prof. d. pulla rao

7/28/2019 Prof. D. Pulla Rao

1/20

URBANISATION IN INDIA: CAUSES AND CONSEQUENCES

Prof. D. Pulla Rao, Department of Economics, Andhra University, Visakhapatnam,A.P.

ABSTRACT

Almost half of the world population lives in the urban areas and

the cities are growing rapidly, both in size and in numbers. Globally, the

urban population has been growing at an average rate of 4.2 per cent per

annum in the past two decades. Number of urban agglomeration / towns had

grown from 1827 in 1901 to 5161 in 2001. Number of total population has

increased from 238 million in 1901 to 1027 millions in 2001 whereas number

of population residing in urban areas has increased from 26 millions in 1901

to 285 millions in 2001. Degree of urbanisation varies widely among the

States of the country. Goa is the most urbanized state in India with 49.77 per

cent urban population. According to 1991 Census, 65 per cent of the

countrys urban population lived in Class I cities and it has increased to 69

per cent in 2001. There are many factors that are responsible for

development of cities. The main determinants of the growth of cities are (i)

industrialisation, (ii) educational centers, (iii) means of transportation, (iv)

natural factors, (v) marriage migration, and (vi) business. Due to heavy

influx of population to cities, there arose several problems. They are (i)

problem of urban housing, , (ii) problem of urban slums, (iii) urban

environmental pollution, (iv) problem of urban poverty (v) problem of urban

unemployment, and (vi) problem of urban social problems. These problems

arise due to the gap between the supply and demand of basic infrastructure

services in the urban areas. The government has to adopt appropriate

measures to solve the problems and provide peace of life to urban people.

1. Introduction


2/20

Urbanisation is an index of transformation from traditional rural

economies to modern industrial one. It is a long term process. Widespread

urbanisation is a twentieth century phenomenon. Although some cities in the

world did exist in antiquity, there is little evidence of widespread urbanisation

in the early years of civilization. Rome was probably the first settlement to

reach one million people in 5 B.C; only in 1800 did London become the

second. The urban population of the world was not more than 250 million in

1900, less than 15 per cent of the total population. The Indian urban

population today is itself greater than this number. A hundred years later, in

2000, the worlds urban population had increased to almost 2.9 billion, about

47 per cent of the total. The 21st Century is therefore an urban century and

this sets it apart from the all the centuries that have gone before it. For the

first time in human history, more people will be living in cities than in the

villages. The trend is especially stronger in developing world, where the rate

of rural to urban migration is high as people flock to cities in search of

employment and higher standards of living.

According to the 2001 Census of India, out of the total population of

1027 million about 285 million live in urban areas and 742 million in rural

areas. Nearly twenty eight out of every one hundred persons in India live in

urban areas. Today there is more emphasis on economic reforms,

modernization and urbanisation. Urbanisation is a phenomenon, which is a

part and parcel of economic development. It generates a substantial

proportion of total jobs and as such makes a significant contribution to

national economy. With increase in per capita income, demand for non-food

goods accelerates and, consequently, the demand for non-agricultural

activities increases. This heightened demand for labour stimulates

urbanisation. Urbanisation is an incessant trend and its pace is accelerating.

Poverty and lack of employment in the villages lead to migration from rural to

urban areas; increasing industrialization has contributed to the growth of new

towns; the expansion of means of transport has facilitated easy movement of

men and material and, above all, cities provide a better quality of life, in

terms of education and health facilities.


3/20

2. Definition of Urban Area

In Census of India, 2001 two types of towns were identified.

(i) Statutory towns: All places with a municipality, corporation,

cantonment

board or notified town area committee etc. so

declared by State Law.

(ii) Census towns: Places which satisfy following criteria:

(a) a minimum population of 5000;

(b) at least 75 per cent of male working population

engaged

non-agricultural pursuits; and

(c) a density of population of at least 400 persons

per sq. km.

3. Urbanization in the World

It can be seen from Table-1 that the degree of urbanisation in the

world, regions and continents in the world. The two measures of degree of

urbanisation included are the present urban population and per cent of urban

population to total. The urban population (UN, 1993) was estimated to be

2.96 billion in 2000 and 3.77 billion in 2010. It was estimated that nearly 50

million people are added to the worlds urban population and about 35 million

to the rural population each year. The share of worlds population living in

urban centres has increased from 39 per cent in 1980 to 48 per cent in 2000.

In the developed countries the urbanisation level is 76 per cent in 2000 as

compared with developing countries is 40 per cent in 2000. The urbanisation

level has almost stabilized in developed countries. Africa and Asian countries

are in the process of urbanisation.


4/20

Table - 1: Percentage of World Population Residing in Urban Areas

by Region

World/

Region

1980 1985 1990 2000 2010

In

billio

n

% In

billio

n

% In

billio

n

% In

billio

n

% In

billio

n

%

World 1.752 39.

4

1.997 41.

2

2.282 43.

1

2.962 47.

6

3.779 52.

8

More

develope

d Region

0.797 70.

2

0.838 71.

5

0.880 72.

7

0.968 75.

8

1.060 79.

1

Less

Develop

ed

Region

0.954 28.

8

1.159 31.

5

1.401 34.

3

1.993 40.

3

2.717 46.

8

Africa 0.130 27.

3

0.164 29.

6

0.205 32.

0

0.322 37.

6

0.493 44.

2

Asia 0.678 26.

2

0.813 28.

6

0.974 31.

2

1.369 37.

1

1.845 43.

8

Latin

America

0.233 65.

0

0.273 68.

4

0.315 71.

5

0.400 76.

6

0.482 80.

4

Source: World Urbanisation Prospects The 1992 Revision, United Nations,

New York, 1993.

4. Trends of Urbanisation in India

The growth of urbanization during pre-independence period was slow.

Urbanization in India has shown its phenomenal growth during post-

independence years because of pressure of growing population, rapid

industrialization, rural to urban migration and the growing tempo of


5/20

modernization. As a result, new towns are coming up; already existing towns

are expanding to accommodate the continuing influx of the rural population.

Thus, the census figure of 10.8 per cent of Indian urban population in 1901

had shown a marked increase to 27.8 per cent in 2001 (Figure -1 & Table - 2).

The rate of urbanization varies over time and space. In the earlier part

of 20th century, in 1901, the level of urbanization was only 10.8 per cent with

only 26 million people in 1827 towns. In 1951, at the starting point of

planned economic development, the level was 17.3 per cent with 62 million

urban population. The 2001 population census has recorded 285 million

urban population which accounts for 27.8 per cent of 1027 million total

population, distributed over 5161 urban agglomerations/towns. Number of

total population has increased from 238 millions in 1901 to 1027 millions in

2001. The number of persons living in urban area for every hundred

population of the country increased from about eleven to twenty-eight

between 1901 and 2001, registering an increase of seventeen per hundred

during the time span of a country. When measured in terms of urban-rural

ratio, only twelve persons lived in urban areas for every hundred persons

living in rural areas in 1901, and this number increased to thirty-nine in rural

areas in 2001. Urbanisation in India has been relatively slow compared to

many developing countries. The percentage of annual exponential growth

rate of urban population reveals that in India it grew at faster pace from the

decade 1921-31 to until 1951. Thereafter in 1951-61 it registered a sharp

drop. The decades 1961-71 and 1971-81 showed an improvement but has

steadily dropped to the present level at 2.8 per cent. The sharp drop in urban

rate during 1951-61 was mainly due to declassification of a very large

number of towns during that period.


6/20

Figure - 1: Total Population and Percentage of Urban Population:

1901-2001


7/20

Table - 2: Population of India by Residence: 1901-2001

Census

Years

Total

Populatio

n

(in

million)

Urban

Populatio

n

(in

million)

Number of Urban

agglomeration/tow

n

Urban

Population

as

percentag

e of total

populatio

n (%)

Populatio

n per

town

(000)

Rural

Populatio

n

(in

millions)

Urban-

rural

Ratio

Per

Annum

Growth

Rate of

Urban

Population

1901 238 26 1827 10.8 14 212 12 -

1911 252 26 1825 10.3 14 226 12 0.03

1921 251 28 1949 11.2 14 223 13 0.80

1931 279 33 2072 12.0 16 246 14 1.77

1941 319 44 2250 13.9 20 275 16 2.81

1951 361 62 2843 17.3 22 299 21 3.53

1961 439 79 2363 18.0 34 360 22 2.37

1971 548 109 2590 19.9 42 489 25 3.29

1981 683 159 3378 23.3 47 524 30 3.87

1991 847 217 3768 25.7 58 630 35 3.08


8/20

2001 1027 285 5161 27.8 65 742 39 2.85

Source: Various Census Reports.


9/20

5. Urbanisation in India by States

India is a large country with sub-continental proportions. It has 28

states, 6 union territories and 1 national capital territory. About a third of the

country is urbanized. However, in times to come, it is believed that

urbanization will increase. The prediction is that in a few decades, half of

Indias population will come to live in urban areas. Obviously, this is going to

have serious implications on the manner in which cities are governed in the

country.

Degree of urbanisation varies widely among the States of the country.

Goa is the most urbanized state in India with 49.77 per cent urban population

followed by Mizoram, Tamil Nadu and Maharashtra. All union territories are

highly urbanized except Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Andaman and Nicobar

Islands. The degree of urbanisation is high in southern, western and north

eastern states whereas low urbanisation level is found in northern, central

states. Maximum concentration of the countrys urban population is found in

Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, West Bengal and Andhra Pradesh. It

is essential to mention that Uttar Pradesh figures in Table-3, although it isone of the least urbanized states. This is because its urban population is

large (36,682,874). Next five states namely, Gujarat, Karnataka, Madhya

Pradesh, Rajasthan and Bihar and Union Territory of Delhi together account

for 34.3 per cent of urban population. Remaining states and six union

territories contain only 18.2 per cent of urban population in the country.

Table -3: Urban Population and Level Of Urbanization in India -2001


10/20

Source: Compiled from the Census of India Reports, Government of India.

States Urban Population (Number)

2001

Level of Urbanisation (%)

2001

Andhra Pradesh 20503597 27.07Arunachal Pradesh 222688 20.41Assam 3389413 12.72Bihar 14665897 13.36Goa 668869 49.77Gujarat 18899377 37.35Haryana 6114139 29.00Himachal Pradesh 594881 9.79

Jammu & Kashmir 2505309 24.88Karnataka 17919858 33.98

Kerala 8267135 25.96Madhya Pradesh 20277919 24.98Maharashtra 41019734 42.40Manipur 570410 23.88Meghalaya 452612 19.62Mizoram 441040 49.49Nagaland 352821 17.74Orissa 5496318 14.97Punjab 8245566 33.95Rajasthan 13205444 23.38Sikkim 60005 11.10

Tamil Nadu 27241553 43.86

Tripura 543094 17.02Uttar Pradesh 36682874 21.02West Bengal 22486481 28.03Union TerritoriesAndaman and Nicobar

Is.

116407 32.67

Chandigarh 808796 89.77Dadra and Nagar

Haveli

50456 22.89

Daman and Diu 57319 36.26

Delhi 12819761 93.01Lakshadweep 26948 44.47Pondicherry 648233 66.56

Total 285354954 27.78


11/20

6. Classification of Towns and Cities

Census of India classifies urban centres into six classes. Urban centre

with population of more than one lakh is called a city and less than one lakh

is called a town. Cities accommodating population between one to fivemillion are called metropolitan cities and more than five million are called

mega cities. Majority of Metropolitan and Mega cities are urban

agglomerations. An urban agglomeration may consist of any one of the

following three combinations:

(i) a town and its adjoining urban outgrowth,

(ii) two or more contiguous towns with or without their outgrowth, and

(iii) a city and one or more adjoining towns with their outgrowths together

forming a contiguous spread.

Table - 4 shows Class-wide number of towns and cities and percentage

of urban population by size class of city during 1901-2001. The pattern of

urbanisation in India is characterized by continuous concentration of

population and activities in large cities. This is manifested in a high

percentage of urban population being concentrated in Class I cities and its

population has systematically gone up over the decades in the last century.

As per 1901 Census the percentage of population in Class I, IV, and V were 26

per cent, 21 per cent and 20 per cent respectively. According to 1991

Census, about two third (65%) of the countrys urban population lived in

Class I cities with more than 100,000 population. In 2001 it has increased to

69 per cent. Over the years there has been continuous concentration of

population in class I towns. On the contrary the concentration of population

in medium and small town either fluctuated or declined. Indeed basic reason

for the increasing dominance of class I cities is graduation of lower order

towns into class I categories. It may be observed that in 1901 there were

only 24 Class I cities that have gone up to 393 in 2001 which explains largely

the increase in the share of population in this six category over the years.

The graduation of number of urban centres from lower population six


12/20

categories to Class I cities has resulted top heavy structure of urban

population in India. However, in addition to factor of increase in number of

large cities, the importance of a faster demographic growth, poverty induced

migration to urban informal sector should be taken into account in making

urban structure top heavy. The share of Class I towns or cities, with

population size of 100,000 or more, has gone up significantly from 26 per

cent in 1901 to 69 per cent in 2001. The percentage share of Class IV, V and

VI towns, having less than 20,000 people, on the other hand, has gone down

drastically from 47 to 10 only. This is largely due to the fact that the towns in

lower categories have grown in size and entered the next higher category.

Table - 4: Number of Towns and Percentage of Urban Population by

Size Class

Census/

Year

Number of Towns by Size Class Percentage of Urban Population by Size

Class

Class

1

Class

2

Class

3

Class

4

Class

5

Class

6

Class

1

Class

2

Class

3

Class

4

Class

5

Class

6

1901 24 43 130 391 744 479 26.0

0

11.2

9

15.6

4

20.8

3

20.1

4

6.10

1911 23 40 135 364 707 485 27.4

8

10.5

1

16.4

0

19.7

3

19.3

1

6.57

1921 29 45 145 370 734 571 29.7

0

10.3

9

15.9

2

18.2

9

18.6

7

7.03

1931 35 56 183 434 800 509 31.2

0

11.6

5

16.8

0

18.0

0

17.1

4

5.21

1941 49 74 242 498 920 407 38.2

3

11.4

2

16.3

5

15.7

8

15.0

8

3.14

1951 76 91 327 608 1124 569 44.6

3

9.96 15.7

2

13.6

3

12.9

7

3.09

1961 102 129 437 719 711 172 51.4

2

11.2

3

16.9

4

12.7

7

6.87 0.77


13/20

1971 148 173 558 827 623 147 57.2

4

10.9

2

16.0

1

10.9

4

4.45 0.44

1981 218 270 743 1059 758 253 60.3

7

11.6

3

14.3

3

9.54 3.58 0.50

1991 300 345 947 1167 740 197 65.2

0

10.9

5

13.1

9

7.77 2.60 2.29

2001 393 401 1151 1344 888 191 68.6

7

9.67 12.2

3

6.84 2.36 0.23

Note: The Towns have been placed in Six categories, following demographic

criteria as given below:

Class 1 Towns 1, 00,000 or more Class 2 From 50,000 to 99,999

Class 3 From 20,000 to 49,999 Class 4 From 10,000 to 19,999

Class 5 From 5,000 to 9,999 Class 6 Below 5,000

Source: Various Census Reports

7. Causes of Urbanisation

There are a number of factors responsible for the development of

cities. This is because every city has its own history and certain causes for its

development. Broadly the following factors may be regarded as the main

causes of the growth of cities.

(i). Industrialization

People migrate from rural areas to urban areas in search of

employment in industrial centres of urban areas. Due to industrialization,

there is more production, which in turn leads to division of labour. The

produce has to be put to market for sale for which it is sent to other places

and countries, and it is done through transport, godowns, markets etc. are

needed for this purpose. The establishment of manufacturing and processing

industries like iron and steel, textiles, jute, cement, fertilizers, automobile


14/20

industry etc., requires the services of highly technical and skilled man power.

They also require the services of millions of rural wage labour to work in

factories and construction activities. Massive rural-urbanisation leads to

reduction in the size of rural population with a corresponding increase in

urban population. All these factors are instrumental to the development of

cities.

(ii). Educational Centres

If a University, High Court, or medical college is set up anywhere, there

is great influx of population to that area. With this influx of population, many

shops, markets, hotels, restaurants, clubs, cinema theatres etc. are

established and in this way the foundation of city is laid down.

(iii). Means of Transportation

If the placeis situated on the sea-coast, it also turns into a big city or

town due to industrialization. Industrialization implies enhancement of import

and export and it is done by ships. If the coastal town has good harbour

facilities, traffic through it is bound to increase. The greater the traffic

through harbour, greater is the increase in population and also greater would

be the turnover of handling of goods. All these things help in the rapid

development of cities.

(iv). Natural Factors

Similarly, the hill resorts are liable to become cities if they have good

climate and good sceneries.

Due to availability of medical facilities in towns and cities the death

rate is less in urban areas compared to rural areas. There is no significant

variation in the birth rates between rural and urban communities. This is

because the rural people are increasingly adopting family welfare methods.

More than 60 per cent of increase in urban population is attributed to natural

increase in urban population in India.

(v). Net Rate of Urban Migration


15/20

When the number of immigrants into urban areas from the rural areas

is more than the out migrants from urban areas into rural areas to net urban

migration will be higher. This means reduction in the size of rural population

and increase in the size of urban population. The large scale migration of

rural people to urban areas may be due to push factors in villages like

poverty, unemployment, low wages and caste conflicts. The urban areas act

as pull factors. They provide better employment, higher wages, educational

and training facilities to millions of rural people.

(vi). Marriage

The number of females who migrate to the urban areas because of

marriage is nearly 40-50 per cent of the total female migrants. So, the

marital status also plays an important role in migration to urban areas.

(vii). Business

People migrate to urban areas in search of high business in order to

make huge money and wealth for themselves. For example, most of the

Marvaries of rural Rajasthan have migrated to cosmopolitan cities like

Mumbai, Hyderabad and Calcutta for business purpose.

Hence, in short, it may be said that wherever there is industrialization,

location of government office, good climate or scenic beauty, educational,

medical and cultural institutions, such places would be developed into cities.

8. Consequences of Urbanisation

Due to influx of population to cities, which is mainly due to

industrialization and progress in trade and commerce, development in

transportation and communication and also due to various other reasons a

sizeable managerial cadre is required. In developing nations of the world, one

or the other new industrial unit is set up almost daily. This increase in urbanpopulation has resulted into over-crowding. Many other grave problems have

also cropped up and by more problems are springing up. They are all the

consequences of industrialization and change in the life in cities.

(i). Problem of Urban Housing


16/20

Due to increasing urbanisation, providing houses to all the people have

become a serious problem. The problem of housing has two dimensions.

Quantitatively it refers to shortage of houses, and qualitatively it refers to

living in sub-standard houses, unfit for human habitation. Rents are high in

the urban areas and even middle class families live in slums. There are too

many married couples in a room.

(ii). Problem of Urban Slums

Growth of urban slums is a serious consequence of urbanisation is the

mushroom growth slums in towns and cities. Slums are regarded as the

major problem of urban life. They are found in all our towns and cities. They

represent the highest form of human degradation. They reflect the failure of

our urban planners, municipal authorities and urban technology to provide

basic services like water supply, toilets, drainage, and garbage disposed etc.

In many of our cities the water supply, especially in summer, does not meet

the minimum needs of bathing, cleaning, washing and cooking. Most of

sewers are open and smelly. There is high incidence of deaths and diseases

in urban poor settlements.

(iii). Urban Environmental Pollution

Industrialisation and urbanisation are the two major sources of

environmental pollution in our towns and cities. Establishment of industries

led to the growth of large industrial cities and rapid growth of urban

population has also increased the pressure of population on the large

metropolitan cities. The large industrial and high density metropolitan cities

halve also become the major centre of environmental pollution. Increasing

exploitation of natural resources for industrial and economic development

has adversely affected the urban ecological balance between man, air, waterand land resources. This ecological imbalance caused by human activity is

known as environmental pollution. There is lot of congestion and unhealthy

conditions due to slums. Water pollution leads to the outbreak of epidemics.

High traffic on roads in towns and cities leads to lot of noise and air pollution.


17/20

(iv). Problem of Urban Poverty

In absolute sense poverty refers to lack of resources or opportunities

for a person to maintain himself and his family. In relative sense poverty

refers to inequalities in income and opportunities. It reflects the dark side toindustrialization and urbanisation. In India no town or city is free from

poverty it is more acute in large metropolitan cities. A vast majority of

workers work in unorganized informal sector as casual wage labour in

building construction, kalasis, fruit and vegetable vendors, domestic

servants, rickshaw pullers, scavengers, sweepers etc. They live under the

most degrading conditions of life in urban slums, squatter settlements and

shanty towns. They are deprived of basic nutrition, shelter, medical attention

and primary education.

(v). Problem of Urban Unemployment

People from the rural areas migrate to urban areas in anticipation of

better jobs as they are pushed out from rural areas by the pressure on land

on account of growing population. These people are unskilled and without

any adequate source of livelihood and add to the heavy existing unemployed

people in the city.

(vi). Problem of Urban Social Problems

The co-existence of rich life and dirty slums in all medium and major

cities of India has led to a sort discontentment among the urban poor.

Poverty, unemployment and lack of access to amenities have led to their

involvement into the anti-social activities.

9. Conclusions and Suggestions

The study of urbanisation plays a vital role in policy formation and

regional planning since independence. There has been a steady increase in

the proportion of urban population of the country; 17.29 in 1951 to 27.78 in

2001. The South Asian region seems to be the least urbanized region

compared to all other regions of the world.


18/20

According to the Census of India 2001, out of the total population of

1027 million about 285 million live in urban areas and 742 million in rural

areas. Growth of urban population in India during the past decade indicates

higher growth for metro cities. However, development of basic infrastructure

services like water supply, sanitation facilities, solid waste management and

transportation could not keep pace with the growth of urban population.

There is excessive concentration of economic activities, mainly industries, in

a few urban centres particularly in large cities. The increase in urban

population has resulted into over-crowding. India being the developing

country has to face these problems particularly because of urbanisation.

These problems arise perhaps mainly from the gap between the demand and

supply of basic infrastructure services in the urban areas.

The following measures to be needed for better urbanisation.

1. The need for checking migrants and providing better infrastructural

facilities in the urban areas.

2. To develop socio-economic infrastructure for increased urban

population growth.

3. There is a need to control the unprecedented growth of urbanpopulation which is due to immigrants.

4. The government has to adopt appropriate measures to check land,

and

5. New urban areas will have to be planned and developed in

adequate number to accommodate such a growth of urban

population and to provide them basic facilities.

References

Arup Mitra. (1993): Status of Basic Services in Indian Cities in Bidyut

Mohanty (Ed.), Urbanization in Developing Countries, Institute of Social

Sciences, New Delhi.


19/20

Arvindaer S. Sachidev. (2002): Urbanization in India; Past trends and

future Projections,The Asian Journal, Vol.9. No. 1. February pp 26-38.

Ashish Bose. (1980): Indias Urbanization 1901-2001, Institute for

Economic Growth, New Delhi.

Brockerhoff, M and Brennam, E (1998): The Poverty of Cities in

Developing Regions, Population and Development Review, Vol. 24,

No. 1, pp: 75-114.

Hans Nagpaul. (1996): Modernization and Urbanization in India-

Problems and Issues, Rawat Publications, Jaipur.

Pathak, P and Mehta, D (1995): Recent Trend in Urbanisation and

Rural-Urban Migration in India: Some Explanations and Projections,

Urban India, Vol. 15, No. 1, pp: 1-17.

Planning Commission. (1983): Task Forces on Housing and Urban

Development, Vol.1, Government of India, New Delhi.

Planning Commission, Annual Report 2001-2002, Government of India.

Prabir, C. Bhattacharya. (2002): Urbanization in Developing

Countries, Economic and Political Weekly, October 12, 2002.

Premi, M.K. (1991): Indias Urban Scene and its Future Implications,

Demography India, Vol. 20, No. 1.

Ummareddy Venkateswarlu. (1988): Urbanization in India-Problems

and Prospects, New Age International Publishers, New Delhi.

United Nations. (1993): World Urban Prospects The 1992 Rivision,

United Nations, New York.


20/20

United Nations. (1995): World Urbanization Prospects, Population

Division, New York.

United Nations. (2001): World Urbanization Prospects (The 1999

revision), Population Division, New York.

Verma, S.S (1989): Urbanisation and Regional Development in India,

Chugh Publications, Allahabad.

prof. d. pulla rao

Documents