Processed Apple Products

PROCESSED APPLE PRODUCTS

Edited by Donald L. Downing, Ph.D.

Professor of Food Processing New York State Agricultural Experiment Station

Cornell University Geneva, New York

An avi Book Published by Van Nostrand Reinhold New York

An AVI Book (AVI is an imprint of Van Nostrand Reinhold) Copyright © 1989 by Van Nostrand Reinhold Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1st edition 1989 Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 88"3960 ISBN 978"1"4684"8227"0 ISBN 978"1"4684"8225"6 (eBook)

DOl 10" 1007/978" 1 "4684"8225"6

All rights reserved. No part of this work covered by the copyright hereon may be reproduced or used in any form or by any means-graphic, electronic, or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, taping, or information storage and retrieval systems-without written permission of the publisher.

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Macmillan of Canada Division of Canada Publishing Corporation 164 Commander Boulevard Agincourt, Ontario MIS 3C7, Canada

16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Processed apple products/edited by Donald L. Downing. p. cm.

"An AVI book." Includes bibliographies and index. ISBN 978"1"4684"8227"0

1. Apple products. l. Downing, Donald L., 1931-TP441.A6P76 1989 664' .80411-dc19

Contents

Contributors

Preface

1. Apple Cultivars for Processing Roger D. Way and Mark R. McLellan

Apple Production Apple Cultivars Utilization of Apples in the United States Processing-Apple Cultivars and Growing Regions Processing Characteristics Agronomic Characteristics Bibliography

xi

xiii

1

1 4 8

14 16 24 28

2. Harvesting, Storing, and Handling Processing Apples 31 Louis M. Massey, Jr.

Development and Ripening of Apples Disorders and Defects of Apples Harvesting Apples Storing Apples Poststorage Handling of Apples Bibliography

3. Apple Pressing and Juice Extraction Victor L. Bump

Types of Apple Juice Selection of Fruit

32 35 38 40 46 49

53

54 57

v

vi Contents

Washing and Inspecting Fruit 59 Milling Apples 62 Pressing and Extracting Apples 64 Quality and Yield of Apple Juice 77 Bibliography 80

4. Clarification of Apple Juice 83 Arun Kilara and Jerome P. Van Buren

Substrates Contributing to Turbidity 83 Pectolytic Enzymes 85 Use of Pectinases for Juice Clarification 87 Defects in Clarified Juice 94 Nonenzymatic Clarification 94 Bibliography 95

5. Causes and Prevention of Turbidity in Apple Juice 97 Jerome P. Van Buren

Mechanism of Haze Formation 98 Types of Hazes 100 Testing Procedures 108 Fining Agents and Their Preparation 113 Fining Procedures 116 Ultrafiltration 117 Recovery of Stored Juice 118 Bibliography 119

6. Filtration of Apple Juice 121 Victor L. Bump

Filter Aids 121 Preparing Juice for Filtration 124 Pressure Filters 125 Vacuum Filters 130 Membrane Filters (Ultrafiltration) 133 Handling Apple Juice After Processing 135 Design of Production Systems 135 Bibliography 136

7. Concentration of Apple Juice 137 M. A. Roo

Concentration by Evaporation 138 Concentration by Reverse Osmosis 146 Freeze Concentration 157 Economics of Concentration Processes 163 Bibliography 166

8. Apple Cider 169 Donald L. Downing

Sweet Cider 169 Fermented (Hard) Cider 175 Bibliography 187

Contents vii

9. Aseptic Processing and Packaging of Apple Juice 189 Joseph H. Hotchkiss

Overview and Comparison with Conventional Processing 189 Product Sterilization 193 Preparation of Aseptic Packages 199 Quality Assurance 205 Design of APP Systems 209 Federal Regulations 211 Bibliography 212

10. Applesauce and Other Canned Apple Products 215 R. C. Wiley and C. R. Binkley

Cultivar Selection 215 Raw-Product Condition, Grades, and Tests 216 Initial Unit Operations in Apple Canning 220 Applesauce Processing 226 Apple Slice Processing 229 Baked and Glazed Apple Processing 233 Quality Control 234 Robotics in Food-Processing Operations 235 Bibliography 237

11. Refrigerated, Frozen, and Dehydrofrozen Apples 239 G. Caleb Hall

Cultivar Selection 239 Fruit Condition 240 Overview of Unit Operations 241 Antibrowning Treatments 241 Dehydrofreezing of Apple Slices 247 Bibliography 255

12. Dried Apple Products 257 G. Caleb Hall

Definitions 257 Cultivar Selection 258 Advantages of Dried Foods 259 Pre drying Operations 259 Factors Affecting Drying 260 Drying Equipment and Methods 261 Postdrying Operations 274 Bibliography 277

13. Cider Vinegar 279 AndrewG. H. Lea

Production, Terminology, and Uses 279 Chemical and Microbiological Background 281 Raw Material and Alcoholic Fermentation 282 Acetification 285 Clarification and Packaging 290

viii Contents

Composition of Cider Vinegar Specifications for Cider Vinegar Defects Color Bibliography

293 294 296 300 300

14. Composition and Nutritive Value of Apple Products 303 Chang Y. Lee and Leonard R. Mattick

Overall Composition Carbohydrates Fiber Vitamins Pectin Amino Acids Minerals Organic Acids Bibliography

15. Flavor Components and Quality Attributes T. E. Acree and M. R. McLellan

Sensory Physiology Flavor Chemistry Sensory Attributes Sensory Properties of Apple Products Future Uses of Apple Functional Components Bibliography

16. Microbiology and Preservation Katherine M. J. Swanson

304 305 314 314 316 317 317 320 321

323

324 326 333 334 338 339

343

Types of Organisms 343 Measurement of Microbiological Quality 351 Preservation Methods 353 Bibliography 359

17. Treatment and Utilization of Apple-Processing Wastes 365 Yang D. Hang and Reginald H. Walter

Apple-Processing Wastewaters 365 Apple Pomace 369 Bibliography 376

Appendix A: Analytical Methods 379

Determination of Sulfur Dioxide in Apple Products 381 Method for Checking Bisulfite Bath 385 Peroxidase Test for Adequacy of Blanching 386

Appendix B: Conversion Tables 389

Table B-1. Metric Units and U.S. Equivalents for Measures of Weight, Length, Area, and Capacity 390

Table B-2. Dry Measure and Liquid Measure Equivalents 391

Contents ix

Table B-3. Table B-4. Table B-5. Table B-6.

Temperature Conversion Formulas General Conversion Factors Conversion of Apple Sizes to Various Units Conversion Between Moisture Content on Wet-Weight

Basis (W. W.B.) and Bone-Dry Basis (B.D.B.)

Appendix C: Properties of Sucrose, Sodium Chloride, and Alcohol Solutions

Table C-1.

Table C-2.

Table C-3.

Appendix D:

Table D-l.

Table D-2.

Table D-3.

Fig. D-1. Fig. D-2.

Appendix E:

Relationship Between ° Brix, Specific Gravity, Solids Content, Gnd Water Content of Sucrose (Cane Sugar) Solutions

Relationship Between Specific Gravity and Concentration of Aqueous Alcohol Solutions

Properties of Sodium Chloride Brine at 60 OF

Miscellaneous Tables and Charts

Corrections to Refractometer Determination of Sucrose Concentration When Readings Made at Temperatures Other Than 20°C

Amounts of Sulfur Dioxide Required per 1,000 Gallons of Juice or Cider

Approximate Heat Evolution Rates of Fresh Apples at Different Storage Temperatures

Filtration Porosity Comparisons Psychometric Chart-Properties of Air and Vapor

Mixtures from 32 to 60 OF

Information on USDA Grade Standards Publications Visual Aids"

Appendix F: Information on Standards ofIdentity, Quantity,

391 392 394

395

397

398

406 408

411

412

413

413 414

415

417

419 420

and Fill 421

Appendix G: Tables for Hard Cider and Apple Wine 423 Table G-1.

Table G-2. Table G-3. Table G-4. Table G-5. Table G-6. Table G-7. Table G-8. Table G-9. Table G-I0.

Table G-11.

Index

Approximate Dilution of Extract in Wines from the Addition of High-Proof Brandy

Winery Hose Data Flow Estimation from a Horizontal 2-Inch Hose Legal U.S. Wine Bottle Sizes Traditional U.S. Wine Bottle Sizes Correction of Wine Spirits Volume to 60 OF Estimation of Partially Filled Horizontal Tanks Wine Tank Capacities Vat Capacities Example of English Measure Tank Chart for Straight­

Sided Horizontal Tank Example of Metric Measure Tank Chart for Straight­

Sided Vertical Tank

424 424 425 425 425 426 427 428 429

430

431

433

Contributors

Terry E. Acree, Ph.D., Cornell University, New York State Agricultural Experiment Station, Geneva, New York

C. R. Binkley, Knouse Foods, Inc., Peach Glen, Pennsylvania Victor L. Bump, Vice President R&D (retired), S.S. Pierce Co. Inc., Dundee, New York Donald L. Downing, Ph.D., Cornell University, New York State Agricultural Experi-

ment Station, Geneva, New York G. Caleb Hall, Seneca Foods Corporation, Marion, New York Yong D. Hang, Ph.D., Cornell University, New York State Agricultural Experiment

Station, Geneva, New York Joseph H. Hotchkiss, Ph.D., Cornell University, Ithaca, New York Arun Kilara, Ph.D., The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsyl­

vania Andrew G. H. Lea, Ph.D., Cadbury Schweppes, Reading, England Chang Y. Lee, Ph.D., Cornell University, New York State Agricultural Experiment

Station, Geneva, New York Leonard R. Mattick, Ph.D., Professor Emeritus, Cornell University, New York State

Agricultural Experiment Station, Geneva, New York Louis M. Massey, Jr., Ph.D., Cornell University, New York State Agricultural Exper­

iment Station, Geneva, New York Mark R. McLellan, Ph.D., Cornell University, New York State Agricultural Experi­

ment Station, Geneva, New York M. Anandha Rao, Ph.D., Cornell University, New York State Agricultural Experiment

Station, Geneva, New York Katherine M. J. Swanson, Ph.D., The Pillsbury Company, Minneapolis, Minnesota Jerome P. Van Buren, Ph.D., Cornell University, New York State Agricultural Exper­

iment Station, Geneva, New York Reginald H. Walter, Ph.D., Cornell University, New York State Agricultural Experi­

ment Station, Geneva, New York

xi

xii Contributors

Roger D. Way, Ph.D., Professor Emeritus, Cornell University, New York State Agricul· tural Experiment Station, Geneva, New York

Robert C. Wiley, Ph.D., University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland

Preface

The objective of this book is to organize and document the technical, analytical, and practical aspects of present-day apple processing.

No collected works have been published on processed apple products for more than thirty years. During that time many changes have taken place in the apple-processing industry. There are fewer but larger plants processing apples from larger geographical areas because of advances in transportation and storage of fruit. In addition sophisti­cated technical advances in the processing and packaging of apple products have also occurred.

This volume is designed to serve primarily as a reference book for those interested and involved in the processed apple industry. An attempt has been made to provide a central source of historical, currently practical, and theoretical information on apple processing. References have been cited to give credibility and assist those who may wish to read further on a particular subject. If this book success­fully summarizes present knowledge for readers and assists in the continued improvement of commercial fruit processing, I will be pleased.

I would like to thank the many people in the apple industry who have requested information and encouraged the writing of this book. The late Dr. Robert M. Smock, Professor Emeritus, Cornell Univer­sity, and coauthor of Apples and Apple Products, originally published in 1950, gave his blessings and encouragement to this undertaking.

In addition to the contributors of several chapters who also reviewed other chapters, I would like to thank the following for reviewing

xiii

xiv Preface

chapters: Jerry W. Callis, Indian Summer Inc., Belding, Michigan; Edwin R. Haynes, wine consultant, St. Catherines, Ontario, Canada; Donald L. Nadeau, Jerry A. Koehler, and William Kiefer of Cadbury Schweppes Inc., Williamson, New York; David Pittard, Beak and Skiff Orchards, LaFayette, New York; Dr. Robert S. Shallenberger, Dr. Don F. Splittstoesser, and Dr. John R. Stamer, Cornell University; and Daryl T. Zurawski, APV Crepaco, Inc. Special thanks to Nancy Pettrone and Yvette C. Seteng, silent helpers when help was needed in "cleaning up" manuscripts, charts, and tables.