prioritizing fodder species based on traditional knowledge

RESEARCH Open Access

Prioritizing fodder species based ontraditional knowledge: a case study ofmithun (Bos frontalis) in Dulongjiang area,Yunnan Province, Southwest ChinaYanfei Geng1,2,3,4,5, Guoxiong Hu6, Sailesh Ranjitkar2,4,7*, Yuhua Wang2, Dengpan Bu4,5,8, Shengji Pei2, Xiaokun Ou1,Yang Lu1,2,3, Xuelan Ma2,3 and Jianchu Xu2,7

Abstract

Background: Livestock rearing is one of the oldest and most important types of smallholder farming worldwide.The sustainability of livestock production depends on the efficient utilization of locally available resources. Sometraditional methods of raising livestock may offer valuable lessons in this regard. This study documented andevaluated local knowledge of wild forage plants in the Dulongjiang area in Southwest China in the context ofrearing mithun (Bos frontalis) in order to provide a sound evidence base for tree fodder selection and theestablishment of integrated tree-crop-livestock systems.

Methods: The snowball technique was used to identify key informants with specific knowledge about the topic.Free listing and semi-structured interviews were conducted with 58 households. Participatory investigation andtransit walks were used to investigate potential fodder species. Ethnobotanical information was collected,documented and organized.

Results: Overall, 142 wild forage plants from 58 families and 117 genera were identified. Species of the Poaceae,Rosaceae and Urticaceae families were most abundant, with 16, 14 and 11 species respectively identified as fodderplants. Our results indicated that tree/shrub forage plays a major role in the diet of mithun, unlike that of otherruminants. Mithun prefers to browse and move around the forest in search of food, particularly rough and evenbarbed leaves. Tree species like Debregeasia orientalis, Saurauia polyneura and Rubus species were identified asbeing important fodder sources. Farmers in this area have traditionally relied on common property resources suchas community-managed forests and grasslands to feed their livestock. Farmers have strong incentive to raisemithuns rather than other livestock species due to Dulong people’s cultural preferences.

Conclusions: The wide variety of plants cited by the informants demonstrate the importance of traditionalknowledge in gathering information about forage resources. This diversity also offers the prospect of identifyingpromising species which could be used as fodder plants. Identifying such species and tree fodder species inparticular could help smallholder farmers to integrate trees, livestock and crops as part of a sustainable farmingsystem.

Keywords: Traditional knowledge, Dulong people, Wild fodder plants, Tree fodder, Mithun

* Correspondence: [email protected] Laboratory of Economic Plants and Biotechnology, Kunming Institute ofBotany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming 650201, China4CAAS-ICRAF Joint Lab on Agroforestry and Sustainable Animal Husbandry,World Agroforestry Centre East and Central Asia, Beijing 100193, ChinaFull list of author information is available at the end of the article

© The Author(s). 2017 Open Access This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, andreproduction in any medium, provided you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link tothe Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver(http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated.

Geng et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2017) 13:24 DOI 10.1186/s13002-017-0153-z

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BackgroundMany smallholder farming methods around the worldintegrate livestock and crop production. Such integrationprovides draught power for land management andmanure for maintaining cropland fertility. In addition,livestock are a critical source of nutrition. China’s con-sumption of meat, and particularly of pork, has in-creased tremendously as its economy has grown. 50 to80% of all pigs produced in China originate from small-holder farms [1, 2]. China’s rapid economic developmentand lifestyle transformation have resulted in a growingdemand for livestock, and as a result massive restructur-ing of the livestock sector is underway. New policies andtrade agreements have liberalized and industrializedChinese agriculture, which has enabled enormous in-creases in production. However, many smallholder farms,which remain a vital part of Chinese rural and indigenouscommunities, are struggling to survive in the new market-oriented agro-economy [3, 4].Although economically vulnerable, smallholder systems

which integrate crops and livestock continue to be a vitalpart of agricultural production in China [1, 5]. Smallholderfarmers rely on their observations and experience in feed-ing and managing their livestock. The sustainable produc-tion of livestock usually involves efficient utilisation oflocally available resources, particularly feed resources.Understanding the importance of wild forage plants isessential for the efficient utilisation of available forestresources [6, 7]. Exploring the potential for growing suchresources in intercropping systems with crops and live-stock could help smallholder farmers effectively use theirlimited land resources. Such integration could mitigatethe increasing pressure on land and forest resources gen-erated by growing demand for expansion of agriculturaland grazing land [8, 9].Compared to forage grass, tree fodder is particularly

important in providing livestock with nutritious foodduring the dry season when other feed sources are inlimited supply [10]. Documenting fodder plants andpromoting suitable types of tree fodder for use in homegardens or croplands could be an efficient way to im-prove sustainable livestock rearing and to change thefree grazing style to stall feeding in the mountain with-out damaging the environment. A combination of trad-itional and scientific knowledge has been shown tooptimize the selection of useful fodder plants [11].Indigenous people with long histories of livestock rear-

ing may have acquired valuable stores of knowledge aboutpotential fodder/forage resources. Traditional knowledgeof fodder plants has been documented in studies of differ-ent indigenous groups in several countries, such asEthiopia, Uganda, Nigeria, India, and Mexico [11–13]. InChina, there is an urgent need to document farmers’knowledge of fodder plants and apply it to the design of

tree-crop-livestock systems which could improve small-holder farming [14, 15]. Therefore, this study aims todocument local knowledge regarding utilisation and selec-tion of wild forage plants based on indigenous knowledge.The results of this study could be used to provide a short-list of fodder/forage resources for further nutritionalinvestigation and possible promotion.

MethodsStudy areaThe Dulong ethnic group, also known as Drung, is oneof the smallest ethnic groups in China and number only7000 people. Four thousand of them live in DulongjiangTownship, Gongshan County, Yunnan Province, China(Fig. 1). This township (27°44'9"N, 98°20'59"E) was thelast town in China to be linked by road (Fig. 2). Before1956, the Dulong people led a relatively isolated life.Slash-and-burn cultivation was practiced on the localmountains until the 1990s, when it was banned by thegovernment. The Dulong language has no script, andthe Dulong traditionally made records and transmittedmessage by means of engraving notches in wood andtying knots [16]. This lack of written records means thatlocal traditional knowledge is particularly vulnerable tobeing lost and forgotten. There is therefore an urgentneed to document the indigenous knowledge associatedwith this community.The study area is a typical alpine-gorge area, ranging

from an altitude of 3000 to 4000 meters with almost85% of the area on steep slopes of more than 25 degrees.The average rainfall is 3672.8 mm per annum [17]. Thearea contains 4000 species of higher plants belonging to280 families and 1068 genera. The Dulong people havean expansive knowledge of the diversity and nutritionalpotential of the local plants which they use for variouspurposes. According to elder informants, they have beenraising mithun (Bos frontalis) for more than a hundredyears. Mithun is a rare semi-domesticated bovine specieswhich is raised mountain areas, mainly for meat, and isdistributed only in India, China, Myanmar, Bhutan,Malaysia and Bangladesh [18]. Mithun plays an import-ant role in the economic, social and cultural life ofDulong people. The meat of mithun raised in the trad-itional way is high in protein (19.56%) and low in fat(0.36%) [19]. However, this species is vulnerable to ex-tinction according to the International Union for Con-servation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) [20].China’s Tui Geng Huan Lin or “Returning Farmland to

Forest” (RFFP) program is the world’s largest and mostsuccessful payment for ecosystem services program. Thisprogram is a major contributor to China’s dramatic in-creases in forest cover from perhaps as low as 8% in1960 to about 21% in 2013 [21]. In Dulongjiang area,RFFP compensated rural households for the conversion

Geng et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2017) 13:24 of 15

of upland farmland to forestland and financed the affor-estation of barren mountainsides. Traditionally, localfarmers would employ slash-and-burn cultivation toclear land for grass which would provide the mithunwith a fast-growing food source. However, after thegovernment banned slash-and-burn methods in 1990s,the expansion of forests has resulted in a lack of avail-able grassland, which poses a threat to the continuedraising of mithun. The use of fodder trees could providea solution to this problem, but currently inadequateinformation is available on the forage plants consumedby mithun.

In the present study, we 1) accessed farmers’ knowledgeof potential forage plants for mithun; 2) documentedsome potentially useful fodder trees/shrubs; and 3) priori-tized important species based on indigenous knowledge.Within this context, the objective of this study is theidentification, selection and evaluation of herbaceous andtree species in Dulongjiang area as sources of fodder formithun.

Data collectionOur field work revealed that mithun is commonly raisedonly in Maku(马库), Bapo(巴坡) and Kongdang(孔当)

Fig. 1 The study area in Dulongjiang, Gongshan County, Yunnan Province, China


villages, and that there are also a few mithuns in threeother villages in the Dulongjiang area. The first twovillages are near to Myanmar, which according to ourinformants is the origin of the local mithun. Our field-work was conducted accordingly in Bapo(巴坡) andMaku(马库) villages (Fig. 1) in 2015 and 2016. Fieldstudies included free lists, semi-structured interviewsand participatory investigation. A total of 58 key infor-mants were selected using snowball sampling. The agesof informants ranged from 23 to 71, and the mean agewas 45 years old. Because activities related to mithun aregenerally performed by men, we interviewed only twofemale informants.In the first stage of the field research, participants were

invited to free list all wild fodder plants favored bymithun. The interviews included the following questions:(1) What plants do mithun eat? (2) What are themithun’s favourite grass and tree fodder sources? (3)What makes mithun grow fast? (4) During the mithun’scalving and nursing periods, what plants do they prefer?(5) What habitats do mithun prefer? (6) What are thefeeding habits of mithun? (7) What are the main threatsto the mithun population? (8) How can we conserve thepresent population?In the second stage of the field research, researchers

made a transit walk accompanied by local villagers tocollect fodder plants and observe mithun browsing intheir natural habitat. Nomenclature of all vascular plantsfollows Flora of China, and the voucher specimens weredeposited at the herbarium of the Kunming Institute ofBotany, CAS (KUN).

Data analysisEthnobotanical information collected from 58 key infor-mants was documented and organized. Potential fodderspecies were prioritized according to the consensusreached by informants. Citation frequency (how many

times each plant was mentioned by the informants) wasused as a measure of consensus. The frequency ofcitation was the key factor in prioritizing the fodderspecies, while other ethnobotanical information such asmedicinal function, palatability and availability were alsoconsidered. Relevant graphical presentations of the doc-umented plants were prepared. Furthermore, the resultsof our field investigation of fodder plants for mithunwere compared with plant lists in the relevant publishedliterature to understand the diet of mithun fully.

Results and discussionTraditional knowledge of wild fodder plants amongDulong peopleOur study revealed that Dulongjiang mithun fed on ahighly diverse range of plants. The 58 informants told theinterviewers about 142 wild forage plants (Table 1) whichbelong to 58 families and 117 genera, including 61 speciesof tree/shrub fodder plants and 81 species of herb forageplants. The arrangement of Angiosperm families is in linewith the Angiosperm Phylogeny Website, version 13(http://www.mobot.org/MOBOT/Research/APweb/welco-me.html), and that of ferns follows Christenhusz et al.[22]. Species of the Poaceae, Rosaceae and Urticaceaefamily were cited most often, with 16, 14 and 11 speciesrespectively (Fig. 3). The wild fodder plants of the Poaceaefamily included not only various herbs but also tree fodderplants. These were mostly bamboos, and the genus Gaoli-gongshania, a bamboo, is endemic to this mountain area[23]. Forage plants of the Rosaceae and Urticaceae familieswere often shrubs and herbs respectively. Shrub forageplants of the Rosaceae family were mostly from the genusRubus. Forage plants from the Urticaceae family weremostly herbs. In addition to these three families, respon-dents also mentioned many wild forage plants from theAsteraceae, Lamiaceae, Polygonaceae and Rubiaceae fam-ilies, indicating a high local diversity of fodder plants.

Fig. 2 The landscape of study area


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Table

1Fodd

erspeciesconsum

edby

mith

un(Bos

frontalis)

inDulon

gjiang

area,Yun

nanProvince,Sou

thwestChina

Family

Scientificname

Vernacular

name

Partsconsum

edMultifun

ctionalfod

der

Life

form

Mith

unPreferen

ceAbu

ndance

Vouche

rno

.

Athyriaceae

Diplazium

viridissimum

Christ

who

leplant

noHerb

***

G0026

Blechn

aceae

Woodw

ardiabiserrataC.Presl

rison

glabo

leaves

noHerb

****

G0061

Dryop

terid

aceae

Dryopteris

wallichian

a(Spren

gel)Hylande

rresang

who

leplant

noHerb

****

GYF9

Gleiche

niaceae

Diplopterygium

giganteum

(Wallichex

Hoo

ker&

Bauer)Nakai

leaves

noHerb

*****

G0002

Plagiogyriaceae

Plagiogyria

virescens(C.C

hr.)Ching

mingw

awho

leplant

noHerb

**

G0003

Polypo

diaceae

ArthromerisnigropaleaceaS.G.Lu

miwaxin

who

leplant

noHerb

***

G0058

Polypo

diaceae

Lepisorusscolopendrium

(Ham

.exD.Don

.)Men

hraex

Bir

who

leplant

noHerb

****

GYF55

Pteridaceae

Coniogrammecaudata(W

all.)Ching

dayexin,wanjiege

lang

leaves

noHerb

****

GYF6

Actinidiaceae

SaurauiapolyneuraC.F.Liang

&Y.S.Wang

damujiu

tend

erbranches,leaves

yes,fru

itsforpe

ople

Tree

****

****

GYF41

Ado

xaceae

Sambucuswilliamsii

Hance

leaves

yes,med

icinalplants

Tree

orshrub

****

PHO9

Ado

xaceae

Viburnum

cylindricum

Buch.-H

am.exD.D

onbu

luleaves

yes,hu

gerfood

forpe

ople

Tree

orshrub

*****

GYF43

Ado

xaceae

Viburnum

pyramidatum

Rehd

erleaves

noTree

orshrub

**

PHO10

Amaranthaceae

Achyranthesaspera

L.gu

lawho

leplant

yes,pig’sfavorite

Herb

***

G0008

Amaranthaceae

Deeringiaam

aran

thoides(Lam

.)Merr.

leaves,fruits

yes,med

icinalplants

Shrub

***

PHO1

Anacardiaceae

Dobinea

vulgarisBu

ch.-H

am.exD.D

onleaves

noTree

***

PHO41

Apiaceae

Heracleum

candican

sWallichex

deCando

llebe

ngdu

owang

who

leplant

noHerb

****

PHO53

Apo

cynaceae

Periploca

caloph

ylla

(Baill.)Ro

berty

aren

tend

erbranches,leaves

yes,med

icinalplants

Shrub

*****

GYF8

Araceae

Arisa

emadecipiensScho

ttdo

nghe

leaves

yes,hu

gerfood

forpe

ople

Herb

***

PHO2

Araceae

Arisa

emasp.

lang

deng

leaves

noHerb

***

PHO3

Araliaceae

Araliachinensis

L.bang

aleaves

yes,hu

gerfood

forpe

ople

Tree

***

*G0029

Araliaceae

Brassaiopsischengkan

gensisHu

nalang

xin

leaves

noTree

****

PHO4

Araliaceae

Brassaiopsisglom

erulata(Blume)

Rege

lnalong

xin

leaves

noTree

orshrub

****

PHO5

Araliaceae

Schefflerachinensis

(Dun

n)H.L.Li

leng

demg

leaves

noTree

****

PHO6

Araliaceae

Trevesia

palmata(Roxb.

exLind

l.)Vis.

lajia

leaves

yes,med

icinalplants

Tree

*****

G0049

Asteraceae

Artemisiasieversiana

Ehrh.exWilld.

debu

luleaves

yes,also

fodd

erforcattle

Herb

****

GYF38

Asteraceae

Blum

eadensifloraDC.

leaves

noShrub

*****

GYF48

Asteraceae

Cirsium

sp.

lajian

who

leplant

noHerb

***

G0022

Asteraceae

Crassoceph

alum

crepidioides

(Ben

th.)S.Moo

rewho

leplant

yes,hu

gerfood

forpe

ople

Herb

****

PHO12

Asteraceae

Himalaiella

deltoidea

(DC.)Raab-Straube

who

leplant

noHerb

****

GYF53

Asteraceae

MyriactisnepalensisLess.

waguigang

who

leplant

noHerb

****

G0052

Asteraceae

Notoserisyakoensis

(Jeffre

y)N.Kilian

who

leplant

noHerb

*****

GYF49

Asteraceae

Pseudogn

apha

lium

affine(D.D

on)And

erb.

who

leplant

noHerb

***

PHO13


Table

1Fodd

erspeciesconsum

edby

mith

un(Bos

frontalis)

inDulon

gjiang

area,Yun

nanProvince,Sou

thwestChina

(Con

tinued)

Asteraceae

Senecioscan

dens

Buch.-H

am.exD.D

onwho

leplant

noHerb

*****

PHO14

Asteraceae

Sonchu

swightianu

sCando

llenu

abu

lai

who

leplant

noHerb

***

PHO15

Balsam

inaceae

Impatiens

holocentra

Hande

l-Mazzetti

zhuigu

liwho

leplant

noHerb

****

G0020

Betulaceae

Alnu

snepalensisD.D

onleaves,fruits

noTree

******

PHO7

Betulaceae

Betula

alno

ides

Buch.-H

am.exD.D

onde

ngpu

rui

leaves

noTree

***

PHO8

Brassicaceae

Cardam

ineflexuosaWith

.who

leplant

noHerb

***

**PH

O17

Caprifoliaceae

Leycesteria

gracilis(Kurz)Airy

Shaw

bagu

ajia

leaves

noShrub

***

G0048

Caprifoliaceae

Valeriana

barbulataDiels

deng

sen

who

leplant

noHerb

***

**PH

O56

Caryoph

yllaceae

Drymaria

cordata(L.)Willd.

exSchu

lt.who

leplant

noHerb

****

PHO11

Caryoph

yllaceae

Stellaria

vestita

Kurz

who

leplant

noHerb

****

GYF37

Celastraceae

Celastrusgemmatus

Loes.

aren

leaves

noShrub

****

GYF1

Com

melinaceae

Commelinapaludosa

Blum

ebe

ngge

leaves

noHerb

***

**GYF33

Coriariaceae

Coriaria

nepalensisWall.

leaves

noShrub

***

PHO16

Cornaceae

Cornus

macroph

ylla

Wall.

benm

iqiang

leaves

noTree

***

G0051

Cucurbitaceae

Gynostemmapentaphyllum

(Thu

nb.)Makino

who

leplant

noHerb

****

PHO18

Cyperaceae

Carexbaccan

sNees

jiwoka

who

leplant

noHerb

***

**GYF51

Cyperaceae

Carexnu

bigena

D.D

onex

Tilloch

&Taylor

jingw

owho

leplant

noHerb

***

***

PHO19

Cyperaceae

Scleria

dulung

ensis

P.C.Li

who

leplant

noHerb

***

**PH

O20

Ericaceae

Vaccinium

gaultheriifolium

(Griff.)Hoo

k.f.ex

C.B.C

larke

kaixin

leaves

noShrub

***

PHO21

Fabaceae

Pueraria

lobata

(Willd.)Ohw

ibu

ruikale

leaves

yes,hu

gerfood

forpe

ople

Herb

***

**PH

O28

Gen

tianaceae

Tripterospermum

chinense

(Migo)

Harry

Sm.

leaves

noHerb

***

***

GYF46

Gesne

riaceae

Aeschyna

nthu

ssuperbus

C.B.C

larke

leaves

noShrub

***

PHO22

Hydrang

eaceae

Hydrang

ealong

ipes

Franch.

benm

ing

leaves

noShrub

***

****

GYF24

Hypericaceae

Hypericum

adding

toniiN

.Rob

son

leaves

noShrub

***

GYF4

Hypoxidaceae

Curculigocapitulata

(Lou

r.)O.Ktze.

xiaowei

who

leplant

noHerb

***

**GYF40

Hypoxidaceae

Curculigosin

ensis

S.C.C

hen

shiwei

who

leplant

noHerb

****

**G0001

Iteaceae

Iteakiukiang

ensis

Huang

&S.C.H

uang

exH.

Chu

ang

leaves

noTree

****

PHO23

Lamiaceae

Ajuganippon

ensis

Makino

leaves

noHerb

***

PHO24

Lamiaceae

Cran

iotomefurcata(Link)Ku

ntze

men

gsang

who

leplant

noHerb

******

GYF20

Lamiaceae

Elsholtzia

blan

da(Ben

th.)Benth.

tend

erbranches,leaves

noHerb

***

PHO25

Lamiaceae

Leucosceptrum

canu

mSm

.xind

ong

leaves

noTree

orshrub

******

PHO26

Lamiaceae

Melissaaxillaris(Ben

th.)Bakh.f.

renang

sang

xiwho

leplant

noHerb

*****

GYF11

Lamiaceae

Pogostem

onbrevicorollusY.Z.Sunex

C.H

.Hu

who

leplant

noHerb

******

GYF10


Table

1Fodd

erspeciesconsum

edby

mith

un(Bos

frontalis)

inDulon

gjiang

area,Yun

nanProvince,Sou

thwestChina

(Con

tinued)

Lamiaceae

Prun

ella

vulgarisL.

wagui

who

leplant

yes,med

icinalplants

Herb

***

**PH

O27

Magno

liaceae

Magno

liasp.

sirben

gleaves

noTree

**

GYF26

Melanthiaceae

Paris

sp.

chon

glou

leaves

yes,mith

ungrow

ingfastand

med

icinalplants

Herb

***

**PH

O29

Melastomataceae

Oxysporayunn

anensis

H.L.Li

leaves

noShrub

****

GYF45

Musaceae

Ensete

wilson

ii(Tutcher)Che

esman

gelong

leaves

yes,hu

gerfood

forpe

ople

Herb

***

PHO31

Oleaceae

Jasm

inum

lanceolarium

Roxb.

tend

erbranches,leaves

noWoo

dyliana

**

GYF42

Orchidaceae

Cymbidium

faberiRo

lfexinw

awho

leplant

noHerb

**

G0059

Orchidaceae

PholidotaarticulataLind

l.who

leplant

noHerb

**

GYF5

Plantaginaceae

Plan

tago

asiaticaL.

wagui

who

leplant

yes,med

icinalplants

Herb

***

**G0004

Poaceae

Arun

dodona

xL.

gelu

tend

erbranches,leaves

yes,mith

ungrow

ingfast

with

shinyfur

Tree

****

*****

G0056

Poaceae

Chimon

obam

busa

armata(Gam

ble)

Hsueh

&T.P.Yi

jiuleaves,b

ambo

oshoo

tyes,hu

gerfood

forpe

ople

Tree

****

****

PHO34

Poaceae

Dendrocalam

usfugong

ensis

Hsueh

&D.Z

.Li

duwa

leaves,b

ambo

oshoo

tyes,hu

gerfood

forpe

ople

Tree

***

***

PHO35

Poaceae

Erianthu

slong

isetosusT.And

erson

shiling

who

leplant

yes,mith

ungrow

ingfastwith

shinyfur

Herb

*****

*****

G0060

Poaceae

Fargesia

praecipuaT.P.Yi

samen

gleaves,b

ambo

oshoo

tyes,hu

gerfood

forpe

ople

Tree

****

****

GYF21

Poaceae

Gaoligon

gsha

niamegalothyrsa(Hand.-M

azz.)

D.Z.Li,J.R

.Xue

&N.H.X

ialang

saleaves,b

ambo

oshoo

tyes,hu

gerfood

forpe

ople

Tree

*****

GYF22

Poaceae

Imperata

cylindrica(L.)P.Beauv.

aji

who

leplant

yes,mith

ungrow

ingfast

with

shinyfur

Herb

****

***

PHO36

Poaceae

Isachne

albens

Trin.

mieqie

who

leplant

noHerb

***

***

GYF35

Poaceae

Microstegium

nudum

(Trin

.)A.C

amus

yilong

who

leplant

noHerb

***

**G0013

Poaceae

Miscan

thus

nepalensis(Trin

.)L.Liu

who

leplant

noHerb

***

***

PHO8406

Poaceae

Oplism

enus

compositus

(L.)P.Beauv.

jilon

gwho

leplant

noHerb

***

**GYF36

Poaceae

Penn

isetum

alopecuroides(L.)Spreng

.who

leplant

noHerb

****

**PH

O37

Poaceae

Phyllostachysman

niiG

amble

remen

gleaves,b

ambo

oshoo

tyes,hu

gerfood

forpe

ople

Tree

***

***

PHO38

Poaceae

Saccha

rum

arun

dina

ceum

Retz.

hong

who

leplant

noHerb

****

***

GYF39

Poaceae

Sacciolepisindica

(L.)Chase

jion

gwho

leplant

noHerb

***

PHO39

Poaceae

Setaria

plicata(Lam

.)T.Coo

kewho

leplant

noHerb

***

***

PHO40

Polygo

naceae

Fagopyrum

dibotrys

(D.D

on)H.H

ara

shili

who

leplant

yes,fodd

erforalllivestocks

huge

rfood

forpe

ople

Herb

***

GYF30

Polygo

naceae

Polygonu

mcapitatum

Buch.-H

am.exD.D

onlong

gade

beng

who

leplant

noHerb

****

PHO42

Polygo

naceae

Polygonu

mchinense

var.hispidum

Hoo

k.f.

who

leplant

noHerb

***

***

GYF34

Polygo

naceae

Polygonu

mmolleD.D

onyibang

ge,b

engg

etend

erbranches,leaves

yes,hu

gerfood

forpe

ople

Shrub

****

****

G0032

Polygo

naceae

Polygonu

mruncinatum

Buch.-H

am.exD.D

onzheb

amu

who

leplant

yes,hu

gerfood

forpe

ople

Herb

***

**PH

O43


Table

1Fodd

erspeciesconsum

edby

mith

un(Bos

frontalis)

inDulon

gjiang

area,Yun

nanProvince,Sou

thwestChina

(Con

tinued)

Polygo

naceae

Polygonu

mruncinatum

var.sin

ense

Hem

sl.

debe

ngwho

leplant

yes,med

icinalplants

Herb

***

***

G0030

Prim

ulaceae

Embelia

floribun

daWall.

tend

erbranches,leaves

noShrub

***

PHO32

Prim

ulaceae

Embelia

parvifloraWall.ex

A.D

C.

tend

erbranches,leaves

noShrub

**

GYF27

Prim

ulaceae

Myrsin

esemiserrataWall.

xinjixin

tend

erbranches,leaves

noShrub

*****

PHO33

Ranu

nculaceae

Clem

atisarman

diiFranch.

who

leplant

yes,med

icinalplants

Herb

***

**PH

O44

Ranu

nculaceae

Clem

atissp.

who

leplant

yes,med

icinalplants

Herb

****

GYF14

Rosaceae

Fragaria

moupinensis(Franch.)Cardo

tbo

huo

who

leplant

yes,fru

itsforpe

ople

Herb

***

**G0007

Rosaceae

Fragaria

pentaphylla

Losinsk.

buleng

who

leplant

yes,fru

itsforpe

ople

Herb

***

**PH

O45

Rosaceae

Geum

aleppicum

Jacq.

who

leplant

noHerb

***

***

PHO46

Rosaceae

Neilliathrysiflora

D.D

onleaves

noTree

****

GYF47

Rosaceae

Potentillakleinian

aWight

&Arn.

deng

gabu

newho

leplant

noHerb

***

PHO47

Rosaceae

RubusbiflorusBu

ch.-H

am.exSm

.be

nheq

itend

erbranches,leaves,

fruits

yes,fru

itsforpe

ople

Shrub

****

G0043

Rosaceae

Rubusellipticus

Sm.

beng

he,b

engg

etend

erbranches,leaves,

fruits

yes,fru

itsforpe

ople

Shrub

****

GYF13

Rosaceae

Rubusirena

eusFocke

tend

erbranches,leaves,

fruits

yes,fru

itsforpe

ople

Shrub

***

***

GYF25

Rosaceae

RubuslineatusReinw.

jiawa

tend

erbranches,leaves,

fruits

yes,fru

itsforpe

ople

Shrub

****

*****

G0046

Rosaceae

Rubusmesogaeus

Focke

tend

erbranches,leaves,

fruits

yes,fru

itsforpe

ople

Shrub

******

PHO48

Rosaceae

RubuspaniculatusSm

.be

nghe

tend

erbranches,leaves,

fruits

yes,fru

itsforpe

ople

Shrub

***

**G0005

Rosaceae

Rubuspectinarioides

H.H

ara

tend

erbranches,leaves,

fruits

yes,fru

itsforpe

ople

Shrub

***

GYF23

Rosaceae

Rubuspentagon

usWall.ex

Focke

dachui

tend

erbranches,leaves,

fruits

yes,fru

itsforpe

ople

Shrub

***

GYF54

Rosaceae

RubustaronensisC.Y.W

uex

T.T.Yu

&L.T.Lu

lajia

tend

erbranches,leaves,

fruits

yes,fru

itsforpe

ople

Shrub

****

GYF19

Rubiaceae

Dam

nacanthu

sindicusC.F.G

aertn.

leaves

noShrub

***

GYF12

Rubiaceae

Hedyotis

scan

dens

Roxb.

who

leplant

noHerb

***

GYF18

Rubiaceae

Luculia

yunn

anensis

S.Y.Hu

gudie,xiu

leaves

noShrub

****

GYF44

Rubiaceae

Oph

iorrhiza

luridaHoo

k.f.

who

leplant

noHerb

***

GYF29

Rubiaceae

Uncariascan

dens

(Sm.)Hutch.

tend

erbranches,leaves

noWoo

dyliana

**

GYF52

Rubiaceae

Wendlan

diaspeciosa

Cow

anleaves

noTree

orshrub

***

PHO49

Rutaceae

Toddalia

asiatica(L.)Lam.

tend

erbranches,leaves

noShrubs

orwoo

dyclim

bers

***

**PH

O50

Sabiaceae

Sabiadielsii

Levl.

tend

erbranches,leaves

noWoo

dyliana

***

GYF50


Table

1Fodd

erspeciesconsum

edby

mith

un(Bos

frontalis)

inDulon

gjiang

area,Yun

nanProvince,Sou

thwestChina

(Con

tinued)

Saxifragaceae

Astilbe

chinensis

(Maxim

.)Franch.&

Sav.

who

leplant

noHerb

****

PHO51

Scroph

ulariaceae

Buddlejasp.

leaves

noTree

***

**PH

O30

Smilacaceae

Smilaxlung

lingensisF.T.Wang&Tang

aguaidelei

leaves

noShrub

***

***

GYF16

Smilacaceae

SmilaxmyrtillusA.D

C.

leaves

noShrub

**

GYF15

Staphyleaceae

Turpinia

macrospermaHuang

leaves

noTree

***

PHO52

Urticaceae

Debregeasia

orientalisC.J.C

hen

xinyi

leaves

noShrub

****

****

G0038

Urticaceae

Elatostemaho

okerianu

mWed

d.kena,shilikangq

iang

who

leplant

yes,mun

tjac’sfavorite

Herb

***

**G0009

Urticaceae

Elatostemalaevissimum

W.T.W

ang

who

leplant

yes,mun

tjac’sfavorite

Herb

***

**PH

O54

Urticaceae

Elatostemana

sutum

Hoo

k.f.

kang

qiang

who

leplant

yes,mun

tjac’sfavorite

Herb

****

GYF2

Urticaceae

Elatostemaplatyphyllum

Wed

d.zhem

eng

who

leplant

noSubshrub

s*****

*****

GYF31

Urticaceae

Gon

ostegiahirta(Bl.)Miq.

yileng

,jielang

who

leplant

noHerb

****

**G0053

Urticaceae

Lecanthu

spileoidesChien

&C.J.C

hen

wangn

uoka,

wando

ngwho

leplant

noHerb

****

**G0012

Urticaceae

Oreocnide

frutescens(Thu

nb.)Miq.

leaves

noTree

***

***

PHO55

Urticaceae

Pileapellion

ioides

C.J.C

hen

who

leplant

noHerb

***

**GYF3

Urticaceae

Pileasp.

ganji

who

leplant

noHerb

*****

G0018

Urticaceae

Urticaardens

Link

beng

luo

who

leplant

noHerb

**

GYF17

Vitaceae

Tetrastigmaobtectum

(Wall.ex

M.A.Law

son)

Planch.exFranch.

buleng

aren

tend

erbranches,leaves

yes,fru

itsforpe

ople

Herbaceou

sliana

***

**GYF28

Zing

iberaceae

Cautleya

gracilis(Sm.)Dandy

gube

ngleaves

noHerb

**

GYF7

Zing

iberaceae

Hedychium

sinoaureum

Stapf

gubaom

u,gu

beng

leaves

noHerb

***

G0014

Speciesin

inventoryareorde

redfrom

lower

tohigh

erplan

ts,and

they

arearrang

edfirstly

byfamily

taxa

andthen

byge

nustaxa.V

erna

cularna

meof

wild

ediblesarewrittenusingChine

sepiny

in.*

inColum

nMith

unPreferen

cean

dAbu

ndan

cerepresen

tsthepreferen

celevelo

rindicatedresource

amou

nt,and

more*,morepreferredor

moreab

unda

ntresources


Informants demonstrated a sophisticated knowledge ofnutritional characteristics such as nutritional value(fodder plants which enable mithun to grow rapidly),palatability and availability. About 32% of reported fod-ders were multifunctional, some of which were said tocause a bodyweight gain and shiny fur. Our informantslisted Arundo donax, Paris sp. and Erianthus longiseto-sus as being very important fodder plants. A. donax is aperennial herbaceous plant and promising energy plant,which could serve as an alternative to wood from short-rotation forestry [24–26]. 50% of informants claimedthat E. longisetosus made mithun fur very black andshiny. E. longisetosus is very popular among cattlefarmers and was most commonly used in dairy cowfeeding [27, 28]. Paris sp. is a perennial medicinal plantand is a promising candidate for the development ofanti-cancer drugs [29–31], and is important forageplant as identified by the informants. Overall, wildforage plants consumed by mithuns were diverse andabundant in the study site. Some studies point outthat herbivores have various mechanisms to preventabsorption or reduce the effect of ingested toxins inthe wild grazing [32, 33].The informants reported that mithun preferentially

consumed tender leaves (53.52%). The other parts mostfrequently consumed were whole plants, tender branches,fruits and bamboo shoots (Fig. 4). Of the plant speciescited, 33.8% had only one part of the plant often eaten bymithun, while the remaining species had more than two

Fig. 3 Frequently cited families of wild fodder plant species

Fig. 4 Plant parts consumed and the number of plant parts used


parts mentioned as animal feed. Due to the climate of theDulongjiang area, most wild fodder plants documented inthe study can also be accessed in the winter, and there wasno significant seasonal difference in the plant species con-sumed by mithun.For mithun, less consumed fodder species usually were

the less distributed species in Dulongjiang area (Table 1),such as Cymbidium faberi, Pholidota articulate andUrtica ardens. But some common fodder species wereless consumed by mithuns in Dulongjiang area probablydue to their unpleasant taste, such as Blumea densifloraand Alnus nepalensis.

Feeding habits, prioritizing fodder trees/shrubs andpromotion possibilitiesMithun thrives on jungle forage, tree fodder, shrubs,herbs and other natural vegetation. They stay on themountain year-round, and farmers do not provide anyadditional feeding; they merely provide salt three to fivetimes monthly, especially if for some reason it is neces-sary to restrain the animals from freely ranging around(Fig. 5). Too much salt makes mithun more vulnerableto hypertension, so an adult mithun must be given lessthan three kilograms of salt per month.Mithun prefers to move around the forest and browse

selectively, particularly on rough or even spiny leaveslike those of Debregeasia orientalis, Saurauia polyneuraand forage plants in the genus Rubus, such as Rubuslineatus (Fig. 6). Preferred species are often leafy andwithout lots of stem, with a high leaf table and leaves oflow tensile strength [34]. The species found in the dietof the mithun match with the percentage of speciesfound in the botanical composition of the local forest[35]. According to a European study, the ungulates canplay a major role as seed dispersers for plant dispersalin forest habitats [36]. However, comparison of thisstudy’s results with those of Indian mithun reveals no

overlap between species consumed by mithun inDulongjiang and in India. This indicates that mithuncan adapt well to local environments in which theavailability of different foods is limited during someparts of the year [16, 37].Tree/shrub fodder plays a major role in the diet of

mithun, unlike that of other ruminants. In the Dulong-jiang area, tree and herb forage plants mostly belong tothe Poaceae family, and shrub fodder plants mostlybelong to the Rosaceae family. More than half of the 20most frequently cited fodder species in our survey(frequency ≥15) were trees or shrubs, and half ofthem belonged to the Poaceae family (Table 2). E.longisetosus and A. donax were abundant in the area,growing on riversides and hillsides at lower elevations.At the onset of winter, the mithun moves to lowerelevation regions with higher temperatures and moreavailable food, and these two perennial grasses becometheir important food source. Bamboo is also preferred bymithun but Dulongjiang has relatively low amounts ofbamboo. In interviews, Phyllostachys mannii was men-tioned more frequently than the other two (Chimono-bambusa armata and Fargesia praecipua) (Table 2).

Fig. 5 Foraging mithun in the natural habitat

Fig. 6 Three preferred fodder tree species: a-b Saurauia polyneura;c-d Rubus lineatus; e Debregeasia orientalis


This is probably because most of the interviewees sel-dom go high up into the mountains where the latter twospecies occur. Imperata cylindrica usually occurs indisturbed place, and it became very common inDulongjiang when both sides of the valley were con-verted to farmland. However, the recent reforestationprogram made it less common. In addition to Poa-ceae, two species of Urticaceae were also mentionedfrequently. D. orientalis is often found growing next tostreams, while Elatostema hookerianum grows in limitedamounts in the forest. S. polyneura and R. lineatus arewidely distributed throughout the Dulongjiang area, andwere used by a smallholder in Gongshan County to feedmithuns in captivity. Local residents also identified speciesmentioned above as being able to provide high qualitywoody fodder. Tree fodder plants often have multi-purpose uses. For example, P. mannii, C. armata and F.praecipua yield edible shoots; R. lineatus produces ediblefruits and planted as a courtyard ornament [38, 39]; fruitsof Saurauia have been important edible fruits sincehunger time [40, 41].The use of fodder trees may also bring other benefits

to farmers in Dulongjiang. The sale of tree fodder by-products by smallholder farmers provides an opportun-ity to boost household incomes in the study area.Integrating trees into farming practices often has directeffects on crop production such as weed suppressionand pest and disease reduction. Livestock such asmithun may also produce higher returns than single

crop production as much of the local area is steeplysloped. The use of fodder trees on cropland could becombined with raising mithun and growing crops in in-tegrated tree-crop-livestock systems which would makeefficient use of the available land resources withoutharming natural forests through agricultural extension.In many countries, fragmentation of land holdings

coupled with the declining productivity of public for-ests motivates farmers to cultivate more trees on theirprivate farmland in order to develop on-farm treefodder resources [42–44]. However, one of the disad-vantages of growing trees on crop land is a negativeimpact on crop yield. Some species may be suitablefor feeding livestock, but agronomically unsuccessful[45, 46]. Future introductions of fodder plants to newareas and systems may be more successful if basedon species and cultivars with long research pedigreesin the same agro-ecologies rather than on unknownspecies [47], and for which tree-crop interactions havebeen thoroughly investigated [48].For many local farming communities, agroforestry is

not a new land use practice but a proven productionstrategy [49]. Our results indicate that this wealth ofknowledge can be used to inform the selection of eco-logically suitable and economically beneficial foddertrees. These trees could form part of small-scale, mixedtree-crop-livestock systems which could play a majorrole in improving livelihoods and protecting natural eco-systems in mountain landscapes.

Table 2 Frequently cited fodder species consumed by mithun (Bos frontalis) in Dulongjiang area, Yunnan Province, Southwest China

Family Scientific name Vernacular name Cited frequency Life form

Poaceae Erianthus longisetosus T. Anderson shiling 47 Herb

Poaceae Phyllostachys mannii Gamble remeng 37 Tree

Poaceae Imperata cylindrica (L.) P. Beauv. aji 31 Herb

Urticaceae Debregeasia orientalis C. J. Chen xinyi 28 Shrub

Poaceae Arundo donax L. gelu 27 Tree

Urticaceae Elatostema hookerianum Wedd. kena 24 Herb

Poaceae Chimonobambusa armata (Gamble) Hsueh & T. P. Yi jiu 20 Tree

Actinidiaceae Saurauia polyneura C. F. Liang & Y. S. Wang damujiu 20 Tree

Poaceae Fargesia praecipua T. P. Yi sameng 16 Tree

Rosaceae Rubus lineatus Reinw. jiawa 15 Shrub

Fabaceae Pueraria lobata (Willd.) Ohwi buruikale 11 Herb

Poaceae Oplismenus compositus (L.) P. Beauv. jilong 11 Herb

Polygonaceae Polygonum molle D. Don bengge 11 Shrub

Polygonaceae Fagopyrum dibotrys (D. Don) H. Hara shili 9 Herb

Hydrangeaceae Hydrangea longipes Franch. benming 8 Shrub

Poaceae Saccharum arundinaceum Retz. hong 8 Herb

Melanthiaceae Paris sp. chonglou 7 Herb

Poaceae Dendrocalamus fugongensis Hsueh & D. Z. Li duwa 7 Tree


Mithun farming and livelihoods developmentCrop farming, raising livestock and running small busi-nesses were regarded as the most important economicactivities in Dulongjiang area. Livestock, especiallymithun and pigs, were in the past raised partly for cere-monial purpose but have now become an importantsource of income. Farmers in this area and the easternHimalayas have traditionally relied on common propertyresources such as forest and grasslands to feed their live-stock [27, 50]. Currently, Dulongjiang farmers use a jointmanagement system whereby a few families take turnsto check the numbers and condition of the mithun, andfeed them salt.When asked about the main threats to the mithun

population and means of protecting it, almost all localvillagers agreed that feeding mithun in stalls would be abetter way to avoid accidental death on the steep hill-sides as well as from predators such as bears. However,some worried that feeding mithun in this way couldmake them weak and thin. Mithun still contribute sig-nificantly to the livelihoods of traditional smallholders inDulongjiang area, and both the introduction of new hus-bandry practices and the planting of specialized forageplants, even in a limited way, present serious challenges.The sale of mithun could boost income, though theability to do this is often limited by a lack of capital withwhich to buy calves . According to some studies,mithuns are not usually raised for their milk, but theybecome accustomed to milking. Mithun produce around1–1.5 kg milk/day/animal, and the fat content of theirmilk varies from 11 to 13% [18, 28]. If mithun could bemore readily sold, farmers would have a stronger incen-tive to keep mithun, in addition to their cultural valueand provision of meat [51]. Farmers also prefer to planteconomically and commercially valuable trees overfodder trees [52].The time invested in raising mithun varied widely

among individual households. Members of a house-hold spent about five hours per week feeding theirmithuns salt and checking on them. Smallholder live-stock production also has the advantage of havinglower labor costs than either using hired labor onlarge-scale farms or the cut-and-carry feeding methodemployed in other regions [53].Efforts to improve livestock production in smallholder

farming systems face various challenges. First, the selec-tion of different species as candidates for planting foddertrees must take account both their ecological suitabilityand their potential for supporting local livelihoods [54].Second, farming systems in this area are usually lowinput, and under high-risk conditions, farmers arereluctant to invest in improved production technologies[55, 56]. However, in the Dulongjiang area, the local gov-ernment has strongly supported under-forest resource

development, and has offered each household Amomumtsaoko and Paris sp. seedlings for free. Therefore, thelocal government could play a vital role in establishingan efficient integrated tree-livestock-crop program andconvincing farmers that investing in such systems isworthwhile.The present study on the forage plants known by

Dulong people built upon their locally-developed experi-ence during the process of domestication of the mithun.Attention for the conservation of this rare animal is ne-cessary and proper management of forage source is oneof the important aspects in the step of conservation.Ethnobotanical experience from one community can beuseful for other community. Similarly, practices and pol-icy in one village could be useful for another village. Theconcept of integrated tree-livestock-crop can be accept-able and applicable in the regions like northeast Indiaand Myanmar where mithun are naturally distributed[16]. Therefore, the knowledge from Dulongjiang areacould be beneficial in the effective management offodder resources and mithun, and hence it could alsocontribute to the livelihoods development in the region.

ConclusionThe results of our research demonstrate the importanceof traditional knowledge in identifying suitable tree fodderspecies. In addition, the diversity of species mentioned byrespondents indicates that the study area is rich in forageplants which could be further investigated.According to the information provided by our infor-

mants, fodder species such as Erianthus longisetosus,Arundo donax and Paris sp. may have interesting nutri-tional properties. However, at present scientific knowledgeof these wild fodder species is too sparse to support thepromotion of fodder trees at the farm level. Padmakumaret al. had listed nutritional value of some species closelyrelated to our findings. This lead to the Ffurther researchinto these and other frequently-cited species which couldhelp farmers select fodder trees which are ecologicallysuitable and economically beneficial [57]. Tree fodderspecies such as Debregeasia orientalis and Saurauia poly-neura were highlighted by local farmers, as well as forageplants in the genus Rubus. Further studies are needed in-cluding a nutritional evaluation of various fodder speciesconsumed by mithun and researches into the effects ofdifferent fodder species on rumen microbial flora andenvironment of mithun.

AcknowledgmentsSpecial gratitude is expressed to the families of Shirong Wang for their kindhospitality, and to the Zhijun Wang, Wenzhe Li and Tianzhu Long for theirgenuine assistance. We are also thankful for the help of Dr. Yuxiao Zhang, Dr.Liang Zhang, Prof. Heng Li and Prof. Hua Peng with botanical identificationand Andrew Stevenson for English editing.


FundingThis research was funded by the CAAS project “The Agricultural Science andTechnology Innovation Program (ASTIP-IAS07)”. We also acknowledge supportfrom CGIAR research programs on ‘Forests, Trees and Agroforestry’ (CRP6.2).

Availability of data and materialsAll datasets on which the conclusions of the paper rely made available inthe manuscript.

Authors’ contributionsYFG, SR and JCX conceived and designed the research. YFG,GXH,YL and XLMcollected the data, and GXH provided the botanical identification. XKO, YHWand SJP gave advice on interviews. YFG analyzed the data and prepared themanuscript. SR and DPB reviewed the manuscript. All authors read andapproved the final manuscript.

Competing interestsThe authors declare that they have no competing interests.

Consent for publicationThe people interviewed were informed about the study’s objectives and theeventual publication of the information gathered, and they were assuredthat the informants’ identities would remain undisclosed.

Ethics approval and consent to participateThe authors asked for permission from the local authorities and the peopleinterviewed to carry out the study.

Publisher’s NoteSpringer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims inpublished maps and institutional affiliations.

Author details1Institute of Ecology and Geobotany, Yunnan University, Kunming 650091,China. 2Key Laboratory of Economic Plants and Biotechnology, KunmingInstitute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming 650201, China.3University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China.4CAAS-ICRAF Joint Lab on Agroforestry and Sustainable Animal Husbandry,World Agroforestry Centre East and Central Asia, Beijing 100193, China. 5StateKey Laboratory of Animal Nutrition, Institute of Animal Science, ChineseAcademy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100193, China. 6College of LifeSciences, Guizhou University, Guiyang 550025, China. 7World AgroforestryCentre East and Central Asia, Kunming 650201, China. 8Hunan Co-InnovationCenter of Animal Production Safety, CICAPS, Changsha 410128, China.

Received: 9 December 2016 Accepted: 17 April 2017

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