Motivation Gardner defined motivation in his social-psychological model as “the
combination of effort plus desire to achieve the goal of learning the
language plus favourable attitude toward learning the language”. It is
an inner state or condition that power up behaviour and gives it direction, a
desire that energizes and directs goal-oriented behaviour, an influence of needs
and desires on the intensity and direction of behaviour, and the arousal,
direction, and persistence of behaviour. But it also concerns the reasons or
Intergroup theory (IT): learner who perceives using an L2 as a betray to his/her ethnic identity is not likely to achieve NS proficiency of the TL
On the contrary, learner who has integrative motivation and positive attitudes towards the outgroup culture is more likely to achieve NS proficiency
Maximal convergence is not achieved because of two competing socio-psychological needs:
Become proficient in the L2
Their own ethnic identity
Motivation:
Combination of effort plus desire plus favourable attitude toward learning the language
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Topic 2: Teorías generales sobre aprendizaje y la adquisición de una lengua extranjera. El concepto de Interlengua. El tratamiento del error.
Iván Matellanes’ Notes
9
goals that underlie their involvement in academic activities. Although students
may be equally motivated, the source of their motivation may be different.
1.2.3.2. Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation In general, motivation can be considered as either intrinsic (behavioural,
needs) or extrinsic (cognitive and humanistic, reinforcement). Intrinsic
motivation is generally possessed by people having personal interest(s) in
doing something and helping to set their goals. People are intrinsically
motivated not because accomplishing the activity they do brings a reward, but
because doing the activity itself is a reward. Mark Lepper notes that a
student with intrinsic motivation participates in his/her learning “for its own
sake, for the enjoyment it provides, the learning it permits, or the feelings of
accomplishment it evokes.” The feelings of competence and self-determination
are significant factors of intrinsic motivation.
Extrinsic motivation, on the other hand, derives from an
anticipation of rewards such as praise, awards, prizes, and evaluation, and
fear for punishment. An extrinsically motivated student do the activity “in order
to obtain some reward or avoid some punishment external to the activity itself”,
and this kind of motivation “refers to learning situations where the reason
for doing a task is something other than an interest in the task (or
broader learning endeavour) itself. In addition, undertaking the task may be
something the person feels pressured to do rather than genuinely wants to do”.
There are some negative aspects of extrinsic motivation. Deci and Ryan state
that learners will lose motivation and reason to do something when
rewards are no longer available, and that giving external rewards to them
previously with intrinsic motivation can harm the good effect of it. However,
researches show that extrinsic motivation is effective for those with no
motivation, and when it is a positive feedback.
Comparing these two types of motivation in a classroom, it becomes
clear that intrinsic motivation produces more potential benefits than does the
extrinsic. Intrinsically motivated students tend to try harder and think more
deeply. It is also found by researchers that they tend to prefer Comprehensible
input (i+1) when others tend to choose easier tasks.
- Intrinsic motivation: Personal interest(s) in doing something
- Extrinsic motivation: Derives from an anticipation of external rewards
Learners will probably lose motivation when rewards are no longer available
- Extrinsic motivation: Derives from an anticipation of external rewards
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Topic 2: Teorías generales sobre aprendizaje y la adquisición de una lengua extranjera. El concepto de Interlengua. El tratamiento del error.
Iván Matellanes’ Notes
10
1.2.3.3. Motivation in SLA The most dominant work in SLA studies of motivation has been done by
Gardner and his associates. In his socio-cultural approach, attitudes play an
important role. He stated that “motivation to learn a second language is
influenced by group related and context related attitudes,
integrativeness and attitudes toward the learning situation
respectively”. A person who has positive attitudes to the target culture and
people is thus considered well-motivated. In general, Gardner’s model of
integrative/instrumental motivation precisely describes the particular features of
motivation in SLA.
1.2.3.4. Integrative Motivation. Gardner’s idea was developed from Mower’s idea that to be like a valued
person is important in individual development. Gardner and Lambent described
the motivation as wanting to be respected and identified in a foreign
setting, to be like the foreign people, to understand the culture and
participate in it, and called this concept “integrative motivation”.
Integrative motivation is basically a motivation to be a member of a target
society in a foreign setting but it also includes a motivation coming from just
an interest or a favourable feeling to a target culture or people. McDonough
noted that there are two types of integrative motivation; “assimilative
motivation”, strong motivation to “belong” to the target group, and
“affiliative motivation”, weak motivation and a desire for wider social
contact with target language speakers. Dickinson notes that Learners who are
integratively motivated seems to have a strong intrinsic motivation to learn a
language.
1.2.3.5. Instrumental Motivation Gardner and Lambert described “instrumental motivation” as a
motivation to acquire some advantages by learning a second
language. A learner with instrumental motivation regards language as an
instrument to get a reward. Though “instrumental motivation” also influences
second language learning, to the extent that an instrumental motive is tied to a
specific goal, its influence tends to be maintained only until that goal is
Motivation in SLA
Integrative motivation is basically a motivation to be a member of a target society.
Integrative motivation is basically a motivation to be a member of a target society.
Assimilative motivation.
Affiliative motivation
Instrumental motivation: Motivation to acquire some advantages by learning a SL.
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Topic 2: Teorías generales sobre aprendizaje y la adquisición de una lengua extranjera. El concepto de Interlengua. El tratamiento del error.
Iván Matellanes’ Notes
11
achieved. On the other hand, if the goal is continuous, it seems possible
that an instrumental motivation would also continue to be effective.
1.2.3.6. Conclusion Motivation is one of the crucial factors which determine the success of
language learning. Intrinsic motivation is the most fundamental motivation,
which is derived from the feeling of being competent and self-determinant.
People are motivated to be approved by others and to feel competent.
Whereas intrinsic motivation is essential for successful language learning, it
does not seem sufficient itself, and intrinsic motive is mediated by “cognition”
and “society”, which is when motivation occurs within self. Some ideas to foster
motivation to learn in the classroom are suggested: (1) teachers should view
learners as “active socialization agents capable of stimulating...learner
motivation to learn”, (2) classroom climate should be valued, (3) various task
dimensions work, tasks should be moderately challenging and yet achievable,
(4) tasks with specific, short-term goals can help learners to success, (5)
teachers should offer extrinsic rewards with caution.
1.2.4. Aptitude. Even though the relationship btw aptitude (=aptitudes) & SL learning
success is a very important one, it has largely been ignored. J.B. Carroll is the
name associated most with studies of SL learning aptitude. He is the originator
of the standard “four component” view of language aptitude.
1. Phonemic coding ability: Ability to code sounds so that they can be
retained for more than a few seconds.
2. Grammatical sensibility: Ability to identify the functions that
words fulfil in sentences
3. Inductive Lg learning ability: Ability to take some data from the TL
and make generalisations from that material.
4. Memory & learning: Ability to form links between native and foreign
language.
Aptitudes:
Carroll’s Standard “four component” view of language aptitude:
a) Phonemic coding ability: Ability to code sounds
b) Grammatical sensibility: Ability to identify the functions that words fulfil in sentences c) Inductive Lg learning ability: Ability to make generalisations
d) Memory & learning: Ability to form links between the MT & the FL.
Sociolinguistics
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Iván Matellanes’ Notes
12
These four abilities seem to be a reasonable predictor of SL learning success in
that a person who is excellent in one or more of these abilities would seem to
be at an advantage in learning a SL.
1.3. Neurolinguistics The most interesting lines of research in this field are based on clinical
examinations of aphasics. The most important objectives have been the
establishment of hemisphere dominance & finding a critical age in Lg learning.
1.3.1. Hemisphere dominance Early research attempted to offer support for hemisphere dominance:
- The left hemisphere of the brain is the one where most linguistic
skills are found.
- Though Broca's Area function has
not been strictly limited, most studies
agree that this area of the frontal lobe,
in the dominant hemisphere of an
individual, is primarily related to
speech production. Broca's area is usually associated with
maintenance a list of words and parts of words used in producing
speech, and their associated meanings. It has been linked to
articulation of speech, and to semantic processing, or assigning
meanings to words we use.
- Wernicke's area is a semantic
processing area. It is associated with
some memory functions, especially
the short-term memory involved in
speech recognition and production, as
well as some hearing function and object identification. Wernicke's
area is most often associated with language comprehension, or
processing of incoming language, whether it be written or spoken.
This distinction between speech and language is key to understanding
the role of Wernicke's area to language. It does not simply affect spoken
Neurolinguistics
Hemisphere dominance:
Left hemisphere is where most linguistic skills are found.
Broca’s Area
Related to speech production: list of words & their associated meanings
Wernicke’s Area
Related processing area: Associated to Lg comprehension, or processing of incoming Lg.
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Iván Matellanes’ Notes
13
language, but also written and signed language. Wernicke's area
works with Broca's area, Wernicke's handling incoming speech
and Broca's handling outgoing speech.
- It has been also defended that the left hemisphere is specialized for 1st
Lg Acq, whereas the right hemisphere is specialized for SLA.
In SLA, during the first phases of the process, children have shown right
hemisphere dominance, while adults have shown more left hemisphere activity.
According to the manner of SLA, informal learning is related to right
hemisphere activity, while the left hemisphere is more active in formal learning.
1.3.2. Age hypothesis.
1.3.2.1. Introduction The Critical Period (CP) Hypothesis in essence states that the ability to
learn a language is limited to the years before puberty (9 to 12 years old) after
which, most probably as a result of maturational processes in the brain, this
ability disappears. Since Penfield & Roberts (1959), and especially since
Lenneberg (1967), this has been one of the most hotly debated issues in
psycholinguistics and, generally, in neurolinguistics.
Nowadays there seems to be a wide acceptance that there is a CP for
first language (FL) acquisition, with compelling evidence that, unless they
are exposed to language in the early years of life, humans lose the
ability to learn a language, especially its grammatical system. The
situation with (adult) SL acquisition however appears to be far less clear.
While it is true that very few adult SL learners achieve native
competence in the SL, some competence is nevertheless acquired,
which seems to go against the notion of a biological constraint on language
learning.
The issue of CP is closely related to the issue of access to UG in SL
learning: a CP hypothesis would entail that after a certain age (e.g. early
teens) UG is no longer available.
Right hemisphere is specialized for SLA
Age hypothesis:
Critical Period Hypothesis states that the ability to learn a Lg is limited to the years before puberty (9 to 12 y.o.)
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Iván Matellanes’ Notes
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1.3.2.2. Critical period for first language acquisition Nowadays there appears to be a wide acceptance of the idea that FL
acquisition is subject to maturational constraints. As it has been pointed
out, the homogeneity of the process in terms of onset, rate, sequences, age of
completion, level of ultimate attainment, etc. across cultures and environments
suggests that it is biologically scheduled. In addition, there is an increasing
body of evidence from a variety of sources, such as FL acquisition by
linguistically isolated children (the so called feral children, among whom the
tragic Genie is the best documented case), acquisition by hearing children of
deaf adults, by deaf children of hearing adults, late acquisition of American Sign
Language, etc. all of which lend support to the CP hypothesis for FL acquisition.
1.3.2.3. Critical period for second language acquisition The issue of CP for SLA is considerably less clear and remains among the
most hotly debated issues in SL research. It should be noted that a CP for SL
acquisition does not necessarily follow from a CP for FL acquisition. The latter
means that there is a limited period in the early years of life when individuals
can exercise a (special) language learning ability, and if this ability is not
exercised (e.g. as a consequence of linguistic isolation during this period), it
dies away and can never again be exercised. In the case of SL acquisition,
we have individuals who have successfully exercised their language
ability during the CP and have attained the normal high level of
competence in their FL. The crucial question here is: does the language
ability die away after the CP without taking into account whether it has been
exercised during the CP or not? For many, the fact that, in contrast to late FL
starters, adult SL learners can achieve a very high level of competence
in the SL can be seen as evidence favoring such a position. Others have
pointed to the highly variable success rate in SL learning and the widely
known fact that native competence in the SL can only be achieved by
very young starters, suggesting that maturational constraints apply to
SL learning as well. The crucial question then seems to be not so much
whether children are more successful SL learners than adults, but rather
whether it is impossible for adult SL learners to achieve native
SLA: native competence in the SL can only be achieved by very young starters.
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Topic 2: Teorías generales sobre aprendizaje y la adquisición de una lengua extranjera. El concepto de Interlengua. El tratamiento del error.
Iván Matellanes’ Notes
15
competence in the TL, because, as Long puts it, "[t]he easiest way to falsify
[the CP hypothesis] would be to produce learners who have demonstrably
attained native-like proficiency despite having begun exposure well after the
closure of the hypothesized sensitive periods". There have been several
experimental studies in recent years in which the researchers identified–usually
after rigorous screening - some highly proficient SL learners whose exposure to
the SL had only begun in adulthood, and using various experimental techniques
(more often than not, grammaticality judgements) compared their competence
in the SL to that of native speakers. The results from these studies appear to
indicate that achieving native competence by adult SL learners, while
extremely rare, is not impossible, thus arguably proving that the CP
hypothesis does not hold for non-primary languages.
Many studies have given evidence that young children are more likely to
attain a native-like proficiency in a SL than are teenagers or adults.
Nevertheless, adults often learn certain parts of a new Lg more
quickly (morphological & syntactic development). The evidence is much
more solid for an advantage for young children in the acquisition of
phonology.
To sum up, young children are more successful SL learners than adults.
Why is this case?
- Psychological reasons: Adults do not want to give up the sense of
identity their accent (1st Lg) provides.
- Cognitive factors: Adults have greater cognitive abilities than children.
Ironically, these abilities have ended up in a less successful learning of
the SL, probably due to the LAD.
- Neurological changes that prevent adults from using their brains the
same way children do.
Achieving native competence by adult SL learners, while extremely rare, is not impossible
- Psychological reasons
- Cognitive factors (LAD)
- Neurological changes.
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Topic 2: Teorías generales sobre aprendizaje y la adquisición de una lengua extranjera. El concepto de Interlengua. El tratamiento del error.
Iván Matellanes’ Notes
16
2. Treatment of errors In the late 1970s, several researchers conducted comparative studies on
first and SLA with an emphasis on the L2 acquisition process. Researchers
analyzed the speech of second-language learners and, based on their analyses,
many concluded that there are similarities between the two processes. Among
the first to speculate about a possible relation between first- and SLA were
COOK (1973), CORDER (1967) and SELINKER (1972). CORDER stresses the
importance of differentiating between “mistakes” that are the products of
chance circumstances (e.g., memory lapses, physical states and strong
emotion) and “errors” which reveal the learner’s underlying knowledge
of the language to date, or the learner’s transitional competence. He
recommends a linguistic study of a second-language learner’s errors as an
indicator of the learner’s testing of the only question that he or she needs to
ask: “Are the systems of the new language the same or different from those of
the language I know?”
2.1. Introduction Before 1960s, when the behaviouristic viewpoint of language
learning was prevailing, learner errors were considered something
undesirable and to be avoided. It is because in behaviourists perspectives,
people learn by responding to external stimuli and receiving proper
reinforcement. A proper habit is being formed by reinforcement, hence learning
takes place. Therefore, errors were considered to be a wrong response
to the stimulus, which should be corrected immediately after they were
made. Unless corrected properly, the error became a habit and a wrong
behavioural pattern would stick in your mind.
This viewpoint of learning influenced greatly the language classroom,
where teachers concentrated on memorisation of target forms and tried
to instil (=inculcar) the correct patterns of the form into learners' mind. If
learners made any mistake while repeating words, phrases or
sentences, the teacher corrected their mistakes immediately. Errors were
ERRORS
mistakes that are the products of chance circumstances (performance) & errors which reveal the learner’s underlying knowledge of the language to date (Competence)
Behaviourism: Learner errors were considered something undesirable & to be avoided
Errors were a wrong response to the stimulus
If learners made any mistake, the teacher corrected their mistakes immediately
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Topic 2: Teorías generales sobre aprendizaje y la adquisición de una lengua extranjera. El concepto de Interlengua. El tratamiento del error.
Iván Matellanes’ Notes
17
regarded as something you should avoid and making an error was considered
to be fatal to proper language learning processes.
This belief of learning was eventually discarded by the well-known
radically different perspective proposed by N. Chomsky (1957). He wrote in
his paper against B.F. Skinner, that human learning, especially language
acquisition, cannot be explained by simply starting off with a "tabula
rasa" state of mind. He claimed that human beings must have a certain kind
of innate capacity which can guide you through a vast number of sentence
generation possibilities and have a child acquire a grammar of that language
until the age of five or six with almost no exception. He called this capacity
"Universal Grammar" and claimed that it is this very human faculty that
linguistics aims to pursue.
This swing-back of pendulum toward a rationalistic view of language
ability lead many language teachers to discredit the behaviouristic language
learning style and emphasize cognitive-code learning approach. Hence,
learners were encouraged to work on more conscious grammar
exercises based on certain rules and deductive learning began to be
focused again. This application of new linguistic insights, however, did not
bear much fruit since Chomsky himself commented that a linguistic theory of
the kind he pursued had little to offer for actual language learning or teaching
(Chomksy 1966) .
In the school of applied linguistics, however, this shift towards the innate
human capacity raised a growing interest in the learner's powers of hypothesis
formation as he moves towards the bilingual competence sufficient for his
communicative needs. One major result of this shift of attention was an
increasing concern in the monitoring and analysis of learner language.
The concepts of 'interlanguage' and 'approximative system' presented challen
2.2. Error Analysis (EA): its roots and development As we look into the roots and development of error analysis, let us first
overview contrastive analysis so as to gain better insight into how error analysis
became more popular among SLA researchers.
Cognitivism: Against structuralism.
Human Lg learning cannot be explained by simply starting off with a tabula rasa state of mind.
UG
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Topic 2: Teorías generales sobre aprendizaje y la adquisición de una lengua extranjera. El concepto de Interlengua. El tratamiento del error.
Iván Matellanes’ Notes
18
2.2.1. Contrastive Analysis Before the SLA field as we know it today was establised, from the 1940s
to the 1960s, contrastive analyses were conducted, in which two
languages were systematically compared. Researchers at that time were
motivated by the prospect of being able to identify points of similarity and
difference between native languages (NLs) and target languages (TLs). There
was a strong belief that a more effective pedagogy would result when these
were taken into consideration. Robert Lado, expressed the importance of
contrastive analysis in language teaching material design: Individuals tend to
transfer the forms and meanings and the distribution of forms and
meanings of their native language and culture to the foreign language
and culture.
This claim is still quite appealing to anyone who has attempted to learn
or teach a foreign language. We encounter so many examples of the interfering
effects of our NLs. Lado went on to say a more controversial position, however,
when he claimed that "those elements that are similar to his native
language will be simple for him, and those elements that are different
will be difficult". This conviction that linguistic differences could be used to
predict learning difficulty produced the notion of the contrastive analysis
hypothesis (CAH): "Where two languages were similar, positive transfer
would occur; where they were different, negative transfer, or
interference, would result."
2.2.2. Corder (1967): Introduction of the Concept 'Error Analysis' It was S.P. Corder who first advocated in applied linguistics community
the importance of errors in language learning process. In Corder (1967), he
mentions the paradigm shift in linguistics from a behaviouristic view of
language to a more rationalistic view and claims that in language teaching
one noticeable effect is to shift the emphasis away from teaching
towards a study of learning. He emphasises great potential for applying
new hypotheses about how languages are learned in L1 to the learning of a
second language.
Contrastive analysis: Where two languages were similar, positive transfer would occur; where they were different, negative transfer, or interference, would result
Error analysis: Corder & Selinker
In L1 acquisition child's 'incorrect' utterances are usually interpreted as being evidence that he is in the process of acquiring Lg. These can also be applicable to SLA.
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Topic 2: Teorías generales sobre aprendizaje y la adquisición de una lengua extranjera. El concepto de Interlengua. El tratamiento del error.
Iván Matellanes’ Notes
19
Corder goes on to say that in L1 acquisition we interpret child's
'incorrect' utterances as being evidence that he is in the process of
acquiring language and that for those who attempt to describe his
knowledge of the language at any point in its development, it is the 'errors'
which provide the important evidence. In SLA, Corder proposed as a working
hypothesis that some of the strategies adopted by the learner of a
second language are substantially the same as those by which a first
language is acquired. (It does not mean, however, the course or sequence of
learning is the same in L1 and L2.) By classifying the errors that learners
made, researchers could learn a great deal about the SLA process by inferring
the strategies that second language learners were adopting. It is in this
Corder's seminal paper that he adds to our thinking by discussing the function
of errors for the learners themselves. For learners themselves, errors are
'indispensable,' since the making of errors can be regarded as a device
the learner uses in order to learn. (Selinker 1992: 150)
Selinker (1992) pointed out the two highly significant contributions
that Corder made: "that the errors of a learner, whether adult or child, are
(a) not random, but are in fact systematic, and are (b) not 'negative' or
'interfering' in any way with learning a TL but are, on the contrary, a
necessary positive factor, indicative of testing hypotheses. Such
contribution in Corder (1967) began to provide a framework for the study of
adult learner language.
It is generally agreed that the central learning process for Acquiring a Lg
is hypothesis testing. This process follows some steps:
- Identify a particular characteristic of the TL (by transfer or
generalization)
- Forming a hypothesis based on that identification.
- Testing the hypothesis by means of the receptive skills.
- Receiving feedback by means of the productive skills.
- Delay decision until more feedback is provided, or either accepting or
rejecting the hypothesis.
For learners themselves, errors are 'indispensable,' since the making of errors can be regarded as a device the learner uses in order to learn.
The errors of a learner are:
Systematic
A necessary positive factor, indicative of testing hypotheses.
a) Identify a particular characteristic of the TL
b) Forming a hypothesis based on that identification
c) Testing the hypothesis.
d) Receiving feedback.
e) delay, accept or reject the hypothesis.
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Topic 2: Teorías generales sobre aprendizaje y la adquisición de una lengua extranjera. El concepto de Interlengua. El tratamiento del error.
Iván Matellanes’ Notes
20
Acquiring a TL linguistic rule is then only possible when the rule is
critical (in conditions to be tested) for the learner. Linguistic
instruction depends upon learners’ sensibility to explicit correction
according to their stage of IL. Rules become critical according to some
logical sequencing (Natural order hypothesis) which is not derived from
the L1, but it is part of a creative construction of TL knowledge that seems
to be controlled by universal cognitive principles.
3. Interlanguage The study of the characteristics of the learners’ language output led
researchers to point out the dynamic and ever changing nature of the learners’
competence. Corder (1967) calls it “transitional competence”8, while
Nemser (1971) refers to it as “approximate competence”9. These terms
attempt to communicate the incomplete nature of the L2 acquisition
process, as well as the learner’s progression along an acquisition continuum
(Seliger, 1988) from zero competence to near native competence in the TL.
Selinker (1972) proposes the notion of interlanguage (IL), meaning the
language that a learner uses in communication that is neither his or her native
language (NL) nor the target language (TL), the language that the learner is
attempting to acquire. It is actually a third system that is employed while
the learner is progressing in the acquisition of the L2 toward native
speaker competence in the target language. The learner attempts
utterances to express ideas in a target language which are not identical to the
utterances that would be produced by a native speaker expressing an identical
idea. In developing this hypothesis, His main points are:
- Learners develop an IL system
- This IL is a unique grammar not belonging to either the NL or the TL.
- A particular learner’s IL system is formed by the L2 rules he has already
acquired and the rules he is checking for validation or rejection.
8 Transitional Competence Characteristics: (1) L2 learners develop dynamic knowledge system, (2) This system is constantly changing as new L2 knowledge is added & (3) This addition requires adjustment in the competence already acquired. 9 Approximate competence Characteristics: (1) L2 learners progress along a continuum, (2) this continuum runs from zero to a level close the NS’s linguistic proficiency.
Acquiring a TL linguistic rule is then only possible when the rule is critical (in conditions to be tested) for the learner.
Corder → transitional competence. Nemser → approximate competence.
INTERLANGUAGE:Separate linguistic system based on the observable output which results from the learner’s attempt production of a TL norm
Interlanguage
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Topic 2: Teorías generales sobre aprendizaje y la adquisición de una lengua extranjera. El concepto de Interlengua. El tratamiento del error.
Iván Matellanes’ Notes
21
Selinker also addresses the concept of fossilization. Fossilised linguistic
phenomena are linguistic items, rules & subsystems which speakers of
a particular NL will tend to keep in their IL (relative to a particular TL), no
matter what amount of instruction they receive in the TL. These fossilised
structures are also “errors”. Fossilization supposedly occurs in the IL when the
learner’s acculturation into the society who speaks the TL ceases.
Selinker clearly conceived IL as being a continuum. IL continuum is a
dynamic, goal-oriented (towards a TL) language system of increasing
complexity. Note that this definition does not specify that this continuum is
institutionalized in any Lg community. IL is not normally used for
communication among themselves, but just as an individual step towards
the TL. Many studies strongly agree in the fact that the IL of learners, whatever
their mother tongues, in certain circumstance does go through a similar
sequence of development (at least, in early stages). In fact, IL is a dynamic
system similar to that of a child acquiring his MT and may follow the same
sequence stages (to some extend).
He also explicitly recognized the process of regression, which he called
backsliding, when he spoke of reappearance in IL of linguistic structures
which were thought to be erased. He noted that this regressions are not
random or towards the MT norm, but towards the IL norm.
Selinker identifies five processes central to second language learning
and acquisition, these can both result in error and can prevent them. These
processes are responsible for the development of IL systems:
1. Language Transfer: Errors from native language. Can be from
pronunciation, grammar or vocabulary. Can mean using native words in
place of SL ones, replacing SL phoneme with one from NL, calquing, etc
2. Transfer of training: These are errors due to the language learning
process itself. These can be due to problems in the textbook,
teacher’s mistakes, uncorrected mistakes made by the students, etc.
Once these mistakes are "fossilised" in the IL, it can be difficult to
correct them.
Fossilization: linguistic items, rules & subsystems which speakers of a particular NL will tend to keep in their IL no matter what amount of instruction they receive in the TL
IL continuum is a dynamic, goal-oriented (towards a TL) language system of increasing complexity.
It is not institutionalized in any Lg community
IL is a dynamic system similar to that of a child acquiring his MT and may follow the same sequence stages (to some extend).
Backsliding: reappearance in IL of linguistic structures which were thought to be erased. These regressions are normally towards the IL norm
Five processes central to SL learning & acquisition:
a. Lg Transfer: Errors from native language
b. Transfer of training: These are errors due to the Lg learning process itself (problems in the textbook)
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T
Teorías generales
3. Strat
are du
techn
4. Strat
thems
vocab
They
5. Overg
comm
stude
situat
forms
sobre aprendizaje
tegies of
ue to the a
iques as im
tegies of
selves in F
bulary, phr
will have t
generaliz
monly occu
nt knows
tions wher
s in the lan
e y la adquisición
2nd Lg le
actual strat
mitating ot
2nd Lg c
FL situation
rases, gram
to circumlo
zation: Th
rring gram
to be true
e it does
nguage lear
Topic 2:de una lengua ext
arning: S
tegies that
hers, gues
communic
ns for whic
mmar, etc
ocute, coin
hese are er
mmatical ru
e in some
not apply
rning proce
tranjera. El conce
Some error
t the learn
ssing, hype
cation: La
ch they do
c. This wil
words, ap
rrors result
ules improp
situations
. The cons
ess is parti
pto de Interlengu
rs produce
ers use. Th
erregulariza
anguage l
not know
l force the
pproximate
ting from t
perly. Thus
is overge
stant emp
ially to bla
a. El tratamiento
Iván Matella
ed by SL le
hese can b
ation, etc.
earners w
all the nec
em to imp
e, gestures,
the applica
s, a rule th
eneralized
phasis on f
me for this
del error.
anes’ Notes
22
earners
be such
will find
cessary
provise.
, etc
ation of
hat the
to new
familiar
s.
cleble
dc
eAoru
c. Strategies ofearning: Errorsby strategies thearners use.
d. Strategies ocommunication
e. OvergeneraApplication of coccurring gramules improper
f 2nd Lg s produced hat the
f SL n
lization: commonly
mmatical ly
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Topic 2: Brief summary
Iván Matellanes’ Notes
23
4. Brief summary. Teorías generales sobre aprendizaje de una lengua extranjera. La Interlengua. El error. - LINGUISTICS: Two major linguistic theories that account for SLA
SOCIOLINGUISTS: We use Lg to send social messages about who we are & where we came from. 3 approaches:
NEUROLINGUSITICS: Clinical examinations of aphasics: Hemisphere dominance & critical age in Lg learning
Structuralism Bloomfield’s “Lg”: - SLA consists of the Acq. of a new set of habits. - Habits are acq through stimulus – response – reinforcement. - Child Acq a word separately in comprehension & production, later on connecting both.
Children learn through imitation & they never invent words.
- Theory based on the assumption that Lgs can be compared. - L2 speakers tend to produce utterances in terms of the structures of their MT. - CA states that is able to predict and diagnose errors based on the concept of linguistic transfer.
Contrastive Analysis (CA) –Lado-:
Problems: - Errors do not occur bc of L1. - Errors don’t occur when predicted. - Shift to behaviour to mental theories. - Imitation don’t seem so important to Lg Acq.
Cognitivism: Supported the idea of Lg creativity against behaviouristic positions
- Distinction btw infinite external behaviour (performance) and finite inter set of rules (competence). ∞ nº of sentences from a finite nº of rules. - Specific cognitive mechanism for Lg Acq: LAD. Innate device, just dedicated to Lg Acq in humans. - Rules shared by all Lgs which consist of a set of parameters: UG.
How children set parameters? Positive evidence and Indirect Negative Evidence.
a. Speakers are able to shift their style in order to converge / diverge with their interlocutors.
b. Attention to style shifting is necessary to achieve the goals. c. The vernacular is the style a speker turns to when the speaker is not
paying attention. d. Formality is a determinant factor in style shifting. e. A good amount of data is necessary in order to establish relevant
style shifting.
Labovian paradigm (IL): Lg varies systematically in accordance with social characteristics of the speaker. FIVE AXIOMS:
- EXNTENDED LABOV’S CLAIMS to SLA: i. No single style speakers. ii. Dimension of attention operates whether the Lg
is Native or Non-native. iii. Amount of attention: Vernacular
(+ regular, -systematic) iv. Amount of attention: Superordinate style
(- regular, -systematic) Speech accommodation theory (SAT): SAT explains motivations underlying shifts in people speech styles
during social encounters (converge / diverge) and some of the social consequences arisen from them.
- Intergroup theory (IT) : Learners who perceive using an L2 as a betray to his/her ethnic identity: Learners with intergroup motivation are more likely to achieve NS proficiency. Two competing socio-psychological needs: Become proficiency in L2 & their own ethnic identity.
Motivation : the combination of effort and desire to achieve the goal of learning.
- INTRINSIC: Personal interest in doing something. Doing the activity is a reward. - EXTRINSIC: External interests. The reason for doing the task is something other than an interest in the task itself (rewards, gift) - MOTIVATION in SLA (Gardner):
Integrative Motivation: Motivation in search of respect and be identified in a foreign setting, to understand its culture & participate in it. Instrumental Motivation: Acq some advantages by learning a L2.
- APTITUDE (Carroll): Phonetic coding ability: Ability to code sounds. Grammatical sensibility: ability to identify Fncst. Inductive Lg learning ability: Ability to make generalizations. Memory and learning: Ability to link NL with the TL.
Hemisphere Dominance : Left hemisphere of the brain is the one where the most linguistic skills are found. Right for SLA.
- BROCA’S AREA: Related to speech production, list of words used in producing speech and their associated meaning. - WERNICKE’S AREA: Related to speech processing. Associated with memory functions (short-term memory).
Critical period hypothesis (CP): the ability to proficiently learn a L1 is limited to the years before puberty (9 to 12) after which this ability disappears.
- In SLA this situation seems to be far less clear. Native-like competence in the L2 can be achieved by very young learners, adult L2 learners have it much more difficult. - Young children are more successful L2 learners than adults. WHY?
Psychological reasons: Adults don’t want to give up their identity markers Cognitive factors: fewer abilities to learn a Lg, probably due to the LAD. Neurological changes: Prevent adults from using their brains in the same way children do.
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