Program Magister Kependudukan & Ketenagakerjaan

Universitas IndonesiaEkonomi Kependudukan,

13 Desember 2011

The origin of gender difference The economics of gender Blinkers in economic theory Gender difference in labor market Example of gender bias policies

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Sex: perbedaan secara biologisLaki-laki (male) vs perempuan (female)

Gender: Characteristics attributed that are socially (and psychologically) associated with being female and maleFeminineMasculine

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Sumber: http://www.flyfishingdevon.co.uk/salmon/year3/psy364gender-nature-nurture/psy364gender-nature-nurture.htm#nature_nurture

Sumber: http://www.flyfishingdevon.co.uk/salmon/year3/psy364gender-nature-nurture/psy364gender-nature-nurture.htm#nature_nurture

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Integrating gender concept into economic theory (e.g. time allocation)

Interaksi agen ekonomi dalam keluarga, perusahaan, pasar, berbeda antara laki-laki dan perempuan

What perspective: economic approach to gender differences

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Prinsip ekonomi (does it apply to everyone?): Decision making under constraints (scarcity) Humans are asumed to be rational, imply:

Consistent: act the same way in identical situation Foresight: consider long run implications and

indirect effects on their behavior

Debate over sexual division of labor: biologically or culturally determined (social construction)

Economic principle: max own utility-altruism? (family utility?); father’s choice vs mother’s choice (mis: susu anak vs rokok)

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Macroeconomic policy is gender blind: Pursue aggregate goals, blind to

differential impacts on all individuals (by gender, sector, location, race, religion, culture, etc)

The omission of gender concerns:Generates policy with inefficient macro-

level outcomesGive unpredicted micro-level consequences

for women, children and families

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Globalization: macro policy assign primary importance to: international trade (export-led development strategy), economics liberalisation, operation of free markets

All economic agents are affected by these macroeconomic policies; but: Women & children are vulnerable to these policies.

Old days: Women didn’t enter the market, rely on cash povided by men (?)

Resources within subsistence economy, then become more subject to macro policy

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Basic needs (health and education) formerly met within the household, move into public sector met by the government

Basic needs became more monetize, sophisticated – expensive

Facts: In many developing countries, under

externally imposed structural adjustment and stabilisation regime, the instruments of macroeconomic policy reduces access of women and children to basic goods and services;

Contoh: traktor, sophisticated machinery, etc.02/12/2011ELP & DHA 13

1. Boundary Blinkers: Invalid assumption about the nature & importance of boundary between the household and market

Microeconomic theory concerns with behaviour in consumption & production activities that are constrained by scarcity resources: Only activities that have market or exchange value (!)

Boundary blinkers, failure to correctly specified the “base population” for the measurement of economic activity.

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Consequences:Movements of productive activities from

household to market are intepreted as an increase in production because the basis for comparison is not the total universe of economic activity (only the monetised ones)

Clearly seen in:National accounting systemMeasurement of economic growth

Taking account this problem:New household economics (NHE): time

allocation02/12/2011ELP & DHA 15

‘…women initially took on time‑consuming, labor‑intensive tasks in the home to contribute their fair share to the domestic economy in lieu of monetary contributions. But subsequently, when they began to contribute financially, they were still held responsible for these tasks, either by providing the services themselves or by contributing additional money to buy substitutes. This additional assessment is the gender tax.(H. E. Baber, 1999)

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2. Measurement Blinkers: Not recognizing contribution of household production and women in the household to social and economic welfare Contribution of women: under-enumerated,

especially their participation in the labor force and their role in biological reproduction & care (and household production)

Simple microeconomic theory asume work or not decision is only about allocation of time between work or leisure (valid mostly for men?)

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3. The Specification Problem: Problem arise from the failure of conventional economics to identify & take into account the opportunity cost of women’s time.Nonmarket activities: treated as costless &

ignored, considered as unpriced resources.Conventional economics are restricted on

monetary transactions & its principal actorsThe key: to use opportunity cost of

nonmonetised activities as women’s domestic activities, create human capital (health and education and quality of future generation) therefore contribute to economic production

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4. The Efficiency Problem: Due to gender bias, the resource allocation is not effective

Effect of gender bias: Acts as subsidy: unpaid household

inputs are unpaid the true value (remember gender tax!)

Women’s unpaid family labor subsidized economic production generally

Unequal access on control of resources.

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Effect of gender bias (ctd.): Inability to move between jobs, and to

search higher returns, lack the incentives for HH to provide complementary physical capital or technology to raise women’s labor productivity

Value of women’s reproductive role undervalued

Lower lifetime earnings, lead to no incentive to undertake human capital investment among women

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5. Contextual Blinkers: Is blinked to the economic significance of social and institutional context in which economic activity takes place & neglecting the role of : families, households, social and cultural norms, conventions and institutions.

Family and household considered as moral economy: individual decision to max utility;

Values, attitudes, social conventions, behavioral norms and cultural mores are overlooked

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This blinker made women to be ignored by social and institutions.

Contextual blinkers: blind to the fact that social conventions are other sources of allocative inefficiency, restricting free movement of female resources to their most productive use.

By increasing social and psychological cost and reducing the benefit of market work for women.

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Rata-rata Upah Menurut Pendidikan & Jenis Kelamin, 2007

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No PendidikanLaki-laki

(Rp)Perempuan

(Rp)Jumlah

1 >SD1,421,217 1,078,925

1,401,267

2 SMP1,549,586 1,059,262

1,424,618

3 SMA2,342,967 1,806,685

2,196,896

4Akademi/Diploma 3,275,466 2,537,911

2,915,758

5 Universitas2,496,516 1,664,763

2,193,644

  Rata-rata 958,972 715,414 88,393

Sumber: BPS, Sakernas 2007, dikutip dari Fa’atin (2010)

Rata-rata Upah Menurut Jenis Pekerjaan & Jenis Kelamin, 2006

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Sumber: BPS, Sakernas 2006, dikutip dari Fa’atin (2010)

No Jenis Pekerjaan UtamaLaki-laki

(Rp)Perempuan

(Rp)

1 Tenaga Profesional 1,342,653 1,020,413

2 Tenaga Kepemimpinan 2,442,855 1,731,417

3 Tenaga Tata Usaha 1,239,736 1,039,248

4 Tenaga Usaha Penjualan 472,697 553,359

5 Tenaga Usaha Jasa 774,889 376,806

6 Tenaga Usaha Pertanian 416,401 215,148

7 Tenaga Produksi 749,498 504,935

8 Lainnya 1,515,132 1,197,637

  Rata-rata 1,119,233 829,870

Angka Pengangguran Terbuka Menurut Jenis Kelamin, 2004-2008

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Sumber: BPS, dikutip dari Fa’atin (2010)

Jenis Kelamin 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

Laki-laki 8,1 9,3 8,5 8,1 7,6

Perempuan 12,9 14,7 13,4 10,8 9,7

Total 9,9 11,2 10,3 9,1 8,4

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Source: US Census Bureau, Census 2000 Special Equal Employment Opportunity (EEO) Tabulation for Rhode island, cited from http://www.dlt.ri.gov/lmi/pdf/gender.pdf

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Sumber: Dikutip dari Zulminarni(2001)

CONTOH KEBIJAKAN DAN DAMPAKNYA PADA PERANEKONOMI PEREMPUAN

Poverty allevation: Unconditional Cash Transfer (Bantuan

Langsung Tunai/BLT) vs Conditional Cash Transfer (Program

Keluarga Harapan/PKH) Fiscal stimulus programs:

Labor creation through infrastructure investment Employment Urban Rural Total

Share Male Female Male Female Male Female Total Economy wide 25.4% 15.6% 36.9% 22.1% *62.3% *37.7% 100.0%

Construction 46.9% 1.6% 50.8% 0.8% *97.7% *2.4%**100.1

%

Sumber: DySAM output cf. Chatani and Ernst (2011), (*mistakes found corrected; ** due to number rounding up)

Gender biased taxation: Direct tax

Lower rates for (married) men (with families or dependants)

Joint income: higher rates for lower income earner

Tax exemption benefits men as they are usually who run business, house owners, share holders

Indirect tax (VAT tax) Women tend to buy commodities related to

health, education, nutrition compared to men Contoh Indonesia: Konsumsi rokok vs susu

anak02/12/2011ELP & DHA 32

Gender Based Taxation (GBT): Direct tax

Lower tax rate for women (due to the more elastic supply of labor and more substitutable market work for household work)

Higher tax for men (less substitutable of work for for household work)

With assumption of marriage is universal, higher marginal tax for men is optimal (Alesina, Ichino, Karabarbounis, 2010)

Indirect tax Adjusted for the gender bias purchase

behavior?

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Bias jender tampak dalam perilaku ekonomi dalam rumah tangga maupun pasar tenaker

Kebijakan makro bisa ‘buta jender’ Perspektif jender memperkaya sudut

pandang dalam memahami dan menganalisis masalah dan juga membantu dalam menelurkan kebijakan yang tepat

Lalu…Apakah Anda setuju bahwa bias jender (termasuk juga bias sektoral, bias wilayah, bias urban, bias SARA) harus dikoreksi oleh pemerintah?

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