Principles of Mobile Communication

Gordon L. Stuber

Principles of MobileCommunication

Third Edition

123

Gordon L. StuberGeorgia Institute of TechnologyAtlanta, GAUSAstuber@ece.gatech.edu

ISBN 978-1-4614-0363-0 e-ISBN 978-1-4614-0364-7DOI 10.1007/978-1-4614-0364-7Springer New York Dordrecht Heidelberg London

Library of Congress Control Number: 2011934683

c© Springer Science+Business Media, LLC 2002, 2011All rights reserved. This work may not be translated or copied in whole or in part without the writtenpermission of the publisher (Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, 233 Spring Street, New York,NY 10013, USA), except for brief excerpts in connection with reviews or scholarly analysis. Use inconnection with any form of information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software,or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed is forbidden.The use in this publication of trade names, trademarks, service marks, and similar terms, even if they arenot identified as such, is not to be taken as an expression of opinion as to whether or not they are subjectto proprietary rights.

Printed on acid-free paper

Springer is part of Springer Science+Business Media (www.springer.com)

To Alana, our son Nickolas,my father Lothar Stuber,and my late mother Beatrice Stuber

Preface

Principles of Mobile Communication, third edition, is a major revision of thesecond edition. Like its earlier editions, this book provides a mathematicallyrigorous overview of physical layer wireless communications. The basic pedagogicmethodology is to include fully detailed derivations from first principles. The text isintended to provide enough principle material to guide the novice student, whileat the same time having plenty of detailed material to satisfy graduate studentsinclined to pursue research in the area. The book is intended to stress the principlesof wireless communications that are applicable to a wide array of wireless standards.It is intended to serve as a textbook and reference for graduate students, and a usefulreference for practicing engineers.

Organization of the Book

Chapter 1 begins with an overview that is intended to introduce a broad array ofissues relating to wireless communications. Included is a brief description of theevolution of various wireless standards, the basic concepts of cellular frequencyreuse, the land mobile radio propagation environment, link budgets, and coverageand capacity of cellular radio systems.

Chapter 2 provides an extensive treatment of radio propagation, since goodunderstanding of the physical wireless channel is essential for the developmentand deployment of wireless systems. The chapter begins with a treatment ofthe narrow-band faded envelope for conventional fixed-to-mobile channels foundin cellular radio systems, mobile-to-mobile channels found in mobile ad hocnetworks, and multiple-input multiple-output (MIMO) channels where multipleantennas are used at both the transmitter and receiver to achieve high capacity. Afterconsidering the narrow-band channel, we consider the statistical treatment of wide-band channels. The emulation of wireless channels is essential for the developmentand testing of wireless systems, and the chapter provides a detailed discussion ofchannel simulation techniques. Finally, the chapter concludes with a discussion ofshadowing and path loss models for land mobile radio environments.

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Chapter 3 provides a detailed treatment of co-channel interference which is theprimary impairment in spectrally efficient cellular frequency reuse systems. Veryoften the receivers in such systems are affected by multiple co-channel interferersand the probability distribution of the total interfering power is considered. Thechapter also considers the link outage performance due to co-channel interferencein a variety of wireless environments.

Chapter 4 covers the various types of modulation schemes that are used in mobilecommunication systems along with their spectral characteristics. The chapter beginswith the mathematical representation of bandpass modulated signals, along withNyquist pulse shaping. Later, a large variety of modulation schemes used in wirelesssystems are considered, including both single-carrier and multi-carrier modulation,and both linear and nonlinear modulation techniques. This is followed by a treatmentof the power density spectrum of modulated signals. Although quite mathematicalin nature, power spectrum is an important topic, since wireless systems are requiredto operate within a specified out-of-band emission mask.

Chapter 5 discusses the error probability performance of various digital modula-tion schemes on narrow-band flat fading channels. The performance is evaluatedwith a variety of receiver structures, including coherent detectors, differentiallycoherent detectors, and noncoherent detectors.

Chapter 6 includes a treatment of multi-antenna techniques for combatingenvelope fading. The chapter includes a discussion of various diversity combiningtechniques for coherent, differentially coherent, and noncoherent receiver detectionof signals on fading channels with additive white Gaussian noise. Also consideredis optimal combining which is effective when the primary additive impairment isco-channel interference rather than noise. Finally, the chapter considers the use ofmultiple antennas at the transmitter in the context of classical beam-forming andtransmit diversity.

Chapter 7 provides an extensive treatment of digital signaling on intersymbolinterference (ISI) channels that are typical of broadband land mobile radio systems.The chapter begins with the characterization of ISI channels and goes on todiscuss techniques for combating ISI based on symbol-by-symbol equalization andsequence estimation. Later, error probability for maximum likelihood sequenceestimation is considered. The chapter concludes with a discussion of co-channeldemodulation for the purpose of mitigating co-channel interference on ISI channels.

Chapter 8 covers error control coding techniques for wireless systems. Thechapter begins with a discussion of basic block coding, including space-time blockcodes. Convolutional coding is considered next along with the Viterbi and BCJRalgorithms for decoding convolutional codes, followed by trellis coded modulation.The chapter then provides a detailed discussion on the design and performanceanalysis of convolutional and trellis codes for AWGN channels, and interleaved flatfading channels, and fading ISI channels. Later, space-time trellis codes are treated,and the chapter concludes with Turbo coding.

Chapter 9 is devoted to spread spectrum techniques. The chapter begins with anintroduction to direct sequence and frequency hop spread spectrum. This is followedby a detailed treatment of spreading sequences. Also included is a discussion

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of the effects of tone interference on direct sequence spread spectrum, and theRAKE receiver performance on wide-band channels. The chapter wraps up witha discussion of CDMA multiuser detection.

Chapter 10 is devoted to multi-carrier techniques. It considers the performanceof OFDM on frequency-selective channels and considers the effect of residualISI and problem of residual ISI cancellation. Later, the chapter examines single-carrier frequency-domain equalization (SC-FDE) techniques. This is followed by atreatment of orthogonal frequency division multiple access (OFDMA) on both theforward and reverse links. The chapter concludes with a discussion of single-carrierfrequency division multiple access (SC-FDMA).

Chapter 11 considers frequency planning techniques for cellular systems. Thechapter begins with a discussion of cell sectoring, cell splitting, and reuse partition-ing. Later, the chapter considers radio planning for OFDMA cellular systems. Thisis followed by hierarchical overlay/underlay architectures based on cluster planning.Finally, the chapter wraps up with macrodiversity TDMA cellular architectures.

Chapter 12 considers CDMA considers CDMA cellular systems, consideringtopics such as capacity and power control. This is followed by a discussion ofhierarchical macrodiversity CDMA architectures and their performance.

Chapter 13 is devoted to cellular radio resource management. The chapter beginswith an introduction to basic hard and soft handoff. Later, the chapter considers theimportant problem of link quality evaluation, including signal strength averaging,velocity estimation, and velocity adaptive hard handoff algorithms. Later, a detailedanalysis of hard and soft handoff is provided. Finally, the chapter wraps up withmethods for estimating received carrier-to-interference plus noise ratio (CINR).

The Appendix includes a brief and focused tutorial discussion of probabilityand random processes. A good understanding of the material in the Appendix isessential, since the concepts are widely used throughout the text.

Using This Book for Instruction

The book has been developed from a graduate-level course on physical wirelesscommunications that I have taught at Georgia Tech since 1993. Normally, I prefera graduate-level course in digital communications as a prerequisite for this course.However, such a prerequisite may be waived to the extent that there is extensivebackground material in each chapter. A course may cover the introductory materialin each chapter and skip the more specialized material. In my own classes, I alwaystry to judge the mathematical level of the students early and adapt accordingly.

The book obviously contains far too much material to be taught in a onesemester course. However, I believe that it can serve as a suitable text in mostsituations through the appropriate instructor selection of background sections. Myown preference for a one semester course is to include the following material inorder: Chap. 1, Chap. 2 (skipping the more advanced material), and the first twosections of Chap. 3. In moving to modulation waveforms in Chap. 4, an instructormay have to treat/assume basic signal-space representation. However, most students

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will not have seen the material on either continuous phase modulation or the powerspectrum of digitally modulated waveforms even with a prerequisite. Likewise, inChap. 5 an instructor will have to treat/assume basic signal detection, and a goodunderstanding of this material is necessary to cover multi-antenna techniques inChap. 6. After completing Chap. 6, there are many potential directions to take thecourse and the book provides for much flexibility depending on the course focus. Forexample, an instructor may choose to concentrate on spread spectrum and CDMAin Chaps. 9 and 11, or on OFDM/OFDMA in Chap. 10.

Acknowledgments

I would like to acknowledge all those who have contributed to the preparation ofthis book and its earlier editions. The reviewers Vijay Bhargava at the University ofVictoria and Sanjiv Nanda at Lucent Technologies were responsible reviewers in theearly stages of the first edition of this book. The subsequent review by UpamanyuMadhow at the University of Illinois and in particular the detailed review by KeithChugg at the University of Southern California were highly useful for improvingthe first edition of this book. I am grateful to my doctoral students, past and present,who have contributed to this book through their thesis research. The technicalcontributions of Wern-Ho Sheen, Khalid Hamied, Mark Austin, Jeff (Lihbor) Yiin,Ming-Ju Ho, Li-Chun (Robert) Wang, Krishna Narayanan, Dukhyun Kim, JinsoupJoung, John (Yongchae) Kim, and Alenka Zajic are greatly appreciated.

Atlanta, GA, USA Gordon L. Stuber

Contents

1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.1 Brief History of Wireless Systems and Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

1.1.1 First Generation (1G) Cellular Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21.1.2 Second Generation (2G) Cellular Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31.1.3 Third Generation Cellular Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91.1.4 Fourth Generation Cellular Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121.1.5 Cordless Telephone Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131.1.6 Wireless LANs and PANs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

1.2 Frequency Reuse and the Cellular Concept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151.3 Mobile Radio Propagation Environment .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191.4 Co-channel Interference and Noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211.5 Receiver Sensitivity and Link Budget . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

1.5.1 Interference Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241.5.2 Shadow Margin and Handoff Gain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

1.6 Coverage .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291.7 Spectral Efficiency and Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

1.7.1 Bandwidth Efficiency.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321.7.2 Spatial Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321.7.3 Trunking Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341.7.4 Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

2 Propagation Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 432.1 Fixed-to-Mobile Channels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

2.1.1 Envelope Correlation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 492.1.2 Doppler Spectrum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 522.1.3 Received Envelope and Phase Distribution.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 582.1.4 Envelope Correlation and Spectra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 642.1.5 Level Crossing Rates and Fade Durations .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 702.1.6 Space–Time Correlation.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74

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2.2 Mobile-to-Mobile Channels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 812.2.1 Mobile-to-Mobile Reference Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82

2.3 MIMO Channels. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 842.3.1 Analytical MIMO Channel Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86

2.4 Statistical Characterization of Multipath-Fading Channels . . . . . . . . 892.4.1 Statistical Channel Correlation Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 912.4.2 Classification of Channels. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 922.4.3 Power Delay Profile and Coherence Bandwidth . . . . . . . . . . 94

2.5 Simulation of Multipath-Fading Channels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 962.5.1 Filtered White Gaussian Noise Models. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 962.5.2 Sum of Sinusoids Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1022.5.3 Multiple Uncorrelated Faded Envelopes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1072.5.4 Wide-Band Simulation Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1112.5.5 Mobile-to-Mobile Simulation Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1172.5.6 Symbol-Spaced Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122

2.6 Shadowing .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1262.6.1 Shadow Simulation .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1292.6.2 Composite Shadowing-Fading Distributions .. . . . . . . . . . . . . 130

2.7 Path Loss Models. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1322.7.1 Free Space Path Loss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1332.7.2 Flat Earth Path Loss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1332.7.3 Empirical Path Loss Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136

Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152

3 Co-channel Interference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1653.1 Multiple Log-normal Interferers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167

3.1.1 Fenton–Wilkinson Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1683.1.2 Schwartz and Yeh Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1703.1.3 Farley’s Method.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1723.1.4 Numerical Comparisons .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174

3.2 Log-Normal/Multiple Log-Normal Interferers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1753.3 Rician/Multiple Rayleigh Interferers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1763.4 Log-Normal Nakagami/Multiple Log-Normal

Nakagami Interferers .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1793.4.1 Statistically Identical Interferers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1803.4.2 Statistically Non-identical Co-channel Interferers . . . . . . . . 184

Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186

4 Digital Modulation and Power Spectrum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1894.1 Representation of Bandpass Modulated Signals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190

4.1.1 Vector Space Representations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1914.1.2 Gram–Schmidt Orthonormalization Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . 1924.1.3 Signal Energy and Correlations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196

4.2 Nyquist Pulse Shaping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1984.2.1 Raised Cosine and Root-Raised Cosine Pulse . . . . . . . . . . . . 202

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4.3 Quadrature Amplitude Modulation .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2034.3.1 QAM Signal Constellations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2044.3.2 PAM Signal Constellations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206

4.4 Phase Shift Keying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2064.4.1 Offset QPSK (OQPSK) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2074.4.2 π/4-DQPSK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208

4.5 Orthogonal Modulation and Variants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2104.5.1 Orthogonal FSK Modulation .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2104.5.2 Binary Orthogonal Codes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2114.5.3 Biorthogonal Signals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2124.5.4 Orthogonal Multipulse Modulation .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213

4.6 Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2134.6.1 Adaptive Bit Loading and Discrete Multitone

Modulation .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2154.6.2 Multiresolution Modulation .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2164.6.3 DFT-Based OFDM Baseband Modulator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217

4.7 Continuous Phase Modulation .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2194.7.1 Full Response CPM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221

4.8 Partial Response CPM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2234.8.1 Phase States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2264.8.2 Gaussian Minimum Shift Keying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2284.8.3 Linearized GMSK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2314.8.4 Tamed Frequency Modulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233

4.9 Power Spectrum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2374.9.1 Psd of the Complex Envelope .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2384.9.2 Psd of QAM.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2444.9.3 Psd of PSK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2464.9.4 Psd of OQPSK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2464.9.5 Psd of π/4-DQPSK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2464.9.6 Psd of OFDM .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2474.9.7 Psd of Full Response CPM. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2514.9.8 Psd of GMSK and TFM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260

Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262

5 Digital Signaling on Flat Fading Channels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2715.1 Vector Space Representation of Received Signals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2725.2 Detection of Known Signals in AWGN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2755.3 Probability of Error. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280

5.3.1 Pairwise Error Probability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2815.3.2 Upper Bounds on Error Probability. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2825.3.3 Lower Bound on Error Probability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2845.3.4 Bit Versus Symbol Error Probabilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2845.3.5 Rotation and Translations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285

5.4 Error Probability of PSK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2875.4.1 Error Probability of BPSK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2875.4.2 Error Probability of QPSK and OQPSK. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288

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5.4.3 Error Probability of M-PSK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2905.4.4 Error Probability with Rayleigh Fading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2915.4.5 Differential PSK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293

5.5 Error Probability of PAM and QAM .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2945.5.1 Error Probability of M-PAM .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2945.5.2 Error Probability of M-QAM .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296

5.6 Error Probability of Orthogonal Signals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2985.6.1 Orthogonal Signals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2985.6.2 Biorthogonal Signals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299

5.7 Error Probability of OFDM .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3005.7.1 Interchannel Interference .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302

5.8 Error Probability of MSK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3065.9 Differential Detection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306

5.9.1 Binary DPSK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3075.9.2 Differential Detection of π/4-DQPSK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310

5.10 Noncoherent Detection.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3115.10.1 Error Probability of M-ary Orthogonal Signals . . . . . . . . . . . 313

5.11 Detection of CPM Signals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3165.11.1 Coherent CPM Demodulator .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3175.11.2 Noncoherent CPM Demodulator. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317

Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319

6 Multi-antenna Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3256.1 Diversity Combining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3266.2 Selective Combining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3286.3 Maximal Ratio Combining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3316.4 Equal Gain Combining .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3356.5 Switched Combining .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3376.6 Differential Detection with Equal Gain Combining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3406.7 Noncoherent Square-Law Combining .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3426.8 Optimum Combining.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346

6.8.1 Optimum Combining Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3506.9 Classical Beam-Forming .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3576.10 Transmitter Diversity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362

6.10.1 Alamouti’s Transmit Diversity Scheme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367

7 Equalization and Interference Cancelation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3737.1 Modeling of ISI Channels. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374

7.1.1 Vector Representation of Received Signals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3757.2 Maximum Likelihood Receiver for ISI Channels with AWGN .. . . 375

7.2.1 Discrete-Time White Noise Channel Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3777.3 Symbol-by-Symbol Equalizers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387

7.3.1 Linear Equalizer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3877.3.2 Decision Feedback Equalizer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398

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7.4 Sequence Estimation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4017.4.1 Maximum Likelihood Sequence Estimation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4017.4.2 Delayed Decision-Feedback Sequence Estimation . . . . . . . 4097.4.3 Reduced-State Sequence Estimation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411

7.5 Error Probability for MLSE on ISI Channels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4137.5.1 Static ISI Channels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4157.5.2 Fading ISI Channels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417

7.6 Error Probability for T/2-Spaced MLSE Receiver. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4217.6.1 T -Spaced MLSE Receiver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4227.6.2 T/2-Spaced MLSE Receiver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4227.6.3 Timing Phase Sensitivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4247.6.4 Practical T /2-Spaced MLSE Receiver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426

7.7 Co-channel Demodulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4287.7.1 System and Channel Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4287.7.2 Joint Maximum Likelihood Co-channel Receiver . . . . . . . . 4297.7.3 Discrete-Time MIMO Channel Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4327.7.4 The Viterbi Algorithm .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4357.7.5 Pairwise Error Probability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4367.7.6 T/2-Spaced MIMO J-MLSE Receiver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4377.7.7 Interference Rejection Combining MLSE Receiver . . . . . . 4447.7.8 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 447

Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 450

8 Error Control Coding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4578.1 Block Codes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 460

8.1.1 Binary Block Codes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4608.1.2 Space-Time Block Codes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 466

8.2 Convolutional Codes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4718.2.1 Encoder Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4718.2.2 State and Trellis Diagrams, and Weight Distribution . . . . . 4748.2.3 Recursive Systematic Convolutional Codes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4778.2.4 Viterbi Algorithm .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4798.2.5 BCJR Algorithm .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 482

8.3 Trellis Coded Modulation .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4888.3.1 Encoder Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4888.3.2 Mapping by Set Partitioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 490

8.4 Code Performance on AWGN Channels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4928.4.1 Union Bound for Convolutional Codes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 494

8.5 Interleaving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4988.6 Code Performance on Interleaved Flat Fading Channels . . . . . . . . . . . 501

8.6.1 TCM with Symbol Interleaving .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5018.6.2 Bit Interleaved Coded Modulation .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 505

8.7 Performance of Space-Time Codes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5078.7.1 Space-Time Trellis Codes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 510

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8.8 Turbo Codes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5138.8.1 PCCC Encoder .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5138.8.2 PCCC Decoder. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5158.8.3 SCCC Encoder and Decoder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5178.8.4 Weight Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 518

Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 522

9 Spread Spectrum Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5279.1 Basic Principles of Spread Spectrum .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 528

9.1.1 Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5289.1.2 Frequency Hop Spread Spectrum .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 532

9.2 Spreading Sequences .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5349.2.1 Spreading Waveforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5359.2.2 m-Sequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5379.2.3 Gold Sequences .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5409.2.4 Kasami Sequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5419.2.5 Barker Sequences .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5429.2.6 Walsh–Hadamard Sequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5429.2.7 Variable Length Orthogonal Codes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5439.2.8 Complementary Code Keying.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 545

9.3 Power Spectral Density of DS Spread Spectrum Signals . . . . . . . . . . 5459.4 Performance of DS/QPSK in Tone Interference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 549

9.4.1 Short Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5539.4.2 Short Code Design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5599.4.3 Long Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 560

9.5 DS Spread Spectrum on Frequency-Selective Fading Channels . . . 5639.5.1 RAKE Receiver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5659.5.2 Error Probability of DS/BPSK with a RAKE Receiver . . . 567

9.6 CDMA Multiuser Detection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5729.6.1 Optimum CDMA Multiuser Detection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5729.6.2 Decorrelating Detector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5759.6.3 Minimum Mean Square Error Detector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 576

Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 577

10 Multi-carrier Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58310.1 Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 584

10.1.1 Performance of OFDM on ISI Channels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58710.1.2 Residual ISI Cancelation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59310.1.3 Performance of the RISIC Algorithm .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 595

10.2 Single-Carrier Frequency-Domain Equalization .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60010.2.1 ZF and MMSE SC-FDE. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 602

10.3 Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple Access . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60510.3.1 OFDMA Forward Link . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60610.3.2 OFDMA Reverse Link . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61110.3.3 Peak-to-Average Power Ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 612

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10.4 Single-Carrier Frequency Division Multiple Access . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61210.4.1 Peak-to-Average Power Ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 616

Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 618

11 Frequency Planning Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62111.1 Cell Sectoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 622

11.1.1 Cell Sectoring with Wide-beam Directional Antennas . . . 62211.2 Conventional Cell Splitting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 624

11.2.1 Reuse Partitioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62611.3 OFDMA Radio Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62811.4 Cluster-Planned Hierarchical Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 631

11.4.1 System Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63111.4.2 Underlaid Microcell Planning Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63311.4.3 Performance Analysis of Cluster-Planned

Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63711.5 Macrodiversity Architectures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 653

11.5.1 Co-channel Interference Outage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65311.5.2 Shadow Correlation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65511.5.3 Numerical Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 657

Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 660

12 CDMA Cellular Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66512.1 CDMA Power Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66612.2 Capacity of Cellular CDMA .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 668

12.2.1 Reverse Link Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66912.2.2 Forward Link Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67512.2.3 Imperfect Power Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 677

12.3 Hierarchical Macrodiversity CDMA Cellular Architectures . . . . . . . 68012.3.1 System Model. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68112.3.2 Reverse Link Analysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68212.3.3 Forward Link Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 688

Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 702

13 Radio Resource Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70513.1 Signal Strength-Based Hard Handoff Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71013.2 Pilot-to-Interference Ratio-Based Soft Handoff Algorithms .. . . . . . 71213.3 Signal Strength Averaging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 714

13.3.1 Choosing the Proper Window Length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71413.3.2 Choosing the Proper Number of Samples to Average . . . . 716

13.4 Velocity Estimation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71813.4.1 Level Crossing Rate Estimators. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72013.4.2 Covariance Approximation Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72213.4.3 Velocity Estimator Sensitivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 725

13.5 Velocity Adaptive Hard Handoff Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73013.5.1 Effect of Nλ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73113.5.2 Corner Effects and Sensitivity to a and Wl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73213.5.3 Velocity Adaptive Handoff Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 733

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13.6 Hard Handoff Analysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73413.6.1 Simulation Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 739

13.7 CDMA Soft Handoff Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74013.7.1 System Model and Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74113.7.2 Numerical Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 750

13.8 CINR-based Link Quality Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75913.8.1 Discrete-Time Model for Signal Quality Estimation . . . . . 75913.8.2 Training Sequence Based C/(I+N) Estimation . . . . . . . . . . 763

Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 768

A Probability and Random Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 771A.1 Conditional Probability and Bayes’ Theorem.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 771

A.1.1 Total Probability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 772A.1.2 Bayes’ Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 773

A.2 Means, Moments, and Moment Generating Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 773A.2.1 Bivariate Random Variables. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 774

A.3 Some Useful Probability Distributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 776A.3.1 Discrete Distributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 776A.3.2 Continuous Distributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 777

A.4 Upper Bounds on the cdfc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 785A.4.1 Chebyshev Bound . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 786A.4.2 Chernoff Bound. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 786

A.5 Random Processes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 789A.5.1 Moments and Correlation Functions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 790A.5.2 Cross-Correlation and Cross-Covariance .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 795A.5.3 Complex-Valued Random Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 797A.5.4 Power Spectral Density. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 799A.5.5 Random Processes Filtered by Linear Systems . . . . . . . . . . . 800A.5.6 Cyclostationary Random Processes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 803A.5.7 Discrete-Time Random Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 804

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 807

Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 821

Acronyms

AAoA Azimuth angle of arrivalAAoD Azimuth angle of departureADC Analog to digital converterADPCM Adaptive differential pulse-code modulationAMPS Advanced Mobile Phone ServiceAoA Angle of arrivalAoD Angle of departureAPP Aposteriori probabilityARQ Automatic repeat requestASELP Algebraic code excitation linear predictionAWGN Additive white Gaussian noiseBCH Bose-Chaudhuri-HocquenghemBCJR Bahl-Cocke-Jelinek-RavivBER Bit error rateBICM Bit interleaved coded modulationBPSK Binary phase shift keyingBS Base stationBSC Binary symmetric channelBU Bad urbanCC Convolutional codeCCI Co-channel interferenceCCIR Comite International des Radio-CommunicationCCK Complementary code keyingCC-OFDMA Clustered-carrier orthogonal frequency division multiple accesscdf Cumulative distribution functioncdfc Complementary distribution functionCDMA Code division multiple accessCIR Carrier-to-interference ratioCINR Carrier-to-interference plus noise ratioCNR Carrier-to-noise ratioCOV Covariance

xix

xx Acronyms

CPFSK Continuous phase frequency shift keyingCPM Continuous phase modulationCW Continuous waveCWEF Conditional weight enumerating functionDAC Digital to analog converterDCA Dynamic channel assignmentDDFSE Delayed decision feedback sequence estimationDECT Digital enhanced cordless telephoneDFE Decision feedback equalizerDFT Discrete Fourier transformDMT Discrete multitone modulationDPSK Differential phase shift keyingDQPSK Differential quadrature phase shift keyingDS Direct sequenceDTFT Discrete-time Fourier transformEAoA Elevation angle of arrivalEAoD Elevation angle of departureEDGE Enhanced data rates for GSM evolutionEGC Equal gain combiningEFR Enhanced full rateEIRP Effective isotropic radiated powerEVRC Enhanced variable rate codecFEPL Flat Earth path lossFDD Frequency division duplexingFDE Frequency-domain equalizationFFH Fast frequency hoppingFFT Fast Fourier transformFDMA Frequency division multiple accessFER Frame error rateFH Frequency hopFIR Finite impulse responseFSK Frequency shift keyingFSM Finite-state machineFSPL Free-space path lossGFSK Gaussian frequency shift keyingGMSK Gaussian minimum shift keyingGPRS General Packet Radio ServiceGPS Global positioning systemGSM Global System for Mobile CommunicationGTFM Generalized tamed frequency modulationH-ARQ Hybrid-automatic repeat requestHF High frequencyHMRC Hierarchical maximum ratio combiningHSDPA High speed downlink packet accessHSPA High speed packet access

Acronyms xxi

HSUPA High speed uplink packet accessHT Hilly terrainICI Interchannel interferenceIDFT Inverse discrete Fourier transformI-FDMA Interleaved frequency division multiple accessIFFT Inverse fast Fourier transformIIR Infinite impulse responseIRC Interference rejection combiningISI Intersymbol interferenceITU International Telecommunications UnionITU-R International Telecommunications Union – Radio CommunicationsITU-T International Telecommunications Union – TelecommunicationsJ-MLSE Joint maximum likelihood sequence estimationLCR Level crossing rateL-FDMA Localized frequency division multiple accessLGMSK Linearized Gaussian minimum shift keyingLLR Log-likelihood ratioLMS Least mean squareLoS Line-of-sightLSFR Linear feedback shift registerLTE Long-Term EvolutionLTE-A Long-Term Evolution – AdvancedMAHO Mobile-assisted handoffMAP Maximum aposteriori probabilityMCHO Mobile-controlled handoffMDS Maximum distance separableMEDS Method of exact Doppler spreadsMIMO Multiple-input multiple-outputML Maximum likelihoodMLSE Maximum likelihood sequence estimationMMRC Macrodiversity maximal ratio combiningMMSE Minimum mean square errorMPSD Minimum product squared Euclidean distanceMRC Maximal ratio combiningMRM Multi-resolution modulationMS Mobile stationMSE Mean square errorMSK Minimum shift keyingMSQ Mean squareMTD Minimum built-in time diversityNCHO Network-controlled handoffNLoS Non-line-of-sightNMT Nordic Mobile TelephoneNPP Neighboring-cell pilot powerNTT Nippon Telephone and Telegraph

xxii Acronyms

PN Pseudo-noisePDC Personal digital cellularTDMA Time division multiple accessOC Optimum combiningOFDM Orthogonal frequency division multiplexingOFDMA Orthogonal frequency division multiple accessOQASK Offset quadrature amplitude shift keyingOQPSK Offset quadrature phase shift keyingPAM Pulse amplitude modulationPAPR Peak-to-average power ratioPCCC Parallel concatenated convolutional codepdf Probability density functionPHS Personal handy-phone systemPIR Pilot-to-interference ratiopsd Power spectral densityPSK Phase shift keyingPSI-CELP Pitch synchronous innovation-code excited linear predictionQAM Quadrature amplitude modulationQCELP Qualcomm code excited linear predictionQPSK Quadrature phase shift keyingQoS Quality of serviceRA Rural areaRCELP Relaxed code excited linear predictionRI-OFDMA Random interleaving orthogonal frequency division multiple accessRLS Recursive least squaresrms Root mean squareRPE-LTP Regular pulse excitation – long-term predictionRSC Recursive systematic convolutionalRSSE Reduced state sequence estimationSC Selective combiningSCCC Serial concatenated convolutional codeSC-FDE Single-carrier frequency-domain equalizationSC-FDMA Single-carrier frequency division multiple accessSC-OFDMA Spaced-carrier orthogonal frequency division multiple accessSFH Slow frequency hoppingSIMO Single-input multiple-outputSINR Signal-to-interference-plus-noise ratioSISO Single-input single-outputSNR Signal-to-noise ratioSoS Sum-of-sinusoidsSSC Switch and stay combiningSTTC Space-time trellis codeTCM Trellis coded modulationTDD Time division duplexingTDM Time division multiplexing

Acronyms xxiii

TDTD Time division transmit diversityTFM Tamed frequency modulationTSTD Time switched transmit diversityTU Typical urbanULA Uniform linear arrayUMTS Universal mobile telecommunications systemUS Uncorrelated scatteringVHF Very high frequencyVSELP Vector sum excited linear predictionVoIP Voice over Internet ProtocolWCDMA Wideband code division multiple accessWiMAX Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave AccessWLAN Wireless local area networkWPAN Wireless personal area networkWSS Wide sense stationaryWSSUS Wide sense stationary uncorrelated scatteringZCR Zero crossing rateZF Zero-forcing