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Primax International Journal of Commerce and Management ResearchNo.25/A, Nagadevanahalli, Boothappa Temple Road, 80 Feet Ring Road, Jnanabharathi Post,

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• Research Papers • Articles • Case studies

State level Seminar on Managerial Perspectives of Natural Disasters - 10th Feb 2016

Online ISSN: 2321-3612Primax International Journal of Commerce and Management Research

Page IIDepartment of Business Administration Mary Matha College of Arts and Science : Special issue March 2016

Managing Editor:

Prof. T. Rajeswari., M.Sc.,M.A(Eng).,M.B.A.,M.A.(Soc)., (Ph.D)

Coordinator:Dr. V. SelvarajHead & Associate Professor,

Nehru Memorial College (Autonomous),Tiruchirappalli.

Dr.K.V. RamanathanProfessor of Finance & Research Advisor,

Padmashree Insitute of Management and |Science, Bangalore.

Dr. M. Muthu GopalakrishnanAssociate Professor,

Acharya Bangalore B School, Bangalore.

Publisher:

Primax Commerce and Management Research Academy, Bangalore-60

(Karnataka Reg.: 48/159/CE/0103/2013)

Issue:

Special Issue March 2016

COPYRIGHT:

1. All rights reserved and Copyright 2013, Primax Commerce and Management ResearchAcademy.

2. Reproduction of any part of this Journal in the whole or in part without written permission from thepublisher is prohibited

3. All rights reserved ISSN: 2348-0475

Contact:

Prof. T. Rajeswari., M.B.A.,M.A(Eng.).,M.Sc.,M.A(Soc)., (Ph.D)

Founder and Managing Editor,No.25/A, Nagadevanahalli, Boothappa Temple Road80 Feet Ring Road, Jnanabharathi Post,Bangalore -56, Karnataka, India. Ph: 08971725451

Email: [email protected], [email protected],

Primax International Journal of Commerce and Management Research Print ISSN: 2321-3604

Page IIIDepartment of Business Administration Mary Matha College of Arts and Science : Special issue March 2016

Editor Desk

Prof. T.Rajeswari.,M.Sc.,M.A(Eng.).,M.B.A.,M.A(Soc)

Managing Editor- PIJCMR.

Greetings to ALL….

I believe this is the phase, we can foresee the emerging face of innovative management practices.The present day executive are eager to rewrite rules to sail on the tides of success.

I consider today is very humbling for me to request, all of you to bestow your invaluable guidanceto build to heralded new management direction, which can be achieved by inspiriting imaginative andinnovative articles. Let the articles of us, so the seed in young executive mind which brings the best in them.

The lasting effects of this organization past accomplishments stand as testaments to the belief thata small group of committed individuals can make a difference. As we move forward, our emphasis willcontinue on creating young, vibrant and dedicated Managers and Leaders, intellectually and emotionallycompetent to meet the challenges of organizational nuances both at national and international level.

Entering its second year, the academy remains deeply rooted to its commitment on building alegacy of impacting quality of life in this region.

All these experiences in strategy formulation, marketing, HR , financing in various segments ofservice industry would be something that PRIMAX IJCMR values immensely. We would like to showcasethe state of art research with lot of rigour and freshness in its approach. We value your support immenselyand invite you to be a part of this research movement.

Finally, I truly believe in the African proverb - “If you want to go fast, go alone. But if youwant to go far, go together.” Indeed, we want to work together with all of you to proceed as far as ourvision, mission, talents, resources, and dreams lead us. With your support, the only direction we can go isonward and upward.

With Regards


Page IVDepartment of Business Administration Mary Matha College of Arts and Science : Special issue March 2016

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Present Situations of Natural Resources Management in India - Dr. S. Elango & Jasir .M.C

Impact of Natural Disasters on Human Activities- An Overview on ChennaiFloods 2015 - L. Esther Thamarine & R. Anuradha

Water Pollution and Management - S. Faiz Ahamed

Indirect losses due to Natural Disasters - M. Vijaya Ragunathan

Environmental Hazards and Disaster Management in India - N.Vidhya Shree

A Study on Epidemics after Natural Disasters - G. Yashodha

Managerial Perspectives of Natural Disaster - C. Ananth & T. Dhanabalan

Natural Disasters and their Impacts in India – A Review - Anitha Veeramani & Arulraj Jeyaraj

Chennai Floods Disaster & Economic Damages - N. Bairavi & G. Mariselvam

A Study on Various Prevention of Disaster Management in India - D. Chandru & Dr.C. Muthuvelayutham

Impact of Natural Disaster on Housing Loan - V. Charles Durai & M. Rajasekar

Impacts of Natural Disasters on Environmental and Socio - EconomicSystems - Mr. P. Muthuvel & Mrs.G.Jaya

General effects of Natural Disasters on Health - B.J. Queensly Jeyanthi & C. Kalaivani

A Study on People Sources of Natural Disaster in Theni District - R.Rathna & P.Surya

A Case Study on Uttarkhand Heavy Flood - R.Sheela

Role of Community and Government in Disaster Management - S. Susila & Dr. Al. Malliga

A Study on Problems of Natural Disasters - Gopika. S. Sivan & U. Nivetha

Organizational Style Perspective of Disaster Stress Disaster: An EmergingStress Management Perspective - A.Hepcy Prasanna & V.Sundari

The Role of Social Media in Crisis Preparedness, Response, and Recovery - Dr.D.John Prabakaran

Disaster Recovery Control from Various Natural Disaster Resources andGeological Disasters Resources - S.Kamala Devi & S.Vijayalakshmi

Chennai Floods - 2015 - Causative Parameters and Flood Management- Dr.R.Lalitha & K.Sujatha


Page VDepartment of Business Administration Mary Matha College of Arts and Science : Special issue March 2016

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Managerial Perspective of Natural Disaster - Fr. Alex Louis

Natural Disasters: Responsibilities and Responses by every Individuals - Rev.Bro.Dr.S. Arockia Raj

Impacts of Natural Disasters in Agricultural Production and Marketing- N.Kannadasan

Implementation of Disaster Management in Co-Operative Societies - A.Vasuki

Impacts of Natural Hazards on Fishery Ecosystems – A Global Perspective- G. Alwin Raja David & D. Vinoth Kumar

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103 - 105Disaster Management In India – A Holistic Approach - Dr. P. Stanly Joseph


Department of Business Administration Mary Matha College of Arts and Science : Special issue March 2016

PRESENT SITUATIONS OF NATURAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENTIN INDIA

1. Assistant Professor of Commerce, PG& Research Department Of Commerce, Urumu Dhanalashmi College, Trichy2. Research scholar, PG& Research Department Of Commerce, Urumu Dhanalashmi College,Trichy

Abstract

Natural Resources Management (NRM) refers to the sustainable utilization of major natural resources, such as land,water, air, minerals, forests, fisheries, and wild flora and fauna. Together, these resources provide the ecosystemservices that underpin human life. Concern for natural resources management Over-exploitation of natural resourcesby growing population resulted in various severe problems. Destruction of vegetation has resulted in land degradation,denudation, soil erosion, landslides, floods, drought and unbalanced ecosystems.

Dr.S.Elango1

Introduction

The natural resources are Soil, water and vegetation arethree basic natural resources. The survival of creationdepends upon them and nature has provided them asassets to human beings. In a wider view, land, water,biodiversity and genetic resources, biomass resources,forests, livestock, fisheries, wild flora and fauna are alsoconsidered as natural resources. Natural ResourcesManagement (NRM) refers to the sustainable utilizationof major natural resources, such as land, water, air,minerals, forests, fisheries, and wild flora and fauna.Together, these resources provide the ecosystemservices that underpin human life. Concern for naturalresources management Over exploitation of naturalresources by growing population resulted in varioussevere problems. Destruction of vegetation has resultedin land degradation, denudation, soil erosion, landslides,floods, drought and unbalanced ecosystems.

Eco-system in India

A balanced ecosystem is an urgent need. Naturalresources (land, water, biodiversity and geneticresources, biomass resources, forests, livestock andfisheries) – the very foundation of human survival,progress and prosperity, have been degrading fast, andthe unprecedented pace of their erosion is one of theroot causes of the agrarian crisis that the country isfacing. The demographic and socio economic pressuresnotwithstanding, the unmindful agricultural intensification,over use of marginal lands, imbalanced use of fertilizers,organic matter depletion and deteriorating soil health,extensive 2 diversion of prime agricultural lands to nonagricultural uses, misuse and inefficient use of irrigationwater, depleting aquifers, salivation of fertile lands andwater logging, deforestation, biodiversity loss and geneticerosion, and climate change are the main underlyingcauses. These resources are being depleted at an

Jasir M.C2

alarming rate because of human intervention.Degradation and destruction of forest cover in theHimalaya is directly responsible for the denudation ofwatersheds. In the absence of vegetative ground cover,during the monsoon rainwater comes down to the plainsunchecked. Sudden swelling of streams, flash floods inthe hills and severe floods in the plains and drought inupstream areas are the consequences.

Importance Of natural Resource Management

1. Natural resource management is the taking care ofnatural resources such as land, water, marine andbiological systems, with a particular focus on howthe management affects the quality of life for bothpresent and future generations.

2. It’s about the long-term implications of actions - thinking about the future and not just about now. Forprimary producers, natural resource managementmeans taking into account the climate, soils, water,vegetation and organisms when making decisionsabout the land they manage.

3. The goal is sustainability - balancing social (peopleand communities), economic (money and jobs) andenvironmental (land, water, air and living things)factors to make sure that our children andgrandchildren can equally benefit from our naturalresources. Our social, economic and environmentalwellbeing depends on the sustainable managementof natural resources.

4. In fact, in many instances, the goal is to leave a betternatural environment for people in the future than whatwe have today! It’s possible to see this happen, withmodern science and research and adopting newprimary production techniques.

5. Natural resource management specifically focuseson a scientific and technical understanding of



resources and ecology and the life-supportingcapacity of those resources. Environmentalmanagement is also similar to natural resourcemanagement. In academic contexts, the sociologyof natural resources is closely related to, but distinctfrom, natural resource management.

Natural Resources Are Essential For Our SurvivalNatural resources are essential for our survival.Agricultural land provides us with food; a sufficient supplyof clean and potable water sustains life; and raw materialof various kinds is needed for shelter. Natural resourcesare required not only for meeting our basic needs, butalso for fulfilling our aspirations for a better quality of life,for higher standards of living, for comfort and ease, andfor economic and social well-being. Every societydepends on natural resources like biogenic and mineralraw materials, on energy sources like fossil fuels andsolar and wind energy, and on clean water. Theenvironmental media and ecosystems are alsounderstood as being natural resources, with theirbiodiversity, the different functions of their land areas,and their services. They constitute the essential elementsthat keep our economy functioning and guarantee anincrease in the well-being of mankind. Consequently,we need to devote more attention to resource use, sinceglobal demand for various goods and services isincreasing, but the resources available to us are finiteand limited. Industrialized countries already have highlevels of resource consumption, while emerging countriesneed resources to provide appropriate living standardsfor their populations. Coordinated and collaborative effortsare required to ensure both availability and conservationof natural resources.

India’s Future Needs for Resources DimensionsIndustrialized countries need to demonstrate how theyintend to maintain their living standards in the face ofconsiderably reduced resources, and emerging countriesneed to determine how their economies can continuegrowing through the most efficient use of scarce naturalresources. The perception of managing natural resourcesefficiently and sustainably is a key consideration intaking future decisions. With a supposed yearly growthrate of 8% of GDP, India’s middle class is poised togrow tremendously in the near future. But among the1.2 billion Indians are millions of poor people who arealso striving for a better life. These developments willhave consequences for consumption patterns in dailylife. Food and nutrition, housing, mobility,communication, and leisure time are only a few areasthat will change in terms of both quantity and quality.Physical and economic constraints might becomeincreasingly important in the future. Under the project“India’s Future Needs for Resources Dimensions,Challenges, and Possible Solutions”. It was decided to

first concentrate on the use of raw materials and to shedlight on the different areas that will play a crucial role inthe development of India, and thus determine the use ofnatural resources.

Current Situations and Possible Areas ofDevelopment A sector wise approach has been adopted, and currentsituations and possible areas of development have beenexamined in the three sectors short-listed for the study,i.e. mobility, housing, and electricity generation. Clearvisions and specific numbers will help us in understandingthe challenges faced by a society like India and hopefullylead to fruitful discussions and effective preparations forappropriate policies and measures. These visions 2India’s Future Needs for Resources and numbers willalso help in emphasizing the responsibility of politicalleaders and social representatives of an industrializedcountry like Germany, which is a partner in this project.They should be aware of the future needs of a societylike India, and base their decisions concerningindustrialized countries on a just and fair collaborationbetween different regions of the world. The focus ofinterest in the debate over natural resources is mostlyon raw materials.

Domestic Extraction or Imports of MaterialsAll countries fear the decreasing availability of materialslike fossil fuels, rich metal ore deposits, and high-qualityminerals. And all countries will be affected, whether theydepend on domestic extraction or on imports. This isthe reason why this study starts with an in-depthexamination of raw materials. Other natural resourcesare also mentioned briefly, but they require furtherinvestigation in greater detail elsewhere. is, therefore,one particular approach, but the environmental aspectsmust not be neglected. The use of raw materials isalways related to the destruction or intensive use of land,thereby having a negative impact on ecosystems andbiodiversity. It also affects people living in the vicinity ofraw material deposits. Furthermore, the production ofgoods from raw materials needs energy and potentiallyemits pollutants, thereby affecting air, water, and soil.The capacity of taking up pollutants of these media islimited. The pollution of an environmental medium couldlead to the loss of its service function as a naturalresource within its ecosystem. More careful analysesmust be carried out to address these concerns in thefuture. Besides the focus of the three case studiesmentioned above, this exploratory project seeks to adopta broader perspective.

Material Demand In The FutureThis demonstrates the dimensions of material demandin the future as one example of the use of naturalresources. A breakdown of total material use into different



single materials offers some insights into the specificproblems of the availability of key materials and economicdependencies related to them. Finally, general key driversand developments are considered before the three casestudies are presented. The general picture, as well asthe examination of mobility, housing, and energygeneration by wind power, is restricted to a more or lesscareful analysis of the status quo or current situation;an assessment of possible future developments; a studyof alternatives for action; and an analysis of theconsequences of material and resource demands. Somespecific resource efficiency strategies have beenexamined for the case studies, but these are not intendedto be exhaustive or complete.

General Drivers of Demand in IndiaStructural changes in a society also lead totransformations in consumption patterns and lifestyles,which then impact resource consumption patterns. Indiais witnessing dynamic transformations due to its rapideconomic growth, which is characterized by five maininterlinked factors. These factors act as drivers of demandand have a strong impact on resource consumption. Ithas the highest population growth rate amongst the BRICcountries. Projections show that until 2050 this growthrate will still be positive in contrast to numerous Westerncountries with already negative current growth rates. By2025, India will become the most populated country inthe world.

Need To Expanding Industrial and Service-RelatedProductionThis increase in population would lead to a sharp rise inabsolute consumption levels, and hence the need forimproving resource efficiency will assume greatimportance. Due to the high saving potential in populouscountries, and the opportunity of changing thedevelopment path towards a resource-efficient economy,addressing resource efficiency in India makes perfectsense. Expanding industrial and service-relatedproduction. Although the agricultural sector is stilldominant in terms of employment, the industrial and inparticular the service sectors are increasinglycontributing to employment and to GDP. In 2020, theagricultural sector still contributed nearly one-fourth ofGDP, but its share fell to around 14% in 2015. In contrast,the service sector is contributing increasingly to GDP,accounting for 58% in 2015. Some Indian companies inthe IT and IT-related service sector, and also in othersectors such as pharmaceuticals, are among the world’sleading companies. These companies are contributingincreasingly to rising income and growing employmentin the Indian economy. Growing middle class Given thepast growth rate in India, it can be assumed that thiseconomic growth will continue to lift people out of povertyand that real incomes will continue to rise in the country.

Rising incomes worldwide drive aspirational consumerbehaviour accompanied by high resource consumption.

Impact of Urbanization in India

Increasing urbanization besides witnessing a trend ofrising population, India is also facing increasedurbanization, similar to the situation in other emergingeconomies. Indian cities are already home to roughly340 million people, and by 2030, there will be anestimated 590 million people living in cities (40% of theestimated population of India). Cities, which accountedfor around 58% of India’s GDP in 2008, will account fornearly 70% of GDP by 2030 [McKinsey Global Institute,General drivers of demand in India 9 2020]. India haseight metropolises with more than 5 million inhabitants:Mumbai, Delhi, Kolkata, Chennai, Bangalore,Ahmedabad, Hyderabad, and Pune (see Figure 4).However, compared to the BRIC countries, India had arelatively low percentage of urban population (31%) in2010. India’s urban growth rate has remained high sincethen, and is expected to continue to be so until 2050[UN Population Statistics, 2020]. The migration trendfrom rural to urban areas creates huge pressure oninfrastructure, housing, and other goods and services,which, in turn, leads to a larger demand for resources incities. At the same time, cities also have the potentialto use resources efficiently since urban density meansthat there is a high concentration of people, money, andgoods. Hence, efficient distribution and reusemechanisms can be developed and implemented.

Findings of the Study

The aim of this study is to understand the scope ofcurrent and future raw material consumption in India.Further, it illustrates the impacts of such consumptionon sustainable development and inclusive growth in India.The study concludes that resource efficiency can be aneffective means of reducing environmental burdens andsimultaneously of strengthening India’s economy bycontributing to the decoupling of resource consumptionand economic growth. It illustratively highlights resource-efficient measures in three strategic sectors: automotive,construction, and renewable energy.

1. Over the last two decades, India has witnessed strongeconomic growth, mirrored in a gradual shift fromagricultural to industrial and service sector production,a rising middle class, increasing urbanization, andlarge-scale infrastructure development, which havecontributed to eradicating poverty. This rapideconomic growth has been achieved through theextensive consumption of resources, particularlybiotic and abiotic raw materials like minerals, metals,fossil fuels, and biomass. The trends will continue inthe future, and thus decoupling of resourceconsumption and economic growth is required.



2. On a global scale, India’s material consumption percapita is relatively low, with 4.2 tonnes in 2009,compared to the average material consumption percapita of 15.7 tonnes in OECD countries. Theprojections of material consumption in absolutenumbers, however, present a different picture, that ofIndia currently being the third largest consumer ofmaterials worldwide, with 4.83 billion tonnes in 2020.

3. Given a medium-growth scenario, it is estimated thatIndia’s material consumption will triple through 2030.In light of greater global competition for resources,supply vulnerabilities, and rising commodity prices,India will have to find ways to meet this significantgrowth in demand.

4. The analysis of key trends and supply securitychallenges for selected materials (chromite,molybdenum ore, limestone, copper, cobalt ores)used as inputs in the three sectors assessedindicates that techno-economic constraints, lack ofexploration even on a limited basis, and severeenvironmental impacts mostly constrain availabilityfrom domestic raw materials, and lead to greaterimport dependence.

5. In order to reduce India’s exposure to importdependencies, to strengthen India’s economy, andto reduce India’s environmental and climate burden,the study builds the case for resource efficiency.Resource efficiency comprises all kinds of activitiesthat are aimed at improving the input–output relationof material and energy-consuming or energy-transforming processes, while contributing to themitigation of impacts on the environment caused bythese processes.

6. Raw material productivity in India has improvedsignificantly over the last three decades. On a globalscale, however, Indian material productivity in themanufacturing sub-sectors (NIC/NACE) (such as foodproducts, coke and refined petroleum products, andchemical products) and the currently deployedtechnologies leave room for improvements in resourceefficiency and overall decoupling. Taking into accountthe fact that the share of material and energy cost ofthese sub-sectors is 71%, the implementation ofresource-efficient measures will be accompanied byimmediate cost reductions and will thus improve thecompetitiveness of Indian industry

Recommendations

The preparation of the study also involved widespreadstakeholder consultations and presentations of the initialfindings at a high-level event in May 2020. Theseconsultations revealed an overwhelming consensus onthe need for launching a resource initiative for Indiafocusing on further action research, demonstration

activities, and appropriate institutional mechanismsaimed at enhancing resource efficiency. Theconsultations also revealed the widespread interest inthe subject and emphasized the need for propercommunication and facilitation efforts to foster resourceefficiency in India.

Based on the above findings, the followingrecommendations are made:

1. Resource efficiency should be adopted as anorganizing principle of the Indian economy to supportsustainable and inclusive growth in the country. Thus,a coherent and integrated policy framework thatrewards and incentivizes resource-efficient efforts andclosed-looped management principles must beadopted. The cross-cutting nature of resourceefficiency calls for multi-stakeholder involvement toharmonize the interests and constraints of thedifferent groups involved.

2. In order to deal with resource-efficiency challengesand explore related options that India will face in theyears ahead, more comprehensive qualitative andquantitative data are needed on the basis of whichfuture scenarios and trends can be predicted. It isrecommended that a national data hub on mineralresources be set up to complement the database onmineral resources proposed by the PlanningCommission and that the existing Mineral Year Book,published annually by the Indian Bureau of Mines,should be expanded and improved.

3. India’s manufacturing and construction sectors mustcontinuously innovate technologically to remaincompetitive in a global economy. This drive to remaincompetitive must go hand in hand with efforts aimedat achieving resource efficiency. This will not onlyhelp to reduce physical material consumption andtherefore costs, but will also act as a trigger forstimulating innovation as well as R&D efforts.Collaboration efforts by the Government of India (theMinistry of Environment, the Ministry of Industry, andthe Ministry of Science and Technology, amongothers), research institutes, and the private sectorshould be promoted.

4. The pricing of resources must reflect the “true andfair” marginal social cost, keeping in mind that onoccasions environmental and social imperatives mightwork against each other. The ongoing efforts topromote environmental and fiscal reforms, aimed ataligning the economic and environmental drivers forarriving at the “fair and true” marginal social cost,must be strengthened.

5. The formation of an institutionalized national resourcepanel and of multi-stakeholder forums on sustainableresource management could act as nuclei or hubs



for promoting resource efficiency in India beyondindividual sectors or regional interests. Thus, India’srole on the international stage would be strengthenedand India could become one of the leading players(e.g. the EU, Germany, and Korea) to embrace andincorporate resource efficiency as a means ofachieving sustainable development.

References

1. Allwood, J. M. / Cullen, J. M. / Carruth, M. A. /Cooper, D. R. / McBrien, M. / Milford, R. L. /Moynihan, M. C. /

2. Patel, A. C. H. (2012): Sustainable Materials: withboth eyes open. UIT Cambridge Limited.

3. Angerer, G. / Erdmann, L. / Marscheider-Weidemann, F. / Scharp, M. / Lullmann, A. / Handke,V. / Marwede,

4. M. (2009): Rohstoffe fur Zukunftstechnologien:Rohstoffe fur Zukunftstechnologien - Einflussdesbranchenspezifischen Rohstoffbedarfs inrohstoffintensiven Zukunftstechnologien auf diezukunftigeRohstoffnachfrage. Fraunhofer IRB Verlag.Fraunhofer-Institut furSystem- undInnovationsforschung ISI, Stuttgart. APS/MRS(2011): Energy Critical Elements: Securing Materialsfor Emerging Technologies.

5. http://www.aps.org/policy/reports/popa-reports/upload/elementsreport.pdf (last accessed: 08/02/2013).

6. ASA & Associates (2012): Report of the WorkingGroup on Construction Sector (Institutional FinancingWorking).

7. Automotive Component Manufacturers Associationof India (n.d.): Indian Automotive Industry: Status.

8. http://acma.in/pdf/Status_Indian_Auto_Industry.pdf(last accessed: 06/01/2013). Bahn-Walkowiak,B., Bleischwitz, R. (2008): Resource efficiency -Japan and Europe at Baijal, A. (2006): Raw materialsoutlook for India – A review. In: IISI-OECD Conference17th May.

9. BETON (2012): Zemente und ihre Herstellung.Zement-Merkblatt Betontechnik.

www.beton.org (last accessed: 08/02/2013).

10. BGS (2005): Mineral Profile: Cement raw materials.www.bgs.ac.uk (last accessed: 08/02/2013).

11. Bhattacharya, A. / Ganeriwalla, A. / and Bruce, A.(2012): Re-igniting India’s Quest for ManufacturingLeadership.

12. The Boston Consulting Group, Confederation ofIndian Industry.Bhushan, C. (2008): Rich Lands,Poor People: The Socio-Environmental Challengesof Mining in India.

13. The International Research Network on Business,Development and Society.

http://bdsnetwork.cbs.dk/publications/chandra.pdf(last accessed: 09/20/2013).

14. Blacksmith Institute (2007): The World’s WorstPolluted Places: The Top Ten (of The Dirty Thirty).

15. New York. www.blacksmithinstitute.org/wwpp2007/finalReport2007.pdf (last accessed: 09/20/2013).

16. Bleischwitz, R. (2012): Towards a resource policy—unleashing productivity dynamics and balancinginternational



IMPACT OF NATURAL DISASTERS ON HUMANACTIVITIES- AN OVERVIEW ON CHENNAI FLOODS 2015

1. Research scholar Department of corporate secretary ship, Hindustan college of Arts &Science, Chennai2. Research scholar Department of corporate secretary ship, Hindustan college of Arts &Science, Chennai

Abstract

Disasters can be natural or human made. Earthquake, cyclone, hailstorm, cloud-burst, landslide, soil erosion, snowavalanche, flood etc. are the examples of natural disasters while fire, epidemics, road, air, rail accidents and leakagesof chemicals/ nuclear installations etc. fall under the category of human-made disasters. Some identified nonstructuralfactors like poor implementation of plans, communication disconnect, flawed decision making, organizationalweaknesses, lack of coordination, backward-looking strategies, greater regulation and ineffective leadership to beprimarily responsible for the Katrina disaster( The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Sciences(March 2006) vol. 604 was one example). Benson and Clay (2003) have argued that the long term impact on growthof natural disasters is negative, while Skidmore and Toya (2002) argue that such disaster may positive impact growthin the long run as there is a reduction to returns of physical capital but an increase in human capital, leading to highergrowth

L.Esther Thamarine1

IntroductionA disaster is an event which causes enormous physicaldamage to the property, huge loss of life and drasticchange in the environment. The economic, social andcultural life of the people is affected and they need externalhelp for food, shelter, medicine , financial and socialsupport to overcome this disaster.

According to Perry(2006) disaster can be classified intothree categories – classic, hazards/disasters andsocially focused (Perry, 2006). According to Fritz (1961:655), a disaster is ‘an event concentrated in time andspace, in which a society or one of its subdivisionsundergoes physical harm and social disruption, suchthat all or some essential functions of the society orsubdivision are impaired’. Physical harm and socialdisruption (now more commonly labeled physical andsocial impacts) occur because the event exceeds normalprotections (Kreps, 1984). Disasters can cause a widerange of negative psychological responses (Bourque etal., 2006; Gerrity and Flynn, 1997) A disaster is anextreme disruption of the functioning of a society thatcauses widespread human, material, or environmentallosses that exceed the ability of the affected society tocope with its own resources. Disasters can be naturalor human made. Earthquake, cyclone, hailstorm, cloud-burst, landslide, soil erosion, snow avalanche, flood etc.are the examples of natural disasters while fire,epidemics, road, air, rail accidents and leakages ofchemicals/ nuclear installations etc. fall under thecategory of human-made disasters. Some identifiednonstructural factors like poor implementation of plans,communication disconnect, flawed decision making,

R. Anuradha2

organizational weaknesses, lack of coordination,backward-looking strategies, greater regulation andineffective leadership to be primarily responsible for theKatrina disaster( The Annals of the American Academyof Political and Social Sciences (March 2006) vol. 604was one example). Benson and Clay (2003) have arguedthat the long term impact on growth of natural disastersis negative, while Skidmore and Toya (2002) argue thatsuch disaster may positive impact growth in the longrun as there is a reduction to returns of physical capitalbut an increase in human capital, leading to higher growth

An overview of literature identify the factors that asystematic and significant effect on effectiveadministrative capacities can prevent huge loss ofproperty and life and positive impact growth in the longrun.

India is prone to natural disasters due to its geologicalset up as well as its high degree of socio-economicvulnerability, makes India one of the ten worst disasterprone countries of the world.

The Indo Australian plate is still moving at an average of2cm every year toward Eurasia, still pushing Tibetupwards. Thus Himalayan Zone is vulnerable forearthquakes and landslide. Apart from this floods andavalanches are also common here. The northern plainsare affected by devasting floods during monsoon due toflat terrain and torrential rainfall. On the other hand Northwestern part of India and Central part of Deccan aremostly affected by drought, famine at times flash floodsand desertification. The coastal regions of course areaffected by cyclones, storm surge and rarely tsunami.



Vulnerability Profile of India

India has been vulnerable, in varying degrees, to a largenumber of natural, as well as, human-made disasterson account of its unique geo-climatic and socio-economic conditions. It is highly vulnerable to floods,droughts, cyclones, earthquakes, landslides, avalanchesand forest fires. Out of 35 states and union territories inthe country, 27 of them are disaster prone. Almost 58.6per cent of the landmass is prone to earthquakes ofmoderate to very high intensity; over 40 million hectares(12 per cent of land) are prone to floods and river erosion;of the 7,516 km long coastline, close to 5,700 km isprone to cyclones and tsunamis; 68 per cent of thecultivable area is vulnerable to drought and hilly areasare at risk from landslides and avalanches

Hazard Profile of India

a) The country is prone to disasters due to number offactors; both natural and human induced, includingadverse geo climatic conditions, topographicfeatures, environmental degradation, populationgrowth, urbanisation, industrialization, non scientificdevelopment practices etc. The factors either inoriginal or by accelerating the intensity and frequencyof disasters are responsible for heavy toll of humanlives and disrupting the life supporting system in thecountry. The basic reason for the high vulnerability ofthe country to natural disasters is its uniquegeographical and geological situations. As far as thevulnerability to disaster is concerned, the fivedistinctive regions of the country i.e. Himalayanregion, the alluvial plains, the hilly part of thepeninsula, and the coastal zone have their ownspecific problems. While on one hand the Himalayanregion is prone to disasters like earthquakes andlandslides, the plain is affected by floods almost everyyear. The desert part of the country is affected bydroughts and famine while the coastal zonesusceptible to cyclones and storms.

b) The natural geological setting of the country is theprimary basic reason for its increased vulnerability.The geo-tectonic features of the Himalayan regionand adjacent alluvial plains make the regionsusceptible to earthquakes, landslides, water erosionetc. Though peninsular India is considered to be themost stable portions, but occasional earthquakes inthe region shows that geo- tectonic movements arestill going on within its depth.

c) The tectonic features, characteristics of the Hiamalyaare prevalent in the alluvial plains of Indus, Gangaand Brahmputra too, as the rocks lying below thealluvial pains are just extension of the Himalayanranges only. Thus this region is also quite prone toseismic activities. As a result of various major river

systems flowing from Himalaya and huge quantity ofsediment brought by them, the area is also sufferingfrom river channel siltation, resulting into frequentfloods, especially in the plains of Uttar Pradesh andBihar.

d) The western part of the country, including Rajasthan,Gujarat and some parts of Maharashtra are hit veryfrequently by drought situation. If Monsoon worsensthe situation spreads in other parts of the countrytoo. The disturbance in the pressure conditions overoceans, results into cyclones in coastal regions. Thegeo tectonic movements going on in the ocean floormake the coastal region prone to tsunami disastertoo.

e) Along with the natural factors, various human inducedactivities like increasing demographic pressure,deteriorating environmental conditions, deforestation,unscientific development, faulty agricultural practicesand grazing, unplanned urbanisation, construction oflarge dams on river channels etc. are also responsiblefor accelerated impact and increase in frequency ofdisasters in the country.

Types of Disasters

There is no country that is immune from disaster, thoughvulnerability to disaster varies. There are four main typesof disaster

1. Natural disasters

These disasters include floods, hurricanes,earthquakes and volcano eruptions that can haveimmediate impacts on human health, as well assecondary impacts causing further death andsuffering from floods causing landslides, earthquakesresulting in fires, tsunamis causing widespreadflooding and typhoons sinking ferries.

2 Environmental Emergencies

These emergencies include technological orindustrial accidents, usually involving hazardousmaterial, and occur where these materials areproduced, used or transported. Large forest fires aregenerally included in this definition because they tendto be caused by humans.

3 Complex Emergencies

These emergencies involve a break-down of authority,looting and attacks on strategic installations.Complex emergencies include conflict situations andwar.

4 Pandemic Emergencies

These emergencies involve a sudden onset of acontagious disease that affects health but alsodisrupts services and businesses, bringing economicand social costs.



5 Man-made DisastersDisasters caused by chemical or industrial accidents,environmental pollution, transport accidents andpolitical unrest are classified as “human-made” or“human-induced” disasters since they are the directresult of human action.

Human negligence responsible for the recent floodin ChennaiThe State of Tamil Nadu is seriously affected byunprecedented floods, that is, during November 2015,and because of that, number of people were dead andmany people lost their property, is compelled to put itsviews that the entire loss due to the flood was due tomaladministration and the prevailing practices by theauthorities. Due to heavy rain the Adyar river swelled,washing away homes and belongings of those living nearits banks. Close to a 100 lives were lost in the floods inChennai alone and damage to property.T he stateadministration failed to manage the release of water fromthe Chembarambakkam reservoir, the city’s drinkingwater supplyat the right time. Around 1 lakh cubic feetper second (cusecs) of water flowed in the Adyar riveron December 2, three times its capacity

The floods also exposed the unplanned manner in whichurban development in the city had taken place over thedecades, especially the practice of building on dried-uplake beds. The disaster squarely on humanincompetence, with haphazard construction along thebanks of lakes blocking channels, which would havenormally allowed rain water to drain out.

The state government has ignored existing rules andgiven permission for private developers to build wantonlyin catchment areas of water bodies and along the rivers.

According to a report from the Chennai MetroDevelopment Authority, there are over 1.5 lakh illegalstructures in the city which have been responsible forthe disappearance of over 300 water bodies. These lowlying lands were then turned into concrete jungles.Thelack of CMDA guidelines that builders have to follow tolay out a proper storm-water drainage system. thesecond runway of the Chennai airport got severely floodedsimply due to faulty design and encroachment upon theriver’s natural drainage system. In 2008, the elevationof the river was at 2 metres. Now silt has filled up and itis flowing at a height of 6 metres. The second runway isnot built high enough above the high flood level. It is 200metres wide and 500 metres long with hundreds ofconcrete pillars beneath it. A 14-metre high concretewall surrounds the airport.

There is no way for the water to drain out. The concreteplatform of the runway was the cause for flooding inneighbouring areas of Pallavaram, Mudichur andPammal.

CSE’s research shows that Chennai had more than 600waterbodies in the 1980s, but a master plan publishedin 2008 said that only a fraction of the lakes could befound in a healthy condition. According to records of theState’s Water Resources Department, the area of 19major lakes has shrunk from a total of 1,130 hectares(ha) in the 1980s to around 645 ha in the early 2000s,reducing their storage capacity. The drains that carrysurplus water from tanks to other wetlands have alsobeen encroached upon.

. It is observed that more than the natural disaster.Chennai floods are the results of manmade disaster.The reasons are summarized below:

· Filling up lowlands without proper planning, littlespace for storm water to drain and heavyencroachment of the river banks was one majorreason for Chennai floods.

· Illegal constructions, mostly multistorey apartmentsand huge industries, played the next big part in makingway to the floods.

· Over 300 water bodies disappeared due to this.

Role of government during the natural disaster

Government agencies play a critical role during times ofdisaster, but the exact role of government is often unclearto disaster victims.Governments must focus on welfaresbut not with view to securing votes. Rules and guidelinesshould be followed while granting permissions forconstructions and modernization of urban areas.Adequate planning and protection of water bodies canreduce the indensity of disaster in the country. Adequateawareness programmes should be organised to handlesituations of emergencies .Also environment laws shouldbe followed at all levels to protect the environment. Naturalcalamities are inevitable but to a great extend properplanning can prevent the life and property.

Conclusion

All our metropolitan cities have ignored watershedmanagement and environmental planning to their ownperil. This is the juncture in India’s urbanization whenthousands of crores are being poured into the urbancentres. Proper planning should be developed.Developers and real estate’s people have to take care ofthe infrastructure that is coming up and should not createa chaos for nature. Construction of industries, residentialshould follow guidelines and should not construct bydemolishing or blocking natural lakes and ponds.Predictive systems can be implemented on predictiveanalysis of natural calamity.

It has been estimated that rapidly growing modernizationis loading to ignorance towards environment.Environmental bylaws are being neglected for personalgains by few business men. The dual forces of global



warming as well as poor human management in the fieldof land and water resources combine to the cause ofnatural disasters. Humans have created a situationwhere ordinary events liked heavy rain elevated to thelevel of natural disasters which results in heavy lossesin the terms of human life as well as property. Unplannedurbanization is at its peak, not caring environmental risksand making money. Natural disasters are inevitable, butwe can stop the practices that are harmful for ourenvironment and leading to degradation and also shouldbe prepared for a disaster with our disaster managementplan.

References

Perry RW (2006) What is a disaster? In: RodríguezH,Quarantelli EL and Dynes RR (eds) Handbook of

Disaster Research. New York: Springer, 1–15.

Fritz CE (1961) Disaster. In: Merton RK and Nisbet RA(eds) Contemporary Social Problems. New York:

Harcourt, Brace and World, 651–694

Kreps GA (1984) Sociological inquiry and disasterresearch. Annual Review of Sociology 10: 309–330.

Report from the Chennai Metro Development Authority

Reports from State’s Water Resources Department



WATER POLLUTION AND MANAGEMENT

1. Research scholar & Asst. Prof. Department of Business Administration, H.K.R.H. College, Uthamapalayam, TheniDistrict

Abstract

Water is important to the survival of human, plant and animal life. Earth is the only planet in the planetary systemendowed with water resources. Nearly 80 per cent of earth’s system is covered with water in the form of oceans, lakes,rivers etc. The oceans contain most of the water surface on earth. Pollution of water is altering of its quality so that itbecomes unfit or less fit for the purpose for which its natural state is used. Water pollution occurs when chemicals ornutrients or wastes enter water faster than they can be removed by natural processes. The pollutants include sewage,industrial chemicals and effluents, silt, oil and other wastes. Besides, chemicals from the air dissolved in rain waterand fertilizers, pesticides and herbicides leached from the land also pollute water. Water pollution affects the foodproduction also. Agriculture itself pollutes water due to the usage of fertilizers, pesticides and herbicides. The effectof water pollution on fisheries is very severe because the depletion of oxygen in the water due to the presence of toxicand organic wastes, kill fish. The chemical, plastic and paper industries release wastes containing mercury into riverswhich merge into oceans. Since the mercury levels in these wastes are more than normal, some types of fish in thecoastal waters contain more mercury in their bodies; when people consume this fish, they become seriously ill or die.The best approach is to practice waste reduction in different sectors of human activity and to prevent pollution at thesource itself. The industries which have tried to reduce waste by recycling materials or redesigning productionprocesses and products have found that such measures actually save money.Providing sanitation and waste treatmentfacilities is the second approach. Sanitation is one of the environmental quality issues linked with population growthand urbanization. The sanitation facilities are imperative as the cities grow, particularly in developing countries.Industrial and community sanitation along-with control and treatment of human waste and industrial waste are necessaryto reduce water pollution.

S.Faiz Ahamed1

Introduction

Water is important to the survival of human, plant and animal life. Earth is the only planet in the planetary systemendowed with water resources. Nearly 80 per cent of earth’s system is covered with water in the form of oceans,lakes, rivers etc. The oceans contain most of the water surface on earth. The rest is fresh water and at any time,about 22 percent of fresh water is stored under the surface of the earth as ground water and the rest is stored in icecaps and glaciers. The water is precious and needs in almost all human activities, - irrigation, industry, mining,power generation, and domestic and so on.

Table - 1 : Water Resources in India

I. Water Resources

1 Average precipitation Internal 1961-1990 mm/year 1083.00

2 Renewable water resources 2003 cubic km/year 1260.54

3 Ground water : produced internally 2003 cubic km/year 418.54

4 Surface water: Produced internally 2003 cubic km/year 1222.00

5 Overlap: Surface and groundwater Total renewable 2003 cubic km/year 380.00

6 Water resources (natural) – Total renewable 2003 cubic km/year 1907.76

7 Water resources (actual) Total renewable 2003 cubic km/year 1896.66

8 Water resources (actual) 2003 cubic m per capita per year 1880.00

9 Dependency ratio 2003 % 34

No Item Year Unit Value



II. Water use

1 Agricultural water use 2000 cubic km/year 558.39

2 Agricultural water use 2003 % 86

3 Domestic water use 2000 cubic km/year 52.24

4 Domestic water use 2003 % 8

5 Industrial water use 2000 cubic km/year 35.21

6 Industrial water use 2003 % 5

7 Total water use 2000 cubic km/year 645.84

No Item Year Unit Value

Sources: Food and Agriculture Organization of the united states (FAO), AQUASTAT 2003.

Water Pollution

Pollution of water is altering of its quality so that it becomes unfit or less fit for the purpose for which its natural stateis used. Water pollution occurs when chemicals or nutrients or wastes enter water faster than they can be removedby natural processes.

The pollutants include sewage, industrial chemicals and effluents, silt, oil and other wastes. Besides, chemicalsfrom the air dissolved in rain water and fertilizers, pesticides and herbicides leached from the land also pollutewater.

Pollution is not necessarily a problem affecting only industrialized countries. India has many localized areas wherewater pollution already creates situations not only dangerous to health but also injurious to the economy in manyways.

There is adequate fresh water to maintain one more population doubling on global basis, given the present usablepatterns. India is rich in rainfall and surface water resources. India has a very low capital availability of drinkingwater. Nearly 40,000 or more villages in the country may not be having drinking water.

Causes

Water pollution is due to two reasons

1. Point Sources – drain pipes, ditches, sewer out falls2. Non-Point Sources – runoff, atmosphere deposition, etc.,

Water pollution may be caused by biotic and abiotic contaminants. The Water pollution results from either naturalsources or artificial sources (i.e., human activities). The natural phenomena, for example, drought renders waterlevel to decline in aquifiers allowing salt water to intrude; during rains, the running water gathers silt, harmfulchemicals such as fertilizers and pesticides from the soil and so on. Sewage is another major cause of waterpollution. The human activities, industry, agriculture, mining, deforestation, power generation, cause water pollution.

Population growth and unplanned urbanization also contribute to pollution of water. Factories and mines releaselarge quantities of toxic chemicals, organic wastes, heavy metals, heated effluents, inert wastes and radioactivewastes causing water pollution.

Toxic chemicals/wastes are not easily degradable by biological means. DDT and mercury fall under this category.The water contaminated by them is highly poisonous and if contacted or consumed by plants or animals, may provefatal. Other examples are pesticides and herbicides which wash off from the land during rainy season into the watersources.

Organic wastes refer to rotting organic matter which generates foul smell. Examples are waste from humans,tanneries, paper and pulp industries. These wastes, when discharged into water sources decompose using largeamounts of oxygen from water rendering water useless. The pollution level is indicated by a parameter, BOD (bio-chemical oxygen demand). With oxygen depletion, some types of fish perish in these water bodies. Urban sewageis another example of organic waste, generally released into rivers, lakes or tanks in most of the developingcountries.



The inert wastes such as metals, oil films, silt settle tothe bottom, if not removed, and affects plant life at thebottom of the water bodies. This is not a very seriouspollution problem. The radioactive wastes are generallydumped into oceans; if proper disposal techniques arenot followed, these wastes create serious pollution ofoceans. This aspect is discussed later.

It is estimated that many countries will have fresh watershortage by 2025. Due to water pollution two thirds ofworld population may live in water stressed conditions.Depletion in groundwater has been causing alarmingsituation. There is no judicious use of water in manycountries and much of the water is wasted. Dams mayensure a year round water supply, but much water getsevaporated and experiences loss due to seepage.

The immediate effect is scarcity of sage water for drinkingpurposes. Nearly one billion people worldwide lackaccess to safe drinking water. In many large cities inthe developing countries, the drinking water supply ispolluted. In south East Asia, only 550 million peoplehave access to sage drinking water.

Water-borne diseases, also known as dirty-waterdiseases result from consuming contaminated water.Around 2.3 billion people globally suffer from thesediseases. The polluted water contains water-bornepathogens or disease producing organism which can beviruses or bacteria or protozoa. Most of the diseasesare diarrheal diseases, but typhoid, infectious hepatitisand Para typhoid are also caused. An estimated 12million deaths occur every year, five million of them dueto diarrheal diseases. Most of these victims are childrenfrom developing countries. Around 60-70 working daysis lost in a year on average due to water borne diseases,resulting in leave applications.

Water pollution affects the food production also.Agriculture itself pollutes water due to the usage offertilizers, pesticides and herbicides. The effect of waterpollution on fisheries is very severe because thedepletion of oxygen in the water due to the presence of

toxic and organic wastes, kill fish. The chemical, plasticand paper industries release wastes containing mercuryinto rivers which merge into oceans. Since the mercurylevels in these wastes are more than normal, some typesof fish in the coastal waters contain more mercury intheir bodies; when people consume this fish, they becomeseriously ill or die.

Even industries have problem with polluted water. Theygenerally use soft water for most of the applications andtreating contaminated water to make it fit for usebecomes costly.

The waste heat in the water enables it useless forindustrial cooling purpose.

Conclusion

The best approach is to practice waste reduction indifferent sectors of human activity and to prevent pollutionat the source itself. The industries which have tried toreduce waste by recycling materials or redesigningproduction processes and products have found that suchmeasures actually save money.Providing sanitation andwaste treatment facilities is the second approach.Sanitation is one of the environmental quality issueslinked with population growth and urbanization.

The sanitation facilities are imperative as the cities grow,particularly in developing countries. Industrial andcommunity sanitation along-with control and treatmentof human waste and industrial waste are necessary toreduce water pollution.

References:

1) Envirnment – Issues and Challenges, C.S.Lakshmi,Kalyani Publishers, Ludhiana (2003)

2) The Hindu Survey of the Environment 2012

3) Water Pollution and Management Dr.Varshney, WileyEastern Limited.

4) Principles of Environmental Studies, P.JeyaramaReddy, B.S.Publication



INDIRECT LOSSES DUE TO NATURAL DISASTERS

1. Head, Department of Commerce & Management Studies, Kodaikanal Christian College.

Abstract

This paper seeks to analyze the impact of indirect losses of a natural disaster. The word disaster implies a suddenoverwhelming and unforeseen event. There are two major types of disasters and they are: natural and man-madedisaster. The list of natural disasters include weather phenomena such as tropical storms, extreme heat or extremecold, winds, floods, earthquakes, landslides and volcanic eruptions.We focus on the impact of such events on indicatorssuch as the effects on the economy, effects on mental health,social consequences, disruption of utilities, infectiousdiseases, electrical storms and wildfires, etc.

Key words: Natural disasters, impact, indirect losses.

M. VijayaRagunathan1

Introduction

The word disaster implies a sudden overwhelming andunforeseen event. At the household level, a disaster couldresult in a major illness, death, a substantial economicor social misfortune. At the community level, it could bea flood, a fire, a collapse of buildings in an earthquake,the destruction of livelihoods, an epidemic ordisplacement through conflict. When occurring at districtor provincial level, a large number of people can beaffected. Most disasters result in the inability of thoseaffected to cope with outside assistance.

The Centre for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters(CRED) defines a disaster as “a situation or event [which]overwhelms local capacity, necessitating a request to anational or international level for external assistance; anunforeseen and often sudden event that causes greatdamage, destruction and human suffering.”

There is no single measure of a disaster that can capturethe full scale impact of a disaster. A common measureis the number of people killed or affected. The individualwill consider the impact on his or her family and livelihood.Disaster managers will assess the speed and successof the disaster response. Economists will measurephysical loss to houses and buildings and loss ofproduction. Politicians will assess political damage froma poor response by state agencies. Health workers willconsider the resources required to contain an outbreakof meningitis or Ebola. Others may focus on the natureof the hazard, the social consequences and the impacton specific elements of human infrastructure. To thinkseriously about a disaster means we must consider allaffected and their losses both in the immediate and thelonger term.

Natural disasters:

In the minds of many, disasters are divided into thosethought of as originating from forces of nature or fromthe effects of humans. The list of natural disasters includeweather phenomena such as tropical storms, extremeheat or extreme cold, winds, floods, earthquakes,landslides and volcanic eruptions

Indirect Losses of Natural Disasters

Indirect losses of natural disasters, or losses resultingfrom the consequences of physical destruction, havenot been measured, studied, and modeled to the sameextent as direct losses (the monetized losses of physicaldestruction). Recent unprecedented business interruptionlosses—$6.5 billion in Northridge (Gordon andRichardson, 1995) and a staggering $100 billion ofinterruption losses in the 1995 Kobe earthquake - havefocused attention on the need for more intensive scientificstudy and measurement of these indirect losses.Evidence to date suggests that the proportion of indirectimpacts increases in larger disasters, and thus mayconstitute a larger fraction of total losses and damagein large disasters than in smaller disasters (Gordon andRichardson, 1995 and Toyoda, 1997).

Due to their very nature, indirect losses are harder tomeasure than losses stemming directly from physicaldamage. For example, a ruptured power line is easilyobserved and the cost of its repair evaluated. Far lessobvious are losses such as those of industries that areforced to close down because they lack critical powersupplies, firms with power that lose business becausesuppliers or buyers lacked power, and firms that loosebusiness because employees of firms affected by thepower outage have reduced incomes and consequentlyspend less. Compared to a natural disaster’s directeffects, indirect losses are more difficult to identify and



measure, and are generally spread over a much widerarea.

Additionally, there are almost no programs or processesin place to draw upon in measuring indirect losses. Twoexceptions to this observation are business interruptioninsurance and unemployment insurance. The usefulnessof these data are limited, as many firms do not carrybusiness interruption insurance, and that many indirecteffects may not qualify for reimbursement under suchinsurance. Similarly, unemployment insurance data donot adequately reflect employment and income lossesthat may occur in the wake of a natural disaster. Formany, proving eligibility can be troublesome; for others,the key impact is not unemployment per se but reducedwork and income that does not qualify for programassistance.

Different Types of Indirect Losses:1. Effects on the Economy:

Hurricanes and earthquakes can pose a threat togas prices by damaging oil producing refineries, andhalting the process of running oil supply. Publictransportation, such as trains, and cars can becomedamaged and businesses can temporarily close,preventing many people with jobs from working. Thegovernment may spend a great deal of money toreconstruct areas that were effected by naturaldisasters, and may deal with billions of dollars ofeconomic losses.

2. Effects on Mental Health:The effects of a natural disaster can push a personinto a lot of stress and psychological trauma. Peoplewho are susceptible to traumas from a naturaldisaster may become depressed and develop ananxiety disorder. Among the many anxiety disordersthat can be developed after a disaster is Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD), which can leavea person feeling traumatized years after the disaster.

3. Effects on Forests:

Wildfires can be brought on by electrical storms whichcan lead to the destruction of the natural habitat ofanimals. In addition to destroying habitat, food fromburned plants can become scarce, and smokeinhalation can be hazardous to animal health.Wildfires can spread from forests to residentialcommunities, potentially destroying the homes ofpeople.

4. Infectious Diseases:People are vulnerable to infectious diseases, duringor after a natural disaster. Dead animals may appearon the streets, and flooding sewage water can easilyinfect wounds. Mosquitoes breed in sewage waterand can carry a number of deadly diseases that can

be transmitted to humans e.g. Malaria and West Nilevirus. People who are in shelters are exposed toothers who have been infected with a contagious virus,and can spread it to them from a close distance.

5. Social Consequences:

The social consequences of natural disasters in theshort and long term are wide ranging. The disastersaffect housing; people are left homeless andrebuilding a home takes a long time and a lot ofmoney. Health care infrastructure is affected; theimpacts are worse in developing countries thatalready have poor facilities to begin with. Diseasestarts spreading and, without proper medicalattention, makes a bad situation worse. Educationis a big looser when a natural disaster happens,schools are often closed, teachers are unable to comein to work and children are displaced and unable toattend school. Transportation capacity is reducedhindering relief efforts and disrupting normal life.

6. Disruption of Utilities:Communities that surround areas affected by naturaldisasters are seriously affected by the disruptioncaused to utility services. Generally, power is thefirst thing to go when there’s a natural disaster. Thiscan literally mean life or death to the people who areon life support systems such as oxygen and dialysis.Medical assistance becomes hard to get since thecrews are busy helping the victims of the disaster.Banks can be shut down, causing a shortage of cashcirculation that prevents people from accessing fundsfor much needed provisions for babies and smallchildren.

7. Emotional Damage:

When a natural disaster strikes, the emotional tollon the people affected is quite devastating. Whilepossessions can be replaced eventually throughinsurance, the emotional damage can take a longwhile to heal. People lose loved ones in naturaldisasters; deaths of people and precious pets,serious injury and people missing all add up to severeemotional trauma. Communities get displacedmeaning separation from family and friends. Victimsface stress, trauma, anxiety and depression as aresult of natural disasters.

8. Inequalities and Poverty:The impact of a natural disaster may also causeinequalities. The poor, who suffer from incomefluctuations, and also have limited access to financialservices, in the aftermath of a disaster may be moreprone to reduce consumption and have a decreasingshock in other household indicators as aconsequence. In addition, there are a number of non-poor, or close to be, who are not insured against



from those risks, and then may fall into poverty asconsequence of a reduction of capital when copingwith the shock, depending on the impact and thelikelihood of falling into poverty of the initial stockassets and coping mechanisms. The impact on thepoor could be losing access to some basic services,reversals in accumulation of physical and humancapital, and perhaps an increase in child labor andcriminal activities.

9. Business losses:

i) Induced losses in sales, wages, and/or profits dueto loss of function. The inability to operate mayderive from either direct physical damage tocommercial structures or from infrastructurefailure.

ii) Input/output losses to firms forward-linked orbackward-linked in production to businessesclosed as a result of direct physical damage orinfrastructure failure. Slowdowns or shutdowns areinduced by reductions in demands for inputs andsupplies of outputs from damaged firms.

iii) Spending reductions from the income lossestriggered by firm closures or cutbacks—so-calledmultiplier, or ripple, effects. Employees of the firmsexperiencing reduced production and sales sufferincome losses and subsequently curtail their ownexpenditures, initiating a new round of firmcutbacks.

Conclusion:

The human beings overpowered by a major disaster suchas earthquake, flood or fire etc.,usually require long-termassistance from national or international levels to recoverand resume their normal lives. Introducing the disaster-prone community to practical disaster-preparedness canbuild their capacity to cope with future disasters. Thiscan bedone by analyzing past experiences, conductingrisk assessments and creating disaster preparednessplans. The emotional trauma from disasters can persistfor a long time, perhaps even a lifetime. However, returningto normal life as soon as possible helps people tofunction better than if the return is protracted.

Resources:

• http://www.gfdrr.org/sites/gfdrr.org/files/Disaster

• http://www.nap.edu

• www.academia.edu

• http://www.odi.org

• httpwww.disasters.irfilesADSR_2013

• http://www.cyen.org/innovaeditor/assets/Disaster

• http://www.ldeo.columbia.edu/chrr/ research/hotspots/

• Brussels. http://www.cred.be/

• http://www.preventionweb.net/gar09



ENVIRONMENTAL HAZARDS AND DISASTERMANAGEMENT IN INDIA

1. Research Scholar Bishop Heber College-Trichy

Abstract

The origin of the word disaster comes from a latin word "dis a trum" meaning total calamity unexpectedly. Todaybecause of the development of science many a times the human kind has always had a great rub with nature, likebhopal gas tragedy using methyl isocyanate, attack of hiroshima and nagasaki using atom bombs, testing of hydrogenbombs code named Castle Bravo which resulted in under sea earthquakes resulting in psunami, heavy radiatiionsickness resulting in loss of body parts when the mothers gave birth to children, unexpected levels of leukemia andall sorts of cancer to the human kind. All these tragdies resulted in a huge catastrophe causing great damage tohuman lives not only with the current generation but also for the forth coming generations. The greatest apathy fromthe government institutions was helplessness. Helplessness due to lack of supportive people since there was lot ofinsurgency. The people involved with the task force could not continue help beyond a condition since they were alsoaffected. Previous experiences have clearly taught us the need for infra structure is the key. But the question lies, arewe having the right infra structure for the right problem? But still this is a matter of question are our people safe? A lotof uncertainty is at large but today i am really going to high light about overcoming such disasters such as Tsunami,unexpected floods, earth quakes etc... which is really taking a huge toll on the human community

N.Vidhya Shree1

Introduction:

Environmental hazards are those extreme events causedby natural process or man’s activities which exceed thetolerable magnitude within or beyond certain time limitsand make adjustments difficult and thus result in loss ofproperty and lives, such as earthquakes, floods, volcaniceruptions etc.

WHO defines disaster as “any occurrence that causesdamage, economic distraction, loss of human lifeand deterioration in health and health services on ascale sufficient to warrant an extraordinary responsefrom outside the affected community or area.”

Disaster can be a natural or man-made phenomenon.Any distortion in the balanced equation between earth’sresources, stock and ecology arising out of climaticchanges, movement of the earth occurring inside andother natural process may lead to natural disaster likecyclone, floods, draughts, earthquakes, volcanoes,landslides, heat waves, and cold waves etc. Hazardsarising out of man-made technological advancements,industrialisation and other developmental activities arecoined as technological disasters like emission of deadlyindustrial pollutants, soil erosion and nuclear disasteretc.

India is one of the most disaster prone countries with allsorts of hazards being visited in some parts of the countryor the other every year. The natural hazards are relatedto climate, water and geological causes. Besides natural,

the other hazards, as recognised by High PoweredCommittee on Disaster Management relate to chemical,Industrial, nuclear, biological and accidental disasters.

There are numerous instances of disasters caused bycloudburst floods and flash floods from landslides anddebris flow from dam failures in the Indian Himalayas.On an average, at least one event is reported every yearfrom some part of the Himalayas. Cloudbursts arecommon in the Higher Himalayas region and are mainlyconfined to narrow villages.

Statement of Problem

The recent flood which occured in Chennai made me tothink about its Environmental Hazards and problemsfaced by the public.Its splendid management of disasterby the volunteers and other officials of varied forcesinspired me.This made me to take this topic.

Research Methodology

Secondary data: The data was collected in SecondaryMethod where the information about this project wascollected from Magazine, Internet and Self knowledge.

Important environmental hazards and disastersbelow:

1. Drought:The literary meaning of drought is anextended period of dry weather which is especiallyinjurious to crops. Agronomists consider drought asa condition of shortage of moisture for crop production.Economists view it as shortage of rainfall, which



adversely affects agricultural production. A farmerconsiders drought as shortage of rainfall for criticaloperations and stages of crop growth.

Drought, if not managed properly and continued formore than two to three consecutive years, might leadto famine like situation. Drought adversely affects theeconomic and social life of the people.It aggravatespoverty, water scarcity, famine, the internaldisplacement of people, migration and socialbreakdown. Further, reduction in crop productionincreases the prices of those commodities and alsoaffects the relative prices.At the household level, alarge drop in production translates into huge reductionin farm employment and income. The drop in income,coupled with rapidly increasing food prices result insevere and widespread decline in purchasing power.This also leads to migration and people becomeenvironmental refugees. Moreover, low income andless food production leads to malnutrition among thechildren. This has enormous social costs and causesa huge drain of economic resources.

Its found that malnutrition and famine could occuron a massive scale despite considerable foodavailability. It is shortage in food grain productionwhich leads to a prolonged fall in food grainintake that starvation on a massive scale leads toexcessive rise in death rates.

2. Floods:Submergence of any land area due to excessive rainwater is termed flood. Thus a flood is too much waterin the wrong place whether it is an inundated city ora single street or field flood due to blocked drain.Among the trigger mechanisms are dam or leveefailures; more rain than the landscape can disposeoff; the torrential rains of hurricanes, tsunamis, oceanstorm surges, rapid snow-melts; ice floes blocking ariver; and burst water mains. But most of the rapidlygrowing disasters are caused by humans, makingtheir land more prone to floods, and themselves morevulnerable.India is the most flood-affected country inthe world after Bangladesh. The typical geo-climaticcondition of the Indian sub-continent is responsiblefor this. For the coastal parts of India, it is not anunknown phenomenon. India accounts for one-fifthof global deaths due to floods.

There are numerous instances of disasters causedby cloudburst floods and flash floods from landslidesand debris flow, dam failures in the Indian Himalayas.On an average, at least one event is reported everyyear from some part of the Himalayas. Cloudburstsare common in the Higher Himalayas region and aremainly confined to narrow valleys.

3. Tsunami:

Tsunami is a Japanese word, translated as Tusmeaning harbour and nami meaning wave. It is notjust one wave; it is a train of waves generated in anylarge body of water by a disturbance of seismicvolcanic or even cosmic origin. A tsunami is thusneither tidal nor just seismic event which an undersealandslide can generate. Tsunami waves travel athundreds of kms per hour, reaching the coast severalhours after the earthquake. Tsunamis can reachheights of up to 30 metres, as tall as a seven-floorbuilding on approaching the coast. The force ofTsunamis is so enormous that large rocks weighingseveral towns along with boats and other debris aremoved inland, destroying buildings.

The undersea earthquake that occurred under theIndian Ocean on December 26, 2004 producedtsunamis, devastating the shores of Indonesia, SriLanka, Thailand and India. The death toll wasapproximately 1, 60,000 in South Asia. Over morethan 10,000 were killed in Southern India and theAndaman and Nicobar Islands. The Andaman andNicobar Islands which continued to suffer fromaftershocks of the quake accounted for 4000 deaths,most of them in the Nicobar area. Another 2,600people were reported missing.

4. Cyclone:

Cyclone is a sea storm, which is associated withspeedy winds and heavy rainfall. Cyclone spreadsfrom sea to land and affects the coastal areas. Thespeed of winds may vary from 180 km. to 400 km.per hour. A strip of 50 Km. width on the East Coast isliable to the occurrence of severe cyclones wherebetween 1937 and 1977, 263 cyclonic stormsoccurred including 92 of the severe types.

The West Coast is less severe in cyclone activitywhere during the same time period 20 cyclonic stormsoccurred on the coast of Gujarat and 13 on the restof the West Coast. It may be mentioned that as manyas 19 major cyclones occurred out of these, in whichthe life losses exceeded 10,000.

The Bay of Bengal and East Coast are prone to suchcyclones. In the last two decades, Andhra Pradeshhas been ravaged by two severe cyclonic storms inNovember 1977 and May 1990. Similarly, Orissa hasalso been devastated by a super cyclone in October,1999 with a wind speed of 270-300 kms per houraccompanied by torrential rains continuously for threedays.

Over seven lakh buildings were completed destroyedand 13 lakh partially damaged. The trail of destructionleft behind a cyclonic storm in the regions would



generally comprise of loss of human lives andlivestock, a widespread destruction/damage tobuildings, houses, rendering the occupants homelessand huge economic losses.

5. Earthquakes:

An earthquake is a sudden motion of the earth causedby an abrupt release of slowly accumulating stressand is also a potent natural disaster. In other words,earthquakes occur due to sudden movements ofearth’s crust.

The magnitude of energy released by an earthquakeis measured by the Richter scale, first devised byCharles F. Richter in 1935. Science has not succeededin predicting the timing and place of earthquakes inadvance despite decades of efforts. The reason liesprobably in the time scale of the activity.

Geological activity can take place anywhere betweena few thousand to a few hundred million years tocomplete. During the last 16 years, India hasexperienced quakes, ranging from very devastatingones to mere tremors. The one in Uttarkashi in theearly 1990s was followed by the Latur quake. TheJabalpur quake in the Narmada valley in May 1977was followed by the large scale tremors in Khandwa-Pandhana region. Hundreds of villagers fled from theregion due to tremors and collapsed houses. For thelast two years, the Koyna Valley has experiencedearthquakes ranging from 6 to 7.5 on Richter scale.

Looking at the Kutch region, it has recorded a fewmajor earthquakes in the last two centuries. Theearthquake of 1819 in this region measuringapproximately 7.8 created a natural bound of 90 Kmlateral extent called Allabandhs’. An earthquake in1903 near Anjar had 6 magnitudes while the one in1956 in the same locality was of 6.1 magnitude anddevastated Kutch. The historical record of seismicityin the Kutch region suggests that this region isseismically active.

In the morning of January 26, 2001 a massiveearthquake struck Gujarat at Bhuj. The impact wasso enormous that it left more than 20,000 dead in itswake and left ten times that number without food,shelter and other basic necessities. Recently, therewas a severe earthquake in October 2005 in J&Kwhich devastated large parts of Kashmir in India andPakistan.

6. Large Dams and Earthquakes:The Narmada Valley Dam is located at the triplejunction of the fault zone, thus making itseismologically very sensitive and geologically adisturbed area. The devastating Bhaj earthquake hasbrought to the fore the gravity of building large dams

in quake-prone zones. Geologists and seismologistsbelieve that both Narmada and Tehri dams could spelldoom if an earthquake above 8 on Richter scaleoccurs. Besides, both these projects can even induceseismic activity and trigger earthquakes.

Scientists have warned that the Tehri dam mightrelease elastic strain energy along the fault linebetween Nepal and Tibet. This might trigger anearthquake of as high as 8.9 Richter scale.

Earthquake experts underline that stress is buildingup along the active fault line in the Himalayan regionand they predict an earthquake any time in the region.The Uttarkashi and Chamoli quakes occurred a fewyears back have already destroyed large chunks ofecology in the region. Earthquakes like Bhuj andUttarkashi are pointers to the fact that we should notbuild big dams in areas which are ecologically andgeologically fragile. If the Tehri Dam cracks due to aquake, Rishikesh would drown in 63 minutes and 17minutes later, Haridwar would be inundated.

The large amount of water puts a heavy load on theearth’s crust, especially in areas where it is thin andthereby induces seismicity. Earthquakes of shallowdepths are possible by these mechanisms.Documented cases of reservoir induct seismicity havehad a much longer time lag. For example, AswanDam in Egypt was affected after 17 years of post-impoundment. Cajuru in Brazil after 18 years. A strongearthquake (6.1 on the Richter scale) in 1997 focusedattention on the seismic risks in the Narmada Valley.The event located close (20 to 40 km) to the BargiDam impounded in 1990, was associated withdamages in Jabalpur.

Dr. R.K. Pachauri, Director of TERI, says that thegovernment should ensure that every dam that itbuilds passes through a screen of several checksand balances that clearly evaluate all types ofecological and social effects likely to be created.Although big dams might generate more energy, theyshould not be allowed in fragile regions.

Disaster Management

The Indian subcontinent due to its unique geographicallocational, and geological features has the distinction ofbeing one of the most vulnerable areas to natural hazards,causing colossal losses of life and property. The countryis visited by almost all kinds of natural disasters likefloods, cyclones, droughts, earthquakes, landslides,avalanches and forest fires.

Disaster Management in India

Disasters are being managed in India through closecoordination among Central, State and local governmentsand various NGOs. At the level of Central Government,the Ministry of Home Affairs is the nodal agency for



coordinating management activities of all naturaldisasters, except drought which is managed by theMinistry of Agriculture.

There are a number of decision-making bodies for disastermanagement at the Central level. In the case of a naturaldisaster, the Union Cabinet and the concerned ministersheaded by the Prime Minister decide and review aboutthe steps being taken. Funds for help are sanctionedout of the Prime Minister’s Relief Fund. There is theNational Management Committee under theChairmanship of the Cabinet Secretary. This Committeeappoints a Crisis Management Group under theChairmanship of the Central Relief Commissioner withofficers from the concerned Ministries and Departmentsto decide about measures for dealing with the naturaldisaster and to review contingency plans. A number oftechnical organizations such as Indian MeteorologicalDepartment for Earthquakes and Cyclone, Central WaterCommission for Floods, Defense Research &Development Organization for Nuclear and BiologicalDisasters, Director General of Civil Defence, etc. providesupport for coordination and management functions incase of a natural disaster. The responsibility of managingdisasters is primarily of the State Government. The roleof the Central Government is to support the StateGovernment efforts by supplementing physical andfinancial resources. In the event of a natural disaster inthe State, a State level committee under the ChiefSecretary of the State is appointed which is in overallcharge of the relief operations. The State ReliefCommissioner is appointed in-charge of the relief andrehabilitation measures who works under the overalldirection and control of the State level committee. AllStates have State Relief Code which is a relief manualand the State Contingency Plan which guide them tomanage various types of natural disasters. At the districtlevel, the District Magistrate/Collector/Commissionercarries out all government plans and activities for disastermanagement. A District Management Committee is setup under the District Magistrate with officials from theHealth, Irrigation, Veterinary, Water and SanitationDepartments, etc. and representatives of NGOs asmembers of this Committee. It helps in the preparationof District Disaster Management Plan and appointsDistrict Management Teams which are action groupstrained in latest technologies of natural disasters likethe health and fire services, etc. At the Block/Talukalevel, the nodal officer is the Block/Taluka DevelopmentOfficer for the disaster management activities. There isthe Disaster Management Committee at the Block/Talukalevel under the BDO. The members of the Committeeare officers from the departments of Health, SocialWelfare, Rural Water and Sanitation, Police, etc., NGOs,eminent senior citizens, elected representatives, etc.This Committee helps in preparing the Block Disaster

Management Plan and coordinates the activities ofDisaster Management Teams. There is also the VillageDisaster Management Committee at the grassroots levelunder the Sarpanch or Village Headman which preparesthe Village Disaster Management Plan, coordinates theactivities of various agencies and forms the DisasterManagement Teams with the help of the villagePanchayat. Besides, there are various institutions thatare involved in disaster management in the country. Theyare the Police, Army and Paramilitary forces, NCC, NSS,Home Guards, Fire Services, Youth organisations,NGOs, UN agencies, media, etc.

Three Principles for disaster management,developing countries should follow the followingthree principles:1. Be aware and prepare:

No country is immune from the harmful effects ofextreme weather and disasters; and no country canafford to be complacent in preparing to face them.No country should forget the old maxim: An ounce ofprevention is worth a pound of cure. One dollarinvested in disaster management today can saveabout seven dollars tomorrow in relief andrehabilitation costs, besides saving millions of lives.

2. Strengthen the resilience to disasters:Countries should build “smarter and safer” disaster-resistant constructions in high-risk regions. To preventhuge loses of people and property in disaster-pronerequire large funds and new technologies. Toward thisend, the U.N. has formed a new global partnership ofgovernments, the World Bank, NGOs and civicgroups. Besides, the World Bank’s new GlobalFacility for Disaster Reduction and Recovery willprovide funds to support the use of disaster-resilienttechnology, design and construction in 86 disaster-prone countries.

3. Prepare communities to face nature’s hazards:People must be prepared to face natural hazards.This requires a good warning and communicationsystem and educating the people to take immediatemeasuies to save themselves. Governments shouldhave well-prepared evacuation plans, better land usageand environmental policies, public awarenesscampaigns, and emergency broadcasting systemsto reduce disaster risk.

All such situations require disaster managementas discussed below:1. Drought Management:

Drought occurs mainly due to low and uncertainrainfall, particularly during the cropping season. Thisrequires an effective policy and strong institutionalsupport. The development policy must deal directly



with poverty, which is the root cause of drought-faminerelationship.

Promotion of sustainable agricultural sector shouldbe geared to increase in production in order to attainnational and regional food self-reliance, enhanceemployment and generate income. Droughtmanagement through resources managementapproach received wider emphasis in the low rainfallregions to manage the drought conditions. One ofthem is to increase the moisture availability bybringing more water to the site from different layersand making more efficient use of water.

Agronomic practices supplemented by landconfiguration play a vital role in managing scarce waterfor crop production. These include minimum tillage,early planting, crop substitution, mulching, inter-cropping, bonding and water harvesting etc.

Drought management through crop managementshould be by the technologies designed to mitigatethe adverse effect of low average rainfall. Thesetechnologies give good yield stability andperformance, and good returns even during the lowrainfall years.

2. Flood Management:The first priority after floods is to provide food to people,first aid and portable shelter. Rehabilitation is the re-establishment of basic community services and therestoration of basic living conditions. Emotionalcounselling process should take place to enablesurvivors to resume normal life.

People face many water-borne diseases duringfloods. Water-borne diseases are those in whichinfectious agents remain alive in drinking water i.e.typhoid, para-typhoid and gastro-enteritis etc. Further,malaria, skin ulcers, scabies and amoebic dysenteryare general diseases during floods.

It is the duty of local health department to controldiseases by providing free medical help to thesuffering people. Early warning system plays a vitalrole in minimising any kind of disaster. There hasbeen meteorological observation over variouscatchments.

In the warning system, early detection andappropriate citizen response to these warnings havebeen very effective in reducing the impact of disaster.But the problem is that many district headquartersare totally cut-off from the State headquarter andneighbouring districts due to damaged cables orsubmerged telephone exchanges. Consequently, theneed for reserve and relief operations cannot becommunicated to the State headquarters.

In order to overcome this problem, Public Switched

Telephone Network (PSTN) line has been startedwhich connects all Government and private offices,police stations, fire stations, hospitals and majorityof homes and business places by transmitting andreceiving voice, fax and data. The use of wirelessphones such as mobile phones also helps.

There should be enhanced afforestation in the floodprone areas, thereby reducing the capacity ofweathering and erosion of hill slopes. Further,construction of installations, houses and otherstructures on the old place of channel of a river shouldbe avoided.

3. Cyclone and Tsunami Management:Relief measures should be started immediately afterthe cyclone or tsunami. It requires short-termemergency measures like rescue, relief, water pumps,and machines to remove debris and communicationequipment’s. The disaster management should takeinto account the entire resource inventory andresource damages of the cyclone prone region tosolve the crisis of devastation. The resources includesocial, economic, human and Environmentalresources.

The prediction of cyclone or tsunami may be madeon the basis of past history of the affected area. Sincetsunamis occur seldom, there is need to acquiretsunami warning system. The re-establishment ofbasic community services and the restoration of basicliving conditions should be done on war-footing.

People face many water-borne diseases duringfloods. Water-borne diseases are those in whichinfection agents remain alive in drinking water suchas typhoid, para-typhoid and gastro-enteritis etc.Further, malaria, skin ulcer, scabies and amoebicdysentery are general diseases during cyclone.

It is the duty of local health department to controldiseases by providing free medical help to thesuffering people. Early warning system plays a vitalrole in minimising any kind of disaster. There hasbeen meteorological observation over variouscatchments. In the warning system, early detectionand appropriate citizen response to these warningshave been very effective in reducing the impact ofdisaster. The Indian Meteorological Department hasa role in predicting and making preparedness forcyclones and tsunamis.

4. Earthquake Management:Disasters are no longer described as acts of Godand impossible to anticipate or prevent. Mitigation isa cornerstone of emergency management. It is anongoing effort to lessen the impact that theearthquakes have on people, property and



infrastructure.

In most cases, the structural inadequacy of thebuilding structures, especially the houses, to standup against the earthquake is the single major causeof the loss of life and property. The recent exampleis the disaster during the Gujarat earthquake in multi-storied buildings, well within the municipal limits ofAhmedabad, Gandhi Dham and Bhuj etc.Constructed by unethical builders, this was the maincause of needless deaths in these towns during theGujarat earthquake.

There is no mention of the consideration of naturaldisasters in the shifting and planning of thesettlements in the National Capital Regional PlanningBoard Act of 1985. Amendments have however beenmade after the Gujarat earthquake in some of thesebyelaws by making a reference to National BuildingCode and other relevant codes of practice and thusattempts have been made to incorporate safetyprovisions.

Emotional counselling process should take place toenable survivors to resume normal life. Research hasshown that early emotional counselling hastensrecovery. A study conducted by the MaharashtraInstitute of Mental Health five years after the Laturearthquake revealed that the proportion of those withdiagnosable mental illness in Latur (150/1000) washigher than in a comparable area not affected by theearthquake.

Earthquake management and safetymeasures shouldinclude the following:• Minimum construction works should be done in

earthquake prone areas;

• There should be a check on mining and constructionof big dams;

• Promotion of earthquake resistant housingconstruction with strict enforcement of model buildingbyelaws; and

• Lessons learnt in the earthquakes of Gujarat andJammu & Kashmir should be carried forward to otherearthquake vulnerable States of India.

• Identify a safe place in each room of your house.

• Identify emergency exist in your house and alwayskeep it clear.

• Plan safe evacuation of children, elderly and thephysically handicapped persons on priority.

• Keep helmets, rope, crowbar, axe, fire-extinguishersand other tools handy in your house. These could beuseful.

• Make family emergency kit with first aid box,essential medicines, family prescriptions, cash,torch, transistor, extra batteries, dry food items,drinking water, whistle, clothes, and sleeping kit etc.

• If indoors on the ground floor, move out quickly to anopen space.

• If outdoors, move to an open space away frombuildings, overhead power lines and bridges etc.

• If driving a vehicle, pull to the side of the road andstop. Move away from flyovers, electric lines andpoles or advertisement hoardings etc.

• If trapped in a building, whistle or shout to drawattention.

• Do not use a staircase or a lift as these are not safeand may collapse.

Conclusion:

We have seen in toto the primary need for managementof disasters and how the human support mechanismpays a very vital role. The neccesary infra strucutreneeded and how government agiencies and the publicshould coordinate to develop an infrastrucutre to manageexigencies, Also the prime resources needed in termsof machinery are the only solutions to greatcatastrophes. Lets join hands and make our nation asafe nation.



A STUDY ON EPIDEMICS AFTER NATURAL DISASTERS

1. Lecturer, Department Of Commerce, Seethalakshmi Ramaswami College, Trichy.

Abstract

Natural disasters are catastrophic events with atmospheric, geologic, and hydrologic origins. Disasters includeearthquakes, volcanic eruptions, landslides, tsunamis, floods, and drought. Natural disasters can have rapid or slowonset, with serious health, social, and economic consequences. During the past 2 decades, natural disasters havekilled millions of people, adversely affected the lives of at least 1 billion more people, and resulted in substantialeconomic damages. Developing countries are disproportionately affected because they lack resources, infrastructure,and disaster-preparedness systems. Deaths associated with natural disasters, particularly rapid-onset disasters, areoverwhelmingly due to blunt trauma, crush-related injuries, or drowning. Deaths from communicable diseases afternatural disasters are less common.

Key words: Natural Disaster, Communicable Diseases and long-term health conditions.

G. Yashodha1

IntroductionMillions of people are affected by natural disasters everyyear, and their impact can be calamitous. From thedestruction of buildings to the spread of disease, naturaldisasters can devastate entire countries overnight.Tsunamis, earthquakes and typhoons do not just wreakhavoc on land; they also disrupt people’s lives in bothdensely populated cities and remote villages.

Natural Disaster Facts and Statistics

• According to a 2014 report by the United Nations,since 1994, 4.4 billion people have been affected bydisasters, which claimed 1.3 million lives and costUS$2 trillion in economic losses.

• Low- and lower-middle-income countries aredisproportionately affected by natural disasters. Inthe same 20-year period, 33 percent of countries thatexperienced disasters were low- to lower-middleincome, but 81 percent of people who died indisasters lived in these countries.

• Women and children in developing countries are oftenthe most vulnerable demographic groups after naturaldisasters.

• 8 out of 10 of the world’s cities most at risk to naturaldisasters are in the Philippines.

• Natural disasters affect the number of people livingbelow the poverty line, increasing their numbers bymore than 50 percent in some cases. The problemis getting worse; up to 325 million extremely poorpeople are expected to live in the 49 most hazard-prone countries by 2030.

Fig. 1

Typhoon Haiyan devastated this village on the island ofLeyte when it struck the Philippines in November 2013.

Hazard vs. DisasterEarthquakes, floods, hurricanes and volcano eruptionsare all types of natural hazards, but when do they becomenatural disasters? The difference is the events’ effectson people. When a typhoon strikes a populated islandin the Philippines, destroying homes and lives, itbecomes a disaster. People living in poverty are evenmore vulnerable to natural disasters because they havefewer resources or people to turn to when trying to rebuildtheir homes and livelihoods.

An Increase in Natural DisastersAccording to a November 2015 report from the UnitedNations, the rate of weather-related disasters (such ascyclones, typhoons and droughts) is growing. Between2005 and 2014, the annual average of weather-relateddisasters was 335, an increase of 14 percent from 1995to 2004 and almost twice the average recorded from 1985to 1995.



In the past 20 years, 90 percent of major disasters havebeen caused by 6,457 recorded floods, storms, heatwaves, droughts and other weather events. Indonesia,India and the Philippines are among the five countrieshit by the highest number of disasters, besides the UnitedStates and China.

Why Are Developing Countries More Vulnerable toNatural Disasters?

Developed countries are better prepared to handle theimpact of disasters as well as the aftermath. Indeveloping nations, natural disasters trap people in acycle of poverty because they do not have the resourcesto rebuild their homes and meet other basic needs,making them less able to recover in the long run. Certainfactors present in poverty environments will turn a naturalhazard into a disaster:

• Poorly constructed buildings

• Poor sanitation

• Rapid population growth/high density population

• Limited resources for disaster response andrebuilding

• Lack of economic safety nets

A man searches through the wreckage of a home in theKavrepalanchok district of Nepal after a massiveearthquake in April 2015. Photo by Jake Lyell.

Small Island Developing States and Vulnerabilityto Natural DisastersMany of the countries most vulnerable to naturaldisasters are small island developing states (SIDS).These countries experience frequent storms and floodingand have very little resources and man-power to cope.Additionally, the size of these islands means that alreadyfragile economies, usually agriculture-based, can betotally devastated by a natural disaster. With sea levelsrapidly rising, SIDS are becoming more vulnerable tonatural disasters with little hope for the future.

Human Factors and the Severity of Natural Disasters

There are several human factors that influence theseverity of a natural disaster. Even within the same region,different people have different levels of vulnerability tonatural hazards.

• Wealth: People living in poverty cannot affordadequate housing or infrastructure. They are unableto acquire resources needed before and after adisaster strikes.

• Education: Education increases awareness aboutavoiding or reducing the impact of disasters. A better-educated population will have more professionalstrained to prepare for catastrophic natural events.

• Governance: Governments can set policies andestablish infrastructure to reduce vulnerability tohazards. Some governments have more resourcesavailable to dedicate to disaster risk reduction.

• Technology: Technology allows us to forecastweather, significantly reducing vulnerability.

• Age: Children and the elderly are more vulnerablebecause they have less physical strength andweaker immune systems. Children and the elderlyare more dependent on others for survival but maynot have anyone to depend upon after disaster strikes.

• Gender: Women are more likely to be poorer andless educated than men, making them morevulnerable to hazards.

The Human Impact of Natural DisastersDisplaced Populations

One of the most immediate effects of natural disastersis population displacement. When countries are ravagedby earthquakes or other powerful forces of nature, manypeople have to abandon their homes and seek shelter inother regions. A large influx of refugees can disruptaccessibility of health care and education, as well asfood supplies and clean water.

Health Risks

Aside from the obvious immediate danger that naturaldisasters present, the secondary effects can be just asdamaging. Severe flooding can result in stagnant waterthat allows breeding of waterborne bacteria and malaria-carrying mosquitos. Without emergency relief frominternational aid organizations and others, death tollscan rise even after the immediate danger has passed.

Food Scarcity

After natural disasters, food often becomes scarce.Thousands of people around the world go hungry as aresult of destroyed crops and loss of agriculturalsupplies, whether it happens suddenly in a storm orgradually in a drought. As a result, food prices rise,reducing families’ purchasing power and increasing the

Fig. 2



risk of severe malnutrition or worse. The impacts ofhunger following an earthquake, typhoon or hurricanecan be tremendous, causing lifelong damage to children’sdevelopment.

Emotional Aftershocks

Natural disasters can be particularly traumatic for youngchildren. Confronted with scenes of destruction and thedeaths of friends and loved ones, many children developpost-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), a seriouspsychological condition resulting from extreme trauma.Left untreated, children suffering from PTSD can be proneto lasting psychological damage and emotional distress.

Principles for management of dead bodies*

Despite these facts, the risk for outbreaks after disastersis frequently exaggerated by both health officials andthe media. Imminent threats of epidemics remain arecurring theme of media reports from areas recentlyaffected by disasters, regardless of attempts to dispelthese myths.

Risk Factors for Communicable DiseaseTransmission

Responding effectively to the needs of the disaster-affected population requires an accurate communicabledisease risk assessment. The efficient use ofhumanitarian funds depends on implementing priorityinterventions on the basis of this risk assessment.

A systematic and comprehensive evaluation shouldidentify

1) Endemic and epidemic diseases that are commonin the affected area;

2) Living conditions of the affected population, includingnumber, size, location, and density of settlements;

3) Availability of safe water and adequate sanitationfacilities;

4) Underlying nutritional status and immunizationcoverage among the population; and

5) Degree of access to healthcare and to effective casemanagement.

Communicable Diseases Associated with NaturalDisastersThe following types of communicable diseases have beenassociated with populations displaced by naturaldisasters. These diseases should be considered whenpostdisaster risk assessments are performed.

Water-related Communicable DiseasesAccess to safe water can be jeopardized by a naturaldisaster. Diarrheal disease outbreaks can occur afterdrinking water has been contaminated and have beenreported after flooding and related displacement. An

outbreak of diarrheal disease after flooding in Bangladeshin 2004 involved >17,000 cases; Vibrio cholerae (O1Ogawa and O1 Inaba) and enterotoxigenic Escherichiacoli were isolated (13). A large (>16,000 cases) choleraepidemic (O1 Ogawa) in West Bengal in 1998 wasattributed to preceding floods (14), and floods inMozambique in January–March 2000 led to an increasein the incidence of diarrhea (15).

Diseases Associated with Crowding

Crowding is common in populations displaced by naturaldisasters and can facilitate the transmission ofcommunicable diseases. Measles and the risk fortransmission after a natural disaster are dependent onbaseline immunization coverage among the affectedpopulation, and in particular among children <15 yearsof age. Crowded living conditions facilitate measlestransmission and necessitate even higher immunizationcoverage levels to prevent outbreaks. A measles outbreakin the Philippines in 1991 among persons displaced bythe eruption of Mt. Pinatubo involved >18,000 cases.After the tsunami in Aceh, a cluster of measles involving35 cases occurred in Aceh Utara district, and continuingsporadic cases and clusters were common despite massvaccination campaigns. In Pakistan, after the 2005 SouthAsia earthquake, sporadic cases and clusters ofmeasles (>400 clinical cases in the 6 months after theearthquake) also occurred.

Vector borne Diseases

Natural disasters, particularly meteorologic events suchas cyclones, hurricanes, and flooding, can affect vector-breeding sites and vectorborne disease transmission.While initial flooding may wash away existing mosquito-breeding sites, standing water caused by heavy rainfallor overflow of rivers can create new breeding sites. Thissituation can result (with typically some weeks’ delay)in an increase of the vector population and potential fordisease transmission, depending on the local mosquitovector species and its preferred habitat. The crowding ofinfected and susceptible hosts, a weakened public healthinfrastructure, and interruptions of ongoing controlprograms are all risk factors for vectorborne diseasetransmission.

Malaria outbreaks in the wake of flooding are a well-known phenomenon. An earthquake in Costa Rica’sAtlantic Region in 1991 was associated with changes inhabitat that were beneficial for breeding and precededan extreme rise in malaria case. Additionally, periodicflooding linked to El Niño–Southern Oscillation has beenassociated with malaria epidemics in the dry coastalregion of northern Peru.

Dengue transmission is influenced by meteorologicconditions, including rainfall and humidity, and often



exhibits strong seasonality. However, transmission isnot directly associated with flooding. Such events maycoincide with periods of high risk for transmission andmay be exacerbated by increased availability of thevector’s breeding sites (mostly artificial containers)caused by disruption of basic water supply and solidwaste disposal services. The risk for outbreaks can beinfluenced by other complicating factors, such aschanges in human behavior (increased exposure tomosquitoes while sleeping outside, movement fromdengue-nonendemic to -endemic areas, a pause indisease control activities, overcrowding) or changes inthe habitat that promote mosquito breeding (landslide,deforestation, river damming, and rerouting of water).

Other Diseases Associated with Natural Disasters

Tetanus is not transmitted person to person but is causedby a toxin released by the anaerobic tetanus bacillusClostridium tetani. Contaminated wounds, particularlyin populations where vaccination coverage levels are low,are associated with illness and death from tetanus. Acluster of 106 cases of tetanus, including 20 deaths,occurred in Aceh and peaked 2-1/2 weeks after thetsunami. Cases were also reported in Pakistan followingthe 2005 earthquake.

An unusual outbreak of coccidiomycosis occurred afterthe January 1994 Southern California earthquake. Theinfection is not transmitted person to person and iscaused by the fungus Coccidioides immitis, which isfound in soil in certain semiarid areas of North and SouthAmerica. This outbreak was associated with exposureto increased levels of airborne dust subsequent tolandslides in the aftermath of the earthquake.

Disaster-Related Interruption of Services

Power cuts related to disasters may disrupt watertreatment and supply plants, thereby increasing the riskfor waterborne diseases. Lack of power may also affectproper functioning of health facilities, includingpreservation of the vaccine cold chain. An increase indiarrheal illness in New York City followed a massivepower outage in 2003. The blackout left 9 million peoplein the area without power for several hours to 2 days.Diarrhea cases were widely dispersed and detected byusing nontraditional surveillance techniques. A case-control study performed as part of the outbreakinvestigation linked diarrheal illness with the consumptionof meat and seafood after the onset of the power outage,when refrigeration facilities were widely interrupted.

The long-term health conditions typically addressedduring the redevelopment phase include mental andpsychological issues, vaccinating and eliminating theoutbreak of communicable diseases like cholera, malaria,

and measles and reinstating the infrastructure of thehealth services system.

Mental Health

Mental health problems have proven to be some of themost common side effects of natural disasters. The greatloss and devastation disasters incur makes mentalhealth problems like post-traumatic stress disorder anddepression, rampant among survivors of these horrificacts of nature.

“Disasters cause a significant amount of stress; thedeath of loved ones can be particularly traumatic butalso the loss of jobs, material goods and livelihoods,”Amanda McClelland, senior officer of Emergency Healthat the International Federation of Red Cross wrote in anemail. But mental health problems rarely manifestthemselves in the early stages of the emergency. “Mentalhealth and psycho social issues become more apparentas time goes on and can be overlooked in emergencies,”McClelland explained.

Communicable Diseases

Communities reeling from natural disasters also tend tobecome breeding grounds for outbreaks ofcommunicable diseases, which are defined as diseasesthat easily transfer from person to person or animal toperson. “Continuing problems with hygiene and diseasesrelated to hygiene are common in refugee camps,”Grimsley says. “Maintaining hygiene levels in thesecamps is critical to full recovery.”

Prevention methods like washing hands and vaccinationsare the key to combating these deadly, yet preventableoutbreaks.

Health Service System

“The real damage in the long run is done to the healthservice infrastructure,” Waldman says. On top of thephysical damage done to the hospitals and healthbuildings, the loss of medical equipment and medicines,“there’s the issue of the dysfunction of health facilities.”“Cholera will continue to outbreak because theinfrastructure remains inadequate,” Waldman said.

The mass exodus of residents from the epicenter of anyemergency is a common problem for communitiesworking to recover and rebuild. This exodus alsocontributes greatly to the lack of Natural disasters arefleeting. Earthquakes tremor to stillness, tsunamissubside, and flood waters recede. But the effects ripplelong after the actual event. Robinson refers to these as“chronic emergencies.” “It’s really important forgovernment and international agencies to maintain theircommitment and not just move on to the next bigdisaster,” Grimsley says.



Conclusion

Although post disaster systems are designed to rapidlydetect cases of epidemic-prone diseases, interpretingthis information can be hampered by the absence ofbaseline data and accurate denominator values.Detecting cases of diseases that occur endemically maybe interpreted (because of absence of background data)as an early epidemic. The priority in these settings,however, is rapid implementation of control measureswhen cases of epidemic-prone diseases are detected.Despite these challenges, continued detection of andresponse to communicable diseases are essential tomonitor the incidence of diseases, to document theireffect, to respond with control measures when needed,and to better quantify the risk for outbreaks afterdisasters.

Reference

http://i.unu.edu/media/ehs.unu.edu/news/4070/11895.pdf

https://www.e-education.psu.edu/geog030/node/379

http://www.prb.org/Publications/Articles/2011/disaster-risk.aspx

https://maplecroft.com/portfolio/new-analysis/2015/03/04/56-100-cities-most-exposed-natural-hazards-found-key-economies-philippines-japan-china-bangladesh-verisk-maplecroft/

h t t p : / / w w w . p r e v e n t i o n w e b . n e t / f i l e s /11851_11851R25PovertyAFijiCaseStudylowres.pdf

https://www.allianz.com/en/about_us/open-knowledge/topics/environment/articles/100316-the-cycle-of-poverty-and-natural-disasters.html/

http://www.live58.org/10-facts-about-natural-disasterswo

http://www.guyanatimesgy.com/2014/01/15/sids-and-their-vulnerability-to-natural-disasters/



MANAGERIAL PERSPECTIVES OF NATURAL DISASTER

1. Assistant Professor, Department of Tamil, Marry Matha College, Periyakulam2. Visiting Faculty, Department of International Business and Commerce, ALAGAPPA University, Karaikudi.

Abstract

Natural Disasters causing damage to human life, property, infrastructure and economy has emerged as a globalchallenge. Requisite safety measures have to be provided for natural hazards. Prevention is better than cure. Oncedisaster occurred, it is very difficult to handle and control it. Hence proper planning shall always handle and mitigatethe various kinds of disasters effectively, for which open, transparent and efficient systems have to be followed. Thereis a need for systematic identification, preparation, prediction, assessment, evaluation of disaster events andincorporation of mitigate measures. Disaster management is a sequential and continuous process planning. Theimportant elements which are to be considered at all stages during the disaster management are disaster managementsystem and standards (DMS)/ Indian Standard (IS) codes, disaster diagnosis, disaster resource planning (DRP),disaster impact assessment (DIA), investigation of disaster and hazardous risk assessment (IDHRA), onsite andoffsite emergency planning, disaster management plans (DMPs), corporate disaster preparedness programmes,emergency response plans, identification of proactive measures (IPM), systematic measurement, resource evaluationand quantification, cost analysis, environmental impact assessment (EIA), feedback towards achieving the disastercontrol abatement and mitigation strategies, research and development, management innovations, loss assessment& prevention (LAP) measures, recovery, relief, reconstruction and rehabilitation (RRRR) activities, computer aidedmethods, state-of-art software on disaster management and enforcement of disaster compensation laws. With thisbackdrop the present paper made an attempt to portrait the details relating to the effects and types of disasters,disaster preparedness and mitigation.

C.Ananth1

Introduction

Disaster is a sudden, calamitous and unfortunate eventthat brings with it great damage, loss, destruction anddevastation to human life as well as property and alsohampers the ongoing developmental projects in aparticular area being affected by the disaster. Disasterhas been defined in many ways; World HealthOrganization has defined disaster as any suddenoccurrence of the events that causes damage, ecologicaldisruption, loss of human life, deterioration of health andhealth services, on a scale sufficient to warrant anextraordinary response from outside the affectedcommunity or area. Disaster management is veryimportant to survive in the case of a natural or a majorman-made disaster and can be defined as theorganization and management of resources andresponsibilities for dealing with all humanitarian aspectsof emergencies, in particular preparedness, responseand recovery in order to lessen the impact of a suddendisaster.

The damage caused by disasters is immeasurable andvaries with the geographical location, climate and thetype of the earth surface/degree of vulnerability. At timesthere can be disasters where there is no loss ofhuman life and at times these can also cause a hugeloss of life and property. This influences the mental,

T.Dhanabalan2

socio-economic, political and cultural state of the affectedarea. A disaster can be caused by human activities ordue to some natural changes. Disasters are events thatare unpredictable most of the times. It is important forany government, state or community to managedisasters by being prepared for it in advance.Government provides legislation, allocates resourcesand does rational planning and sustainable development.Disaster management and planning is a key part ofgovernment work and an issue to be taken up seriouslyby the concerned authorities.

Effects of Disaster

A disaster is an event of sudden calamity causingdisruption in normal routing and causing a lot ofdestruction depending upon the intensity of the disaster.Generally, disaster has the following effects in theconcerned areas:

••••• It completely disrupts the normal day to day life.

••••• Causes lot of loss in the terms of life and property.

••••• Leads to a loss of agriculture and animal life as well.

••••• Disasters hamper developmental projects in anadverse manner.

••••• Disaster causes destruction to the state of art andinfrastructure.



••••• It negatively influences the emergency systems.

••••• Normal needs and processes like flood, shelter,health, etc. are affected and deteriorate dependingon the intensity and severity of the disaster.

Types of Disasters

Disasters are inevitable; there is no country that isimmune from disaster, though vulnerability to disastervaries. Generally, disasters are of two types namelyNatural and Manmade. Based on the devastation causedand intensity of the disaster, these are further classifiedinto major/minor natural disaster and major/minormanmade disasters. Some of the disasters are listedbelow:

Natural DisastersNatural disasters are generally unpredictable typesof disasters and the destruction caused by thesedepends upon the intensity of the disasters. Thesedisasters include floods, hurricanes, earthquakes andvolcano eruptions that can have immediate impactson human health, as well as secondary impactscausing further death and suffering from floods causinglandslides, earthquake resulting in fires, tsunamiscausing widespread flooding and typhoons sinkingferries. Majorly the cause of these disasters is the changein climate as well as the movements inside the earthlike moving of tectonic plates or lava. Depending uponthe intensity as well as the destruction caused thesecan be classified as:

Major Natural Disaster

Major natural disasters include the events of highintensity earthquake, floods, cyclone, flashfloods, somemajor landslides and event of draught. These disastersgenerally cause a high loss of life and property andalso lead to displacement of a lot of people from theirshelters. Generally these disasters pose a major threatto the developmental projects as well as infrastructureof a particular area. Preparedness against thesedisasters should be on the top of the priority list.

Minor Natural Disasters

Cold wave, heavy rains causing disruption in normallife, heat wave, thunderstorms, mud slides, someminor land-slides and low intensity earthquakes canbe few cases of minor natural disasters. Thesedisasters do not cause much loss in the terms of humanlife as well as property. Though, if care is not taken thenthese can prove to be fatal for human beings. There isgenerally not much need for disaster preparedness atcommunity level but this kind of disaster requirespersonal preparedness and awareness against thesedisasters. For example, there can’t be disasterpreparedness for heat-wave or cold wave at community

level; it is our own responsibility to take care of ourselvesin the event of severe cold and heat.

Man-Made DisastersThese are the disaster generally taking place due tohuman activities and human negligence and can lead toa lot of destruction in the terms of life and property. Attimes these are really fatal and sometimes these couldbe minor event of emergency and can be handled atpersonal level. Almost of the times these take place dueto human negligence and hence are unpredictable mostof the times, however the events of wars, attacks etcare predictable disasters. The loss taking place due tothese disasters depends upon the intensity of thesedisasters. These can be classified as:

Major Man-Made Disaster

Some major man-made disasters may include theevents of forest-fires, event of wars, nuclear attack,major fires, industrial accidents as well as the eventof building collapsing or accidents at constructionsites causing a lot of loss and damage. Generallythe events leading from human negligence such asindustrial accidents, events of fires and constructionaccidents are unpredictable and cause a major loss inthe terms of life and infrastructure. Some major eventsof industrial fires have been reported in past years thathave led to death of a lot of workers and reported a hugeloss of material and machinery. It is advised to have anemergency preparedness for evacuation in the eventsof an emergency and also industrial units should bevigilant and install all the safety gears as well equipmentssuch as fire extinguishers and emergency alarms inthe plant.

MINOR MAN-MADE DISASTERSSome events of train or road accidents, minor householdfire, food poisoning, minor industrial accidents, eventsof looting, terrorist attacks or event of fire at shops etcresulting mostly out of personal negligence is termedas minor man-made accidents. These do not lead toa high loss of life though loss of property may beevident in such cases. Personal awareness andcaution can help you avert such incidents as well as toescape unhurt in case of such disasters. Hence it isadvised to be cautious and vigilant to avoid suchincidents. Different kinds of Disaster are

••••• Floods••••• Train Accidents••••• Airplane Crash••••• Tsunami••••• Earthquakes••••• Wild Fires••••• Rock and Snow Avalanches



••••• Nuclear Accidents••••• Drought••••• Cyclones••••• Tornadoes••••• Typhoons

Disaster Preparedness

Disaster preparedness or disaster management activitiesare aimed to minimize loss of life and damage in theevent of a disaster. Disaster management forces canhelp by removing people and property from a threatenedlocation and by facilitating timely and effective rescue,relief and rehabilitation at the place of disaster.Preparedness is the only way of reducing theimpact of disasters as most of the disasters areunpredictable and even if predicted, there is notmuch time to act. Community-based preparedness andmanagement should be a high priority in physical therapypractice management. Also it should be the main agendaof the government to appoint a proper department dealingwith the disaster management and preparedness. Everymunicipality must have a disaster management plan aspart of its Integrated Development Plans, according tothe Municipal Systems Act. The local authorities shouldbe empowered to act as soon as possible in the eventof a disaster. It may take time to get relief and rescueoperation to start, so in the mean time it is role ofMunicipal disaster management team to provide rescuework as soon as disaster strikes. Disaster Managementhas four phases namely:

Mitigation

Mitigation can be defined as the effort to reduce loss oflife and property in the event of a disaster by lesseningthe impact of disasters. Mitigation is taking action nowbefore the next disaster to reduce human and financialconsequences later. Mitigation involves analyzing risk,reducing risk, insuring against risk. Personal mitigationis a key to national preparedness. Individuals and familiestrain to avoid unnecessary risks. This includes anassessment of possible risks to personal/family healthand to personal property. Effective mitigation at the timeof disaster requires that we all understand local risks,address the hard choices, and invest in long-termcommunity well-being. Without mitigation actions; wejeopardize our safety, financial security, and self-reliance. For effective mitigation, co-ordination, planningand mock activities are very important. Disasters canhappen at anytime and anyplace; their human andfinancial consequences are hard to predict, preparednessis the only solution.

Rescue

Disaster can strike any place at anytime. The responsephase of an emergency may commence with search

and rescue but in all cases the focus will quickly turn tofulfilling the basic humanitarian needs of the affectedpopulation. The assistance may be providing by nationalor international agencies and organizations but, it is therole of local bodies to act as soon as possible. Effectivecoordination of disaster assistance is often crucial,particularly when many organizations respond and localemergency management agency capacity has beenexceeded by the demand or diminished by the disasteritself. Rescue operation involves providing medicationto those hurt and taking people out of the affected areaand debris in the events of earthquake and floods etc.There are various rescue teams at national and statelevel which come into action as soon as disasterstrikes. But it is also better if local authorities are alsotrained as they have best knowledge about thegeographical location and other local conditions.

ReliefThis is a coordinated multi-agency response to reducethe impact of a disaster and its long-term results. Reliefoperation starts as soon as disaster strikes and mainemphasis is laid on providing injured with medicationand providing food as well as clean drinking water tothe people. Relief activities include rescue, relocation,providing food and water, preventing disease anddisability, repairing vital services such astelecommunications and transport, providing temporaryshelter and emergency health care. It is very importantto provide relief operation as soon as possible tominimize the number of causalities and to providerelief for injured. The relief workers are trained in basicfirst aid and medication and are also given training onmaintaining co-ordination even in the event of crisis. Therelief operation is best supported only when carried outas teamwork and all the members of team should co-ordinate well with each other and also support one anotherwithout any discrepancy.

Rehabilitation

As soon as disaster strikes the first thing that comes tomind is relief and rescue operations. Once emergencyneeds have been met and the initial crisis is over, thepeople affected and the communities that support themare still vulnerable and it is time to start rehabilitationactivities. Rehabilitation activities include rebuildinginfrastructure, health care and other basic necessities.These should blend with development activities, suchas building human resources for health and developingpolicies and practices to avoid similar situations in future.The immediate goal of the rehabilitation phase is to bringthe affected area back to some degree of normalcy andto get back to normal situation as soon as possible.During reconstruction it is recommended to consider thelocation or construction material of the property and it



should not be hurried rather reconstruction should bedone properly and effectively.

Conclusion

Disasters are events that have a huge impact on humansand the environment. Disasters are inevitable, wecannot do anything to prevent these but disasterpreparedness is only in our hand. Disastersmanagement requires government intervention and aproper planning as well as funding. It is not necessarythat these disasters are always unpredictable. Floodstake place in valleys and flood plains, droughts in areaswith unstable and low rainfall, and oil spills happen inshipping lanes. This predictability provides opportunitiesto plan for, prevent and to lessen the impact of disasters.Disasters are inevitable although we do not always knowwhen and where they will happen. But their worst effectscan be partially or completely prevented by preparation,early warning, and swift, decisive responses. Disastermanagement aims to reduce the occurrence of disastersand to reduce the impact of those that cannot beprevented. The government White paper and Act onDisaster Management define the roles of LocalAuthorities as well as Provincial and National governmentin disaster management. Disaster management forcescome into action as soon as a disaster strikes and helpsout in relief, rescue and rehabilitation process. Theseare trained individuals, and are given extensive trainingto perform in the event of a disaster or a naturalcalamity and they work as a team to reduce the loss oflife and helping the locals getting back to normal life.

References

1. Barton, Allen H. Communities in Disaster: ASociological Analysis of Collective Stress Situations,Doubleday, 1st edition 1969, ASIN: B0006BVVOW

2. Susanna M. Hoffman, Susanna M. & Anthony Oliver-Smith, authors & editors. Catastrophe and Culture:The Anthropology of Disaster, School of AmericanResearch Press, 1st edition 2002, ISBN 978-1930618152

3. Bankoff, Greg, Georg Frerks, DorotheaHilhorst. Mapping Vulnerability: Disasters,Development and People, Routledge, 2004, ISBN978-1853839641

4. Alexander, David. Principles of Emergency planningand Management, Oxford University Press, 1 edition2002, ISBN 978-0195218381

5. Quarantelli, E. L. (2008). “Conventional Beliefs andCounterintuitive Realities”. Conventional Beliefs andCounterintuitive Realities in Social Research: aninternational Quarterly of the social Sciences, Vol.75 (3): 873–904.

6. Paul, B. K et al. (2003). “Public Response to TornadoWarnings: a comparative Study of the May 04, 2003Tornadoes in Kansas, Missouri and Tennessee”.Quick Response Research Report, no 165, NaturalHazard Center, Universidad of Colorado

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8. Beck, U. (2006). Risk Society, towards a newmodernity. Buenos Aires, Paidos

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12.Hirshleifer, Jack (2008). ”Disaster and Recovery”.In David R. Henderson (ed.). Concise Encyclopediaof Economics (2nd ed.). Indianapolis: Library ofEconomics and Liberty. ISBN 978-0865976658. OCLC 237794267.

13.Scheper-Hughes, N. (2005). “Katrina: the disasterand its doubles”. Anthropology Today. Vol. 21 (6).



NATURAL DISASTERS AND THEIR IMPACTS IN INDIA – A REVIEW

1. Department of Business Administration, Jayaraj Annapackiam College for Women,(Autonomous), Periyakulam.2. Department of Microbiology, Annai Dora College of Nursing, Seva Nilayam, Rajathani Aundipatty Taluk, Theni

Abstract

Disasters are mostly strike the region between the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn at global level. Indiais located above the equator region and crossing the line of Tropic of Cancer and it has severally affected by anunfortunate and undesirable situation at every year due to disasters, because of varying climatologic and hypsographicconditions. Disasters may arise either natural or manmade which affects human community as well as their environment.India holds second place for their population in the world and its 1.2 billion people are affected by all kinds ofdisasters. They severely affected by the droughts and famines before three decades. Other disasters like cyclones,floods, earthquakes, landslides and avalanches are repeatedly and increasingly affected from the period 2001 onwards.The United Nations (UN) general assembly had announced in 1989 that from 1990 to 2000 as international decadeof natural disaster. The UN main objectives were reducing loss of lives and property and restrict socio- economicdamage through concerted international action. Due to dreadful impact of natural disasters that affect the populationdensity and the economic status of the country. Similarly, India has set up disaster management and its action atnational, state as well as district/block and village level in the country. This review article indicates the problems ofnatural disasters in India due to weak management efforts in tackling the natural disasters and the disaster cycle ofpreparedness, response, reconstruction and mitigation. This review also revealed the preventive measures that couldbe taken from past experiences of disasters.

Keywords: Disaster, Cyclone, flood, Mitigation.

Anitha Veeramani1

Introduction

India is one among the country highly affected by variousdisasters in the world. A sudden change takes place inthe earth which affects the normal pattern of life orecosystem disturb by harmful event that are known asnatural disasters. Generally disasters are classified intoGeophysical, Meteorological, Hydrological,Climatologically and Biological, Safer Homes, StrongerCommunities, (2010). Disaster which creates abnormallosses to human beings, the destruction of property, andalso degradation of environment in the affected area. Atglobal level the most disaster- prone regions are Asiaand the Pacific. Due to active tectonic plate movementstakes place in this regions causes earthquakes andtsunamis. Cyclones and Typhoons are generated in theIndian and Pacific Oceans by changing Weather andClimate, (ESCAP: 2015). People are directly or indirectlyresponsible for the occurring of natural disasters in theirsurroundings, Public health guide for emergencies.The establishment of the International Labour Office inthe year 1993 due to major accidents such as leakageof methyl isocyanate at Bhopal in India, likewise anotherwarehouse fire accident at Basel in Switzerland. TheInternational Labour Office n aims at the Prevention ofMajor Industrial Accidents No. 174 and the Preventionof Major Industrial Accidents Recommendation No. 181,

Arulraj Jeyaraj2

SEAPR (1972-2002). An average of 50 million peoplewas affected vulnerably by cyclones, droughts,earthquakes and floods. Avalanches, forest fire andlandslides in India, Ministry of Home Affairs, India,Government of India, (2011); Vinod and Kaushik,(2012). According to Mohammad Abdur Rob, the IndianOcean Region which is frequently affected by TropicalCyclones. Hence this region is otherwise called asWorld’s Hazard Belt. Around 50% of climatogenic andsesimogenic natural disasters are taking place in theIndian Ocean Region. This report was given by ESCAPin the year of 1995. The Northwest Pacific, over thesouthern end of the Bay of Bengal, east of India andsouth of Bangladesh are mostly affected regions bycyclones, UNESCAP and ADB (1995); Ali (1999);Huang (1999); Kelly and Adger (2000). The most flood-prone countries are India, Bangladesh and China in thepacific region, Mirza and Eriksen (1996); Ji et al.,(1993). Due to deforestation some hilly regions in India,China, Nepal, Philippines and Thailand are affected andleads to landslides. These regions are known as mostprone to landslides UNESCAP and ADB, (1995). Thecurrent article emphasis on the impact of various naturaldisasters prevailing in India and precautions to be takenby the Government of India.



Major disasters found in India

Droughts and FaminesA long period of time when there is little or no rain in anyparts of the world takes place is called as Drought.Similarly, a lack of food during a long period of time takesplace at different parts in the global level is denoted asFamine. Vinod K Sharma, states that, the time periodfrom 1970s to 1980s are severely affected the Indianpeople both the droughts and the famines. This was oneof the major disasters found in India. After that severalmeasures were taken by Government of India to eradicatethe problems caused by the disasters. We have twomain monsoons, one is North-East monsoon and otheris South-West monsoon, these are very useful for ourirrigation system for our agriculture purpose. About 16%of the region is drought prone area in the country as wellas 50 million people in India, that who were affectedannually due to irregular monsoon and it led to droughtsand famines, Vinod and Kaushik, (2012).

EarthquakesA sudden, vigorous shaking of earth surface or earth’scrust is called an earthquake. According to Vinod KSharma, Earthquake had occurred at different parts ofthe world either by natural or man-made actions. Thisdisaster was vulnerably affected Iran and India in theyear 1990 and 2001 respectively. The two majorearthquakes were taken place in India at the state ofMaharashtra on September 30, 1993 of magnitude 6.4on Richter scale and another incident in Gujarat 2001 ofmagnitude 6.9 on the Richter scale. The impact causedvery loss of human population and damage theirinfrastructure. India had experienced major earthquakesand it resulted in more than 35,000 deaths occurred last20 years. The earthquakes are frequently occurring inthe region of Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Kutch,Himachal and the North-East. These are particularlyprone to earthquakes in India, Shridhar Sharma.

Cyclones

A violent tropical storm in which strong winds move in acircle this storm is called Cyclones. They are two typesof cyclones such as Tropical Cyclones and TemperateCyclones. India has been severely damaged by tropicalcyclones in the coastal areas. It caused great loss tohuman life and their property. The drastic effect of tropicalcyclones has found in Indian states like Andhra Pradesh,Orissa, West Bengal and Tamil Nadu, National Centrefor Disaster Management.(1999).

Flood

Heavy discharges of rainfall due to monsoon periodoccurred in India. Which occurred in all parts of the Indianstates except Goa, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh,Chhattisgarh, Rajasthan, Sikkim, Chandigarh, Dadar &

Nagali Haveli, Daman Diu, Delhi and Lakshadweep,National Centre for Disaster Management, (1999)?Flood is less catastrophic event than other disasterswhich occurs regularly in low lying areas suddenly andstrongly affecting, day to day human life as well asdamaging their properties during flood time. The lastcentury records have shown that there were severalcatastrophic flooding in Chennai and other parts of TamilNadu, India in 1943, 1976, 1985,2002, 2005 and 2015respectively caused by heavy rainfall related withcyclonic activity, The Hindu, (2015).

Landslides

A mass of earth surface, rock, etc. that falls down theslope of a mountain or cliff is called as Landslides. Dueto heavy monsoon rainfall which associated withcyclones results in moderate to heavy landslide takesplace in the region of Himalayan, the North-east hill andthe Western Ghats, Vinod and Kaushik, (2012).Shridhar Sharma said that, Around 380 people werekilled and also entire village was washed away due toterrific landslides took place at Malpa Uttarkhand in Indiadated on 11th and 17th August 1998. It was one of theworst landslides in the history of India.

Tsunami

The ferocious (aggressive or violent or very strong) riseand fall of sea tides or surges are known as Tsunami.On 26th December 2004 a dreadful maritime disasteroccurred near the island of Sumatra, Indonesia and Indiain the Indian Ocean Region. Tsunami which mainly affectsin the coastal regions as well as and their associatedparts. This vulnerable disaster caused 10,749 deaths inIndia, Shridhar Sharma.

Biologically Related DisastersDisaster which caused by the exposure of pathogenicmicro organisms and their toxic products in the peopleis known as Biodisaster. Mass mortality due to the entryof virulent pathogenic microorganisms into the humanbeings. The widespread infection is caused bypathogens or parasites such as virus, bacteria, fungi,protozoa and worms etc. for example small pox, Typhusand Plague. These are harmful organisms are spreadand transmitted by the way of air, water, soil, infectedpersons and vectors. Bupesh, et al., (2014).

Disaster Management systems in India

The National Disaster Management Act has enacted onDecember 23, 2005, and also transparency measurescould be taken for victims of disasters. The Act will providefor making Disaster Response Fund and DisasterMitigation Fund. This Act should take action againstobstruction, false claims, misappropriation etc. This actstrongly states that there is no discrimination on theground of sex, caste, community, descent or religion in



providing compensation and relief, after, this act that,The Disaster Management Policy framed in 2009 underthe influence of this Act. This policy mechanism forresponse, relief and rehabilitation. Vinod and Kaushik,(2012); Ministry of Home Affairs, Government ofIndia, (2011). In recent years, the magnitude of thedisasters increased as well as their impacts wasvigorously damaged people life and their property inaffected regions. The various measures have undertakenby the Government of India to mitigate the impact ofdisasters, Shivananda, and Gautam, (2012).

Disaster Management act contains Basic DisasterManagement Plan (Basic Plan) which was created bythe National Commission under Section 5(3) of this Act.Similarly State commission which clearly indicates StateCommission for Disaster Management constituted undersection 4(2) of this Act, Jacob P Alex, (2006). The badimpacts of disasters due to weak management effortsfrom various agencies and all parts of the society. Theseweak managements are Inadequate Early WarningSystem, Lack of Pre-disaster Preparedness, Inadequateand Slow Relief, Lack of Co-ordination, SlowRehabilitation and Reconstruction, ImproperAdministration, Poor Management of Finances for Post-disaster Relief, Symbolism Rather than Relief and NoInstruction for Pre-seismic Period.

Daya Kaul and Lohitkumar stated that, the governmentof India decided to remove the inadequacies to maintainpreparedness after the impact of Bhuj earthquake, 2001.This decision made after rapid response to disaster.Major response initiatives include Preparation of SpecialResponse Teams, Incident Command System, StandardOperating Procedure, Trigger Mechanism andEmergency Operation Centre. Similar precautionmeasures especially Technology Developments such asIndia Disaster Resource Network, Development of GISbased National Data base for Disaster Management andInstallation of Early Warning and Hazard DetectionEquipment. According to Vinod Sharma, thosemeasures would be taken from policy made by CentralGovernment, strategies and planning at state level,implementation and Coordination at District level, actualImplementation of ground level activities through Villageand Urban Local Bodies. After the impacts of variousnatural disasters , we have learnt lessons that areapplied for mitigating or totally preventing the effects offuture disasters events, Public health guide foremergencies.

Discussion

Around 56 million people are affected in many states inIndia by disasters at every year. Out of these 35 Statesand Union Territories in the country, 25 states are disasterprone area and 139 districts are identified as disaster

hazard prone regions. Jacob P Alex, (2006). We canprevent and avoid the major disaster impacts throughprediction and warning. The prediction process involvesfinding out disaster problems will be based on scientificobservation. In this process in order to identify somekind of precursor events. For example Hurricanes andVolcanic eruptions etc. similarly the other prediction eventis forecast refers to short term prediction in terms of themagnitude, location, date and time of an event will happenin the future based on information that is available now.Early warning statement telling that something bad orunpleasant event may happen in the future so that wecan try to avoid from disasters impacts. This statementincludes the timeliness of the warning, effectivecommunication and public information systems to informthe public and credibility of the warning sources,Stephen, (2014). It is really an unexpected worst event,disaster that occurred in our country which leads to makesevere hazards among the people. The Government ofIndia should take proper preventive measures throughdisaster response initiative steps as well as technologydevelopments to avoid major hazards arise from theimpact of disasters.

References

1. Vinod K. Sharma and Kaushik Ashutosh.D. (2012).Natural Disaster Management in India, Over view,Indian Institute of Public Administration & NationalInstitute of Disaster Management, New DelhiPg.No.30.

2. United Nations Economic and Social Commissionfor Asia and the Pacific (2013). Building Resilienceto Natural Disasters and Major Economic Crises.Bangkok, Thailand: United Nations.Pg.No.07.

3. State of the Environment and Policy Retrospective:Disasters, 1972–2002. Pg.No. 274.

4. Mohammad Abdur Rob, Natural Disasters in IndianOcean region and its Impact on Socio- Economy ofthe Countries Bangladesh, Department of Geographyand Environment Dhaka University, Bangladesh.

5. Mirza, M.Q. and Ericksen, N.J. (1996). Impact ofWater Control Projects on Fisheries Resources inBangladesh. Environmental Management, 20(4), 527–39.

6. Ji, Z.X., Jiang, Z.X and Zhu, J.W. (1993). Impacts ofSea Level Rise on Coastal Erosion in the ChangjiangDelta Northern Jiangsu Coastal Plain. (in Chinesewith English Abstract), Acta Geographica Sinica,48 (6), 516–26.

7. UNESCAP and ADB (1995). State of the Environmentin Asia and the Pacific, United Nations Economicand Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific andthe Asian Development Bank, United Nations, NewYork.



8. Ali, A. (1999). Climate Change Impacts andAdaptation Assessment in Bangladesh. ClimateResearch, special 6, 12 (2/3), 109–16.

9. Huang, Z.G. (1999). Sea Level Changes in Guangdongand its Impacts. Guangdong Science and TechnologyPress (inChinese), Guangzhou, China.

10.Kelly, P.M. and Adger, W.N. (2000). Theory andPractice in Assessing Vulnerability to Climate Changeand Facilitating Adaptation. Climate Change, 47, 325-52.

11.Public health guide for emergencies, Disasterdefinitions, The Johns Hopkins and the InternationalFederation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies,Pg.No.24-43.

12.Vinod K Sharma, Natural Disaster Management inIndia- Environment and development view point,Disaster Management, Indian Institute of PublicAdministration, New Delhi, India. Pg.No.1-23.

13.National Centre for Disaster Management, (1999).Government of India.

14.The Hindu, India Daily News Paper, State News,December, 9, 2015.

15.Safer Homes, Stronger Communities, (2010). AHandbook for Reconstructing after Natural Disasters,The World Bank, Washington DC 20433, U.S.A.Pg.No. 339-345.

16.Shridhar Sharma, Disasters – An Indian Experience,National Academy of Medical Sciences & Instituteof Human Behaviour & Allied Sciences, Delhi-110095. India.

17.Bupesh, G. Sivasubramanian, S.Sakthivadivel,P.Gunasekeran, P. and Raman, KRK. (2014).

18. Biological Disaster, Prevention and Rescue, Journalof Management and Science, (4):4, Pg.No. 33-37.

19.Shivananda, H. and Gautam, P.K. (2012).Reassessing India’s Disaster ManagementPreparedness and the Role of the Indian ArmedForces, Journal of Defence Studies (1):6, Pg.No. 102-113.

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21. Jacob P Alex, (2006).Disaster Management: TowardsA Legal Framework, Indian Institute of PublicAdministration, I.P. Estate, Ring Road, New Delhi110 002.

22.Stephen A. Nelson (2014). Natural Hazards andNatural Disasters, Natural Disasters, TulaneUniversity, Pg. No. 1-9. http://www.tulane.edu/~sanelson/Natural_Disasters/introduction.htm.

23.Daya Kaul, Md. Ayaz , Lohitkumar S N, DisasterManagement In India, Department of CivilEngineering, IIT Kanpur-208016, India.



CHENNAI FLOODS DISASTER & ECONOMIC DAMAGES

1. Research Scholar, NMSSVN College, Madurai.2. Research Scholar, NMSSVN College, Madurai.

Abstract

Natural disasters are sudden and extreme events caused by environmental factors. The floods that smack Chennai inNovember and early December of 2015 are the eighth cost expensive natural disaster in the world during the year.The incessant rains are caused by depression of Bay of Bengal coast near Tamilnadu. Small and medium companies,automobile, engineering, information technology and tourism are among the sectors which are the worse- affectedindustries. Furthermore, factories, hotels and shops have suffered severe water logging. The estimated revenueexpenditure of Tamilnadu for 2015 is around Rs. 147297 Crore and the rain damage pushed these expenses more toa panic level. The state’s financial resources that spent first on relief and restoring the infrastructure would again rashin to Crores of rupees. Industries strategies and government must concentrate on disaster management to reducefinancial losses. Let’s plan well for avoidable losses. The loss of Chennai flooding could be reduced if we have priorplan.

Keywords: Natural Disaster, Chennai Flood, Financial Loss, Avoidable Loss, Financial Resources.

N.Bairavi1

Introduction

Natural disasters are sudden and extreme events causedby environmental factors which make vulnerable effecton the property and social life. The severity of a disasteris measured in lives lost, economic loss and the abilityof the population to rebuild. Flood means that anytime ariver, lake or other water body overflows its banks. Somefloods have happened in areas where there has been noflooding for hundreds of years, while some floodinghappens on a yearly basis in some areas and countries.In common flooding is difficult to prepare for, even thoughflood maps are drawn up, in some cases, measures aretaken to prevent tragedy flood conditions. Following arethe major types of disasters.

Geological disasters

Hydrological disasters

Meteorological disasters

Chennai Floods -The Hydrological Disaster:

“Water around the people, but they couldn’t quenchtheir thirst”

This was the worst condition which Chennai faced inthe last two months of 2015.The floods that smackChennai in November and early December of 2015 arethe eighth cost expensive natural disaster in the worldduring the year. As per the meteorological report, theincessant rains are caused by depression of Bay ofBengal coast near Tamilnadu. It resulted in the shut -down of educational institutions, factories andcompanies. 15 teams of Natural Disaster ResponseForce and 16 rescue teams of Army have been deployed

G. Mariselvam2

to the city. The chief minister of TN has announced asum of Rs. 500 Crore for relief and rehabilitation in thestate. Government also received flood relief fund fromvarious individuals, institutions and central government.

Economic Damages of Chennai Floods and Facts:

Chennai floods have exposed our financialunpreparedness against natural disasters. Chennaicontributes 25% of India’s automotive production andalmost contributing 40% to the country’s manufacturingsector. It accounts for $38 billion per annum. Every non-productive day in the region’s automobile plants lead toa loss of around Rs.180 Crore to the industry. Theautomobile industries have suffered possible losses ofabout Rs. 15000 Crore due to heavy rainfall. TradeAssociation of India estimated the financial loss inChennai floods to exceed Rs. 15000 Crore. Indiaexported 3.5 million vehicles in 2014-2015. This is setto downturn due to the Chennai floods. Textile Fabricsis a most profit making business which was adverselyaffected to the extent of Rs. 900 Crore. As IT companiesduring the period were shut down, they have suffered aloss of about $60 million. The dreadful impact of thefloods on daily wagers, small businesses and theunorganized sector is tough to estimate. It also affectedthe logistics and supply chain. The state- run Chennaipetroleum Corporation had shut its 210000 barrels perday refinery in the city’s industrial zone of Manali. Over10000 claims were reached insurance companies afterthe Chennai floods played destruction with life andproperty, leading to losses of around Rs. 1500-2500Crore to insurers. Small and medium companies,



automobile, engineering, information technology andtourism are among the sectors which are the worse-affected industries. Furthermore, factories, hotels andshops have suffered severe water logging. The estimatedrevenue expenditure of Tamilnadu for 2015 is around Rs.147297 Crore and the rain damage pushed theseexpenses more to a panic level. The state’s financialresources that spent first on relief and restoring theinfrastructure would again rash in to Crores of rupees.

As per experts report, the Chennai Flood were due toimproper urban plan and haphazard real estatedevelopment. In old Mahabalipuram road, there are ‘n’numbers of IT companies within 5-10 years. Before 15years those were consisted of forests and lakes. Withgovernment earmarkings of certain areas as SEZ (SpecialEconomic Zone), IT companies started cashing in alongwith real estate brokers buying huge plots of land aroundSEZ for minimal price including lakes/low lying areas.Apartments/leased buildings were erected encroachinglakes and ponds with minimal planning for water outflow.Encroachment of rivers running across the city is one ofthe reasons for this disaster. Adyar River was about 250ft wide but today it is only around 55 ft. Flats, IT parksand big projects had been erected in these areas givenclearance due to corruption. The impacts of industrialand technological advancement entirely affect theenvironment and attitude of the people.

Management of Natural Resources:

The land and water ecosystems deliver the basis forhuman survival and development. The increasingdemands on these resources and limited availability,stress the need for a coordinated approach to sustainablemanagement. The sustainable util ization andmanagement of natural resources requires aninterdisciplinary support and enough knowledge on the

ecological, economic and social perspectives accordingto their usage. In such a case natural resourcesmanagement helps to maintain sustainable applicationof ecology. This will ensure and emphasise the prospectsfor institutional, technological and policy innovations todownturn poverty, enhance food security, ensurebiodiversity and watershed management.

Conservation and utilization of natural resources in asustainable manner is essential to avoid man-madedisaster like Chennai Floods 2015. Here both citizensas well as governments are responsible to haveecological friendly life-style.

Summary & recommendation:

May be Chennai was unaware of drawbacks behinddevelopment. Nature taught a lesson to have naturalresource management in a correct manner. Building offool proof sewage systems, Re-building the collapsedbridges and concrete roads, repairing of lakes and waterbodies should be done as early as possible beforemeeting the next monsoon. Better rain managementdesign reduces infrastructure damage which in turnfinancial loss can be drop-off. Well planned urbaninfrastructure required for any state here realtors shouldnot forget about their professional ethics. It is not thehallmark of a good government to ensure rehabilitationmeasure rather should take serious actions before facingman-made disaster. It must make strict procedure onreal estate. The government officers should avoidsanction the buildings on water bodies. Meteorologicalwarnings have to be respected and preventive actionsshould be taken. Industries plan must concentrate ondisaster management to reduce financial losses. Let’splan well for avoidable losses. The loss of Chennai floodingcould be reduced if we have prior plan.



A STUDY ON VARIOUS PREVENTION OF DISASTERMANAGEMENT IN INDIA

1. Assistant professor Department of Management Studies, Nalanda School of Business Sethurappatti, Trichy.2. Associate professor Department of Management Studies, Anna University, Coimbatore.

Abstract

India has been traditionally vulnerable to natural disaster on account of its unique geo-climate conditions. Floods,droughts, cyclones, earthquakes, and landslides have been a recurrent phenomena. About 60% of the landmass isprone to earthquake of various intensities; over 40 million hectares is prone to floods; about 8 % of total area is proneto cyclones and 68% of the areas is susceptible to drought. In the decade 1990-2000, an average of about 4344people lost their lives about 30 million people were affected by disaster every year. The loss in terms of private,community and public assets has been astronomical. At the global level, there has been considerable concern overnatural disaster. Even as substantial scientific and material progress is made, the loss of life and property due todisaster has not decreased. In fact human toll and economic losses have mounted. It was in this background that theUN general assembly in 1989 declared 1990-2000 as the International decade of natural disaster reduction with theobjective to reduce loss of lives and property and restrict socio-economic damage through concerted internationalaction. The Government of India have adopted mitigation and prevention as essential components of their developmentstrategies. The Tenth Five Year Plan documents has a detailed chapter on Disaster Management. The plan emphasizesthe fact that development can not be sustainable without mitigation being built into development process. Each Stateis supposed to prepare a plan scheme for disaster mitigation in accordance with the approach outlined in the plan. Inbrief, mitigation is being institutionalized into development planning. The Finance Commission makesrecommendation with regard to devolution of funds between Central Government and State Government as alsooutlays for relief and rehabilitation. The Government of India have issued guidelines that where there is a self ofprojects, projects addressing mitigation with be given priority. It has also been mandated that each projects in ahazard prone area will have disaster prevention/mitigation as a term of reference and the project documents has toreflect as to how project addresses that term of reference. In the sections are discussed the measures shortcoming,measures taken for the mitigation of the disaster.

Keywords: Disaster Management, Mitigation, Rehabilitation, Prevention, Relief

D. Chandru1

Introduction

It is really an unfortunate and undesirable situation that in our country where more than 6 crore people are affectedby disasters every year. Statistics is shown in (Fig. 1)

We have no policy on systematic disaster Management. It is only after a disaster strikes that the wheels of thegovernment, both at the centre and at the states, move and that too slowly. Despite the need to build up capabilitiesto meet the challenges of disasters, the thrust has unfortunately been on alleviation and relief. Even the relief hasnot been quick and adequate, as few disasters such as Orissa super cyclone, Tsunami of 2004, Gujarat earthquake

Dr.C. Muthuvelayutham2

Fig. 1

02,000

OthersStormLandslideFloodExtremetemp

EpidemicQuake

4,000

6,0008,000

10,00012,00014,00016,000

18,000



etc experiences has shown. India’s response to andtackling of this two major disasters has thrown up thefollowing weakness in our disaster management efforts.

Inadequate Early Warning System

Though, the forecasting, monitoring and warningmechanisms are beautifully articulated on paper inpractice, the warnings are not early enough and they donot reach all those likely to be affected. In case ofTsunami, 2004; Bhuj earthquake etc for example,communication facilities which could have resulted inbetter co-ordination of warning and reduction of damageto life and property were inadequate.

Lack of Pre-disaster Preparedness

With disasters striking India with increased regularity,there should be a plan in place to tackle the disasterand reduce its impact. On the contrary, people are caughtunaware time and again. There is not planned informationsystem as to what needs to be done when faced with acalamity. For example, during Tsunami, 2004, dead bodylaid floating in the water for many days due to theunavailability or lack of required equipment to meet theneed of the time/emergency.

Inadequate and Slow ReliefRelief is an important aspect of the disastermanagement to provide help to the affected people. Therelief operations are often handled in ad hoc andhaphazard manner. How efficiently to provide food,medicine, to reduce the suffering of the affected peopleetc are addressed and met improperly. Even days afterthe Bhuj earthquake, and Tsunami, 2004,, many peoplecould not be provided with safe drinking water, temporaryshelter, and medicines. Such a scenario gives rise tolaw and order problem- looting of the relief materials andoutbreak of the epidemic due to rotting dead bodies onthe other hand.

Lack of Co-ordination

Disaster management requires concerted efforts fromCentral Government, State Government, NGOs,International agencies and private sectors etc. Becauseof the lack of the co-ordination, relief material is notproperty distributed among the people. Even worsthappens when they are mis-utilized and are notdistributed uniformly.

Slow Rehabilitation and Reconstruction

While immediately after a disaster strikes, there is hecticrelief and rescue mission, mainly aimed at feeding thepeople and stalling the outbreak of an epidemic, reliefand rescue can not go on endlessly and rehabilitationand reconstruction should be given proper attention.However, this is an area which is often ignored andprogressed is slow once the initial attention fades away.

Restoration of infrastructure, hospitals, schools, houses,and sources of living of the people needs to be givenproper attention.

Proper Administration

A quick assessment of the extent of the damage isnecessary so that relief and rehabilitation work can beproperly planned. However, it was seen that even manymonths after the Bhuj earthquake and Tsunami of 2004,the government was yet to finish the preliminary surveyof assessing the total impact of the damage. Apart fromthis, poor administration frustrated the best intentionsand efforts of private initiatives. After the quake, Gujaratgovernment was too slow and indecisive on some of thebest rehabilitation plans proposed by the NGOs andCorporate.

Poor Management of Finances for Post-disasterRelief

Mostly relief and rehabilitation work suffers from the lackof co-ordination, proper management, and supervisionat all levels and indicated the absence of adequateplanning and preparedness to meet any emergency.Consequently, the funds are mis-utilized and reliefmeasures were tardy and inadequate, providing scopefor pilferage of relief and rehabilitation remained unutilizedand there is huge shortfall in distribution of emergencyrelief, shelter material cloths, house building assistanceetc. There have also been reports of relief andrehabilitation funds being utilized for paying salary arrearsof the state government employees.

Symbolism Rather than ReliefIt has been a recurrent experience that rather than makinga serious effort at planning and management for tacklingfrequent disasters, our government adopts symbolicgestures like helicopter survey of disaster affected areas.The politics of relief works in a manner that tall claimsare made by the Government other than the affectedstate to help the affected districts and by sending hugefinancial help but these claims prove hollow once thecalamity recedes.

No Instruction for Pre-seismic Period

There is no instruction for the pre-seismic period.Unfortunately, in the present administrative set up, noofficial will visit the pople during pre-seismic period totell them about an eminent earthquake. But, during thepost-seismic period, a large number of officials will visitthe affected people with food, tents, medicine, clothsand compensation funding to the relatives of the dead.This scenario has been repeated after Latur (1993),Jablpur (1997), Bhuj (2001), Andman (2004), and Kashmir(205) earthquakes. This pathetic situation has to bechanged at the earliest. The issue needs to be seriouslypondered at the national level. The sole reason for this



is the lack of knowledge about earthquake precursorsand earthquake prediction. Most of the earthquakedisaster management experts, agencies, and offices havea strong conviction that an earthquake cannot bepredicted. They are correct to some extent. Till now,there was only one case of successful prediction in China.Earthquake prediction has almost become a taboo inmost of the disaster management offices. The relevantrules also are empowered to take penal action againstanyone who talks about earthquake prediction. As aresult, an impression is inadvertently created in thesociety that moist of the disaster management agenciescome in the picture during post-seismic period to clearthe debris and the corpses. The present situation isskewed. On one hand, it is accepted that a large-magnitude earthquake is due and it may occur anytime;On the other hand, most of the disaster managementagencies feet that an earthquake can not be predicted.If we want to protect people from an earthquake, it isessential that a suitable precursory warning is issuedeven in case of moderate scale of earthquake as itmakes the people of the region aware the region is proneto disaster, and they should be careful.

Measures/Facts Taken to Improve DisasterManagement in India

Central Level

At the central or national level, Ministry of Home affairsis entrusted with the nodal responsibility of managingdisaster. At the apex level, there are two cabinetcommittees viz. cabinet committee on national calamityand cabinet committee on security. All the major issuesconcerning natural disasters are placed before cabinetcommittee on natural calamity whereas calamities whichcan affect internal security or which may be caused dueto use of nuclear, biological or chemical weapons etchare placed before cabinet committee on security. TheNCMC (National Crisis Management Committee) is thenext important functionary. The cabinet secretary headsit. It includes secretaries of concerned department/ministers. Its main function is to give direction to CrisisManagement Group (CMG) and any minister/departmentfor specific action needed for meeting the crisis situation.CMG lies below the NCMC. The Central ReliefCommissioner is its chairman. His primary function isto coordinate all the relief operations for natural disaster.Apart from coordinating the relief operations, it reviewsthe contingency plans formulated by Central Ministers/Department and measures required for dealing withnatural disaster. CMG meets every six months howeverin event of any disaster it frequently meets to Reviewthe relief operation and explore all possibilities to renderall possible help to the affected region.

State and District Level

At the state level, there are state relief commissionerswho are in charge of the relief measures in wake of naturaldisaster in the perspective states. The chief secretaryis the overall in charge of the relief operations in thestate. The relief commissioner and additional reliefcommissioner work under his direction and control. Inaddition, there are number of secretaries, head of variousdepartments who also work under the overall directionof chief secretary. At the district level, districts areheaded by District Collector or district magistrate whois responsible for the overall supervision and monitoringof relief measures and preparation of disastermanagement plans. At the tensile level DSO/SDM takecare of the disaster management.

Despite there being a general tardiness about the mannerin which we respond to disasters, there has beensignificance progress in this area and there have beenmany experiments and success stories worth emulating,

1. Learning from the Latur earthquake calamity,Maharastra has launched India’s first disastermanagement inform-network. Soon after this quake,state government launched the MaharastraEmergency Earthquake Rehabilitation programme.The programme aimed at achieving preparednessthrough an information-network so that unpredictableand uncontrolled disaster impacts could be offset withplanned and manageable disaster mitigation efforts.This info-network links the state governmentmachinery with all its tehsils and districts along withother strategically and economically importantagencies based in the state. The state has beenmapped for potential disasters. Statistics for potentialnatural calamity zones are now being complied.Record for the tide movements, potential typhoonsand earthquake prone zones are being linked up withgeographical information system to mitigate thedisaster. The Multi-hazards Disaster Mitigation Planwill create a disaster management information atemergency operation centre at state governmentheadquarters. Apart from forewarning of calamitieslike flood, earthquake, etc; post disaster relief andrehabilitation is another area of use of this network.It will help in co-ordinating among hospitals, voluntaryorganizations, ambulances, fire brigades andgovernment relief measures.

2. Some State Government have got their acts together,learning from past experiences. In 1991, A.P.Government was able to implement previouslyplanned programme to evacuate 6 lakh people fromthe path of an approaching cyclone with 52 hours.Fatalities numbered less than on tenth of what couldhave otherwise been. This was achieved through a



planned approach combing both traditional andadvanced channels.

3. The IMD has set up a National Seismic TelemetryNetwork to anticipate threats from seismicdisturbances. After the Gujarat quake, 10 newseismological observation equipped with latestfacilities were set up and 14 of the 45 existingobservatories were upgraded with state of the artdigital seismograph for better monitoring of effects ofearthquake in the seismic zones.

4. The IMD has set up cyclone warning centres alongmany coastlines. Information on cyclone warning isfurnished to the central control room in the Ministryof Agriculture. Besides, high powered cyclonedetection radars are installed at various places onthe coastal belt, that can track disturbances within arange of 400 KM. Satellite imagery is another toolused when cyclone are beyond the range of thecoastal radars. The ISRO has placed 250 stormwarning receivers all along the Indian coast. In a timeof crisis, these receivers are switched on via satelliteand broadcast siren and local language warnings.

5. Measures for flood mitigation were taken from 1950onwards, as against the total of 40 million hectaresprone to floods, area of about 15 million hectareshave been protected by construction of embankment.The State Government has been assisted to take upmitigation programmed like construction of raisedplatforms etc. Flood continues to be a menacehowever mainly because of the huge quantum of siltbeing carried by the rivers emanating from theHimalayas. This silt has raised the bed level in manyrives to above the level of countryside. Embankmenthas also given rise to problem of drainage with heavyrainfall leading to water logging in area outside theembankment. To evolve both short-term and long termstrategies for flood management / erosion control,Government of India have recently constituted CentralTask Force under the chairmanship of Central WaterCommission. The task for will examine causes ofthe problem of recurring floods and erosion in Statesand region prone to the flood and erosion; and suggestshort term and long term measures.

6. Due to erratic behavior of monsoons, both low andmedium rainfall regions are vulnerable to periodicaldrought. Experience has been that almost every thirdyear is a drought. However, in some of the States,there may be successive drought years enhancingthe vulnerability of population in these areas. Localcommunities have devised indigenous safetymechanism and drought oriented farming methodsin many parts of the country. From the experience ofmanaging the past droughts particularly severe

drought of 1987, a number of programmed have beenlaunched by the Government to mitigate the impactof drought in the long run. These programmesincludes Drought Prone Area Programme (DPAP),Desert Development Programme (DDP), IntegratedWater Development Projects (IWDP) etc.

7. In order to respond effectively to floods, Ministry ofHome Affairs have initiated National Disaster RiskManagement Programme in all the flood prone States.Assistance is being provided to the States to drawup disaster management plans at the State, District,Block/Taluka and village levels. Awarenessgeneration campaigns to sensitize all thestakeholders on the need for flood preparedness andmitigation measures. Elected representative andofficials are being trained in flood disastermanagement under the programme. Bihar, Orissa,West Bengal, Assam, and Uttar Pradesh are amongthe 17 multi hazard prone States where thisprogramme is being implemented with UNDP, USIDand European Commission.

8. Hospital preparedness is crucial to any disasterresponse system. Each hospital should have anemergency preparedness plan to deal with masscasualty incidents and the hospital administration/doctor trained for the emergency. The curriculum formedical doctors does not include hospitalspreparedness for emergencies. Therefore, capacitybuilding through in service training of the current healthmanagers and medical personnel in hospitalspreparedness for emergencies or mass casualty’sincidents management is essential. At the same time,the future health managers must acquire these skillssystematically through the inclusion of healthemergency management in undergraduate and post-graduate medical curricula. For the same, towcomities have been constituted for preparation ofcurriculum for introduction of emergency healthmanagement in MBBS curriculum, and preparationin service training of hospital managers andprofessions. Rajiv Gandhi University of healthSciences Karnataka has been identified as the leadnational resources institution for the purpose.

9. A project for cyclone mitigation has been drawn upin consultation with the cyclone prone states. Thisprojects envisages construction of cyclone shelters,costal shelters belt plantation in areas which areprone to storm surges, strengthening of warningsystem, training and education etc. This project hasalso been given in principle clearance by the PlanningCommission and is being taken up with World Bankassistance.



10. A national core group has been constituted underthe chairmanship of secretary, Border Managementand comprising of Secretary, DST; Road Transport&Highways, and the heads of GSI and NRSA fordrawing up a strategy and plan of action for mitigatingthe impact of landslide, provide advice and guidanceto the State Government on various aspects oflandslide mitigation, monitor the activities relating tolandslide mitigation including landslide hazardzonation and to evolve early warning system andprotocol for landslide/landslide risk reduction. TheGovernment has designated GSI as the nodal agencyresponsible for coordinating/undertaking geologicalstudies, landslide hazard zonation, monitoringlandslide/avalanches, studying the factor responsibleand suggesting precautionary and preventivemeasures. The States/UTs have been requested toshare the list of habitation close to landslide proneareas for the purpose of landslide hazard zonationbeing carried out by them. A national strategy formitigating landslide hazard in the country is beingdrawn up in consultation with all the agenciesconcerned.

Development of Response System

Mitigation and preparedness measures go hand in handfor vulnerability reduction and rapid response to disaster.Several inadequacies of response were noted in theaftermath of Bhuj earthquake, 2001. The govt. decidedto remove the inadequacies to maintain preparednessat all times. Major response initiatives include:

Preparation of Special Response TeamsThe central Govt. is now in the process of training andequipping specialist and rescue teams. Each teamincludes doctors, paramedics, structural engineers etc.These teams will be stationed in different parts of thecountry.

Incident Command SystemIn order to professionalize the response system, it isproposed to develop incident command system. It is avery effective system in which the most experienced andknowledgeable person at a disaster site is designatedas incident commander who is charged with theresponsibility of inter agency coordination andmanagement of the incident.

Standard Operating Procedure

Standard operating procedure are being laid down toensure that all step need to be taken for disastermanagement are put in place. Each department/sectorwill have their own SOP’s for each level of functionaries.

Trigger Mechanism

The high powered committee on disaster managementhas incorporated trigger mechanism as an emergencyquick response mechanism. It has been envisaged as apreparedness plan whereby the receipt of a signal of animpending disaster would simultaneously energize andactivate the mechanism for response and mitigationwithout loss of crucial time.

Emergency Operation CentreIt has also been recommended for setting up ofemergency operation centers at the national capitals,state capitals and district headquarters. EOC will functionas nerve centres for integrated command and controlstructure. They will be convergence points for all interagency coordination and will be equipped with the stateof the art communication network.

Technological DevelopmentsTechnological innovations are vital for effective disastermanagement, the DST, Govt. of India is taking severalmeasures to upgrade technological inputs. The importantdevelopments include:

India Disaster Resource Network

This is a web enabled centralized data base which willensure quick access to resources to minimize responsetime tune in emergencies. This database will be availableat National, State and district level simultaneously.Police network is another important communicationnetwork to be used for disaster management. Inemergency, mobile satellite based units which can betransported to disaster sited are being procured.

Development of GIS based National Data base forDisaster Management.

The GIS is an effective tool for emergency respondersto access information in terms of crucial parameters forthe disaster affected areas. This includes location ofpublic facilities, communication links, transport networketc. The GIS data is already available with governmentagencies, it is currently being upgraded. Comprehensivedata district wise, multi layered maps based on this dataare being generated.

Installation of Early Warning and Hazard DetectionEquipment

Early warning system have already been installed forcyclones and floods in the country by IMD and CWC.There is a well established organizational set up fordetecting, tackling and forecasting cyclones. There aresix cyclone warning centres at Kolkata, Bhubneshwar,Vishakapatnam, Chennai, Mumbai and Ahemdabad.Cyclone tracking is done with the help of INSAT satellite.Cyclone detection radars are located at ten centres in



different coastal areas. CWC does flood forecasting.There are nearly 700 station from where hydrologicaland hydro-meteorological data are collected. Now, govt.has also succeeded in acquiring and installing theTsunami warning and detection system in the aftermathof Tsunami disaster of 2004.

What India Needs To Manage Disaster management?

In the view of the frequency of disaster striking India,there is a need for continued vigilance, preparednessand conscious efforts to reduce the occurrence and formitigation of impact of natural disaster. What is requiresis a planned approach to disaster management; itsmanagement is a fundamental component of sustainabledevelopment because the reduction of disaster equivalentto increased development. The following suggestions canbe offered for effective

Conclusions

India in the recent years have made significantdevelopment in the area of disaster management. A newculture of preparedness, quick response, strategicthinking and prevention is being ushered. Theadministrative framework is being streamlined to dealwith the various disasters. Effort are also being made tomake disaster management a community movementwherein where is greater participation of the people.However, a lot more need to be done to make disastermanagement a mass movement in near future.

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IMPACT OF NATURAL DISASTER ON HOUSING LOAN

1. Assistant Professor, Department of commerce, Bishop Heber College (Autonomous), Triruchirappalli.2. Assistant Professor, Department of commerce, Bishop Heber College (Autonomous), Triruchirappalli

Abstract

The trend of steady growth in housing construction in India in the recent past is a reflection of the increasing demandfor housing in the country and the easy access to housing loans from banks and other lending institutions. TheEleventh Five Year Plan estimates that housing finance disbursals by banks, financial corporations, and co-operativesector institutions would grow at a rate of about 15% per annum during the Eleventh Plan period. It is estimated that thegross flow of credit disbursal from these institutions would be about Rs 7.75 lakh crores during 2007–2012. TheReserve Bank of India (RBI) has advised the commercial banks to lend 3% of deposits for priority sector lendingincluding housing loans to individuals and others (cooperative & private sector). Every year, several lakhs of housesare destroyed and damaged in India by natural disasters like earthquakes, floods, landslides and cyclones. It istherefore important to ensure that the bank-financed construction is able to withstand the adverse impact of variousnatural hazards. Damage to or destruction of such assets not only result in adverse economic consequences, butmay also compromise the bank’s financial security due to these assets becoming Non Performing Assets (NPA)because of the weak coping capacities of most of the people who turn to banks and lending institutions for housingloans. The present study is going to analysis critical gaps in the current practice of the provision of housing finance bybanks and other lending institutions.

V. Charles Durai1

IntroductionHousing Finance in India during the last decade hasgone through many changes. From very low exposureto the housing sector initially, banks have gone very fastin extending credit to this sector which has witnessedunprecedented expansion. The central governmentacknowledges the importance of housing issue in thecountry and has launched a massive campaign thatpromises to provide housing to all its citizens by theyear 2022. As per our estimate, the vision would requiredevelopment of about 11 crore houses with investmentsof over USD 2 trillion. Natural disasters have the potentialto devastate entire regions and to cause loss of life andthe massive damage of property. Severe natural disastershave always occurred, as demonstrated by the 1755Lisbon earthquake or the 1906 San Franciscoearthquake, but they were considered low-probabilityevents twenty or thirty years ago. In the past twodecades, 141 million people have lost their homesthrough 3,559 natural disaster events such asearthquakes, windstorms, floods, and landslidesthroughout the world. Disaster homelessness, beingalmost exclusively a problem for poor countries, is centralto the Bank’s own fight against poverty. Nearly all theworld’s disaster homelessness—97.7% of the total—occurs in developing countries, where 72.2% of thenatural disasters themselves strike. Thus, 138 millionpeople were made homeless in developing countries,against just 3.3 million in industrialized countries.Financial institutions and banks are affected because

M. Rajasekar2

disaster damages immediately reduce their collateralvalues and the credit standing of their borrowers. Further,disaster damages may cause business disruptions andadversely affect economic growth in the banks’ businessregions. The present study to explore critical gaps inthe current practice of the provision of housing financeby banks and other lending institutions and what arethe Guidelines and modalities the financial institutionand bank should follow while providing loan to borrowers.

Current Practice of Financing Construction-RelatedProjectsConstruction projects in India are expected to complywith several technical provisions that are specified invarious Acts, Bye-laws, Rules and Regulations enforcedby Urban Local Bodies (ULBs) or local Urban DevelopmentAuthorities. However, experiences from recent naturaldisasters clearly illustrate that the provisions of theTechno-Legal Regime are not strictly complied with,resulting in avoidable damage to the built environmentand the consequent adverse economic impact. Secondly,the techno-legal regime implemented in the jurisdictionof ULBs or local Urban Development Authorities do nothave any regulatory control over building constructionsin rural areas. Therefore, the onus of checking thecompliance to safety provisions by the loan-financedbuildings lies with the banks extending housing loans.

In the context of disaster resilience, there are threecritical gaps in the current practice of the provision ofhousing finance by banks and other lending institutions:



a. When an application is made to a bank seeking ahousing loan to construct the building or structure, itis not necessary that it is designed in full. Thearchitect and/or structural engineer provides acertificate that they will undertake the design (at alater stage)

b. Before the commencement of construction of thebuilding or structure, the design of the whole structureis not furnished either to the local authority due tothe lack of any definitive provisions in the prevailinglocal building bye-laws or to the banks financing theproposed construction. Assumptions are maderegarding items appearing on the upper levels, anddesigns are prepared for parts of the building on thelower levels. Here, there is a possibility of notnecessarily adhering to the assumptions maderegarding the items in the upper levels, when thoseitems are eventually designed much later.

c. The technical professionals (structural engineers and/or architects) advising the banks recommend thatloan may be given to a project, without necessarilyseeing the design of the complete structure, andsometimes simply based on his/her perception ofthe credentials of the architect and structural engineerof the proposed project. All these are lacunae of theconstruction practice that do not augur well forensuring multi-hazard safety of the construction ofbuildings and structures in the country.

In general, independent assessment of the disasterresilience of such housing proposals is often missed bythe banks themselves as indicated by the structuraldamage and economic losses in the past on bankfinanced buildings after devastating disasters. As perthe existing practice, the banks give installments offinancial assistance linked to the issue of specificcertificates, namely

a. Initial loan amount based on the Stability Certificateby structural design consultants before the structuraldesign of the asset is performed stating that theyshall comply with the requirements of disaster-resistance during the process of design (to beundertaken at a later stage),

b. Partial loan amount based on the Stage-wiseCompletion Certificates by architects after theconstruction is underway, stating that a said list ofworks have been completed as per the approvedconstruction drawings.

c. Final loan amount based on the Final CompletionCertificate by architects after the construction iscomplete, stating that all the works have beencompleted as per the approved constructiondrawings.

In view of above, RBI has issued several proactiveadvisories to banks for verifying disaster safety whilegranting loans for any building construction, mostimportant being the RBI’s circular of 1st March 2006advising banks to ensure prior permission fromgovernment /local governments/other statutoryauthorities for the project, wherever required while givingloans to real estate sector; the advisory to all banksissued on 12 June 2006 for adherence to the NationalBuilding Code 2005 (NBC 2005) while approving loansfor any building construction; and RBI’s circular issuedon 17th November 2006, taking cognizance of orders ofthe Delhi High Court in the Writ Petition by KalyanSanstha Welfare Organisation against Union of India andOthers for housing loans extended in Delhi.

While the above proactive steps of RBI for ensuring safeconstruction is recognized as a boost to promote disasterrisk reduction in the built-up environment of the country,much remains to be done for creating a user-friendly,enabling environment for banks to facilitate complianceof the directives. The National Disaster ManagementAuthority (NDMA) has prepared these Guidelines forintegrating the techno-legal compliance into the housingloan application process. These Guidelines provideguidance by prescribing client specific simplified check-memos for ensuring compliance of the techno-legalregime by loan financed assets. RBI’s advisories forensuring prior approval of local ULBs before sanctioningbuilding loans will hardly assist banks to determinedisaster resilience in their loan financed assets, sincethe prevailing techno-legal system contain severalloopholes in ensuring compliance with structural safetyprovisions.

The NDMA Guidelines aims at addressing these criticalgaps in the current processes of approving the housingloan applications without ascertaining compliance to thetechno-legal regime, Building Codes and other SafetyStandards and Regulations.

Types of Structures ConsideredBroadly, the structures constructed in the country canbe divided into two categories, namely buildings and non-buildings. Buildings constitute over 90% of the numberof structures. Buildings can be sub-divided into differentgroups based on function of use, material of constructionand total height above ground. Based on the function ofuse, three further sub-groups can be identified, namelyResidential, Non-Residential and Critical LifelineBuildings. Based on material of construction, four sub-groups can be identified, namely Reinforced Concrete(RC), Steel, Masonry and Other Materials. Based ontotal height of the building above ground level, three sub-groups are identified, namely less than 15m tall, between15m and 45m tall, and taller than 45m. Most masonry



buildings in India are less than 15m tall. In theGuidelines, all buildings are considered, irrespective ofwhether they are being built by owners for self-occupationor by builders for sale.

Non-buildings include all other structures includingindustrial structures, civic amenities, and infrastructureprojects. Infrastructure projects are required to bedeveloped using technical and professional inputs alongwith understanding of social, technical, financial andsustainability aspects of the projects.

Broadly, infrastructure projects fall into a number ofsectors, including

i. Water, e.g., dams, irrigation structures, and watertransport;

ii. Power, e.g., thermal power, hydro power, wind power,and solar power;

iii. Communications,e.g., wired and wirelesscommunications;

iv. Transportation, e.g., railways (including trans-countryrailway systems, and metro-rail systems), roadways(including bridges, flyovers, pavements, passengerterminals, highway conveniences, and vehicleemergency facilities), airways (including airportterminals, runways & taxiways, ATC towers, and fueltanks) and waterways (including port and harbourstructures, passenger & cargo terminals, and lighthouses); and

v. Urban Services (including infrastructure andamenities) e.g., water supply, piped-cooking gassupply, and sewage treatment, waste water treatment& drainage, storm water drainage, and solid wastetreatment and disposal.

While there is extreme urgency to ensure the multi-hazard resilience of urban services, the other four sectorsare also very important. Infrastructure projects can besub-divided into discrete developments and lineardevelopments, based on their geometric spread onground. Discrete developments include individual stand-alone construction with relatively small footprint, e.g., awater tank for municipal water supply, and cooling towerinside a power plant area, while Linear Developmentsinclude long span or long length facilities spreading overlarge distances and crossing different terrains vulnerableto different natural hazards, e.g., trans-country pipelinesfor petroleum fuel crossing earthquake fault zones, largediameter water lines laid on different soil terrains, nationalhighways, sub-surface tunnels, and long-span bridges, etc.)

Natural Hazards Considered

While the available national standards and guidelinesconsider the potential impact of each individual hazard,the safety of the built environment needs to be assuredto withstand the adverse impact of multiple hazards like

earthquakes, cyclones, landslides and floods, based onthe risk and vulnerability profiles of the specific areas.Some design features favorable to resist effects of onehazard may conflict with the features required for anotherhazard; the implications of these need to be incorporatedbefore arriving at the final designs. Experience ofperformance of the built environment with certain designfeatures helps in resolving such conflicts.

Safety Items Considered

While the demands of all other natural hazards are offorce-type loading, those of temperature and earthquakehazards are of displacement-type loading. Lateral actionis a dominant feature of the hazard especially under wind,wave and earthquakes, in addition to the usual gravityloads. In the design of structures, the four virtues ofconfiguration, stiffness, strength and ductility are requiredto be provided to ensure disaster resilience of structures.While the first three virtues are essential to resist force-type loading, ductil ity is necessary to resistdisplacement- type loading.

Safety of both Structural System and Non-StructuralSystems

The construction of structures consists of two parts,namely the Structural System and Non-StructuralSystems, loosely called as the structure and the contentsand finishes. The Structural System is that part of theconstruction which is responsible to carry the loadsacting on the structure (including those due to its ownweight, occupants, contents and finishes) and ensuresafety to the occupants and function of the construction.It consists of the soil system underneath theconstruction, the foundation, the vertical and horizontalmembers (namely columns, braces, beams, slabs andwalls) that permit the various activities and functions tobe undertaken within the structure, without any threat ofcollapse under the expected natural hazards and normalloads appearing on the structure. The members of theStructural System performing these functions are calledstructural elements (SEs).

Apart from these, there are many items of buildings,such as contents of buildings, appendages to buildings,services and utilities, which are supported by SEs, andwhose weight and other forces are carried down tofoundations by SEs, called non-structural elements(NSEs). During strong earthquake shaking, if NSEs arenot secured to structural elements of the building, theycan

a. Topple, slide or fall down from an elevation, or

b. Move or swing by large amounts in translation androtation.

These actions can cause loss to the item as well ascause secondary disasters. For instance, spill of



chemicals in an industrial unit or a laboratory can causefires, and toppling of unreinforced masonry parapet wallor chimney of a house can cause injury to persons below.NSEs can be listed under three groups, namely

a. Contents of buildings: Items required for functionallyenabling the use of spaces, such as (i) furniture andminor items, e.g., storage shelves, (ii) facilities andequipment, e.g., refrigerators, washing machines, gascylinders, TVs, multi-level material stacks, falseceilings, generators and motors, and (iii) door andwindow panels and frames, large-panel glass paneswith frames (as windows or infill walling material),and other partitions within the buildings;

b. Appendages to buildings: Items projecting out ofthe buildings, either horizontally or vertically, suchas chimneys projecting out from buildings, glass orstone cladding used as façades, parapets, smallwater tanks rested on top of buildings, sunshades,advertisements hoardings affixed to the vertical faceof the building or anchored on top of building, andsmall communication antennas mounted atopbuildings; and (c) Services and utilities of buildingsincluding water supply mains, electricity cables, gaspipelines, sewage pipelines and telecommunicationwires from outside to inside of the buildings and withinthe buildings, air-conditioning ducts, rainwater drainpipes, elevators, fire hydrant systems including waterpipes through the buildings.

The multi-hazard resilience and safety of bothstructural elements and non- structural elements arepriority concerns of these Guidelines. It is estimatedthat in the total cost of construction of buildings, thestructural elements may cost between 25-50%, and

the remaining 50-75% is of the non-structuralelements. Thus, there is a need to recognize thecritical role of non-structural elements in the financialexposure in buildings. In non-building systems, theshare of non-structural elements may be less, butthe cost of equipment and facilities housed is typicallyvery large. Hence, the safety and multi-hazardresilience of non-structural elements includingequipments and facilities from the adverse impact ofnatural hazards is as serious an issue as that of thestructural elements.

Conclusion

Guidelines propose the modalities that will aid the banksfor putting in place an improved and robust techno-financial regime, that will help the banks to ensuredisaster-resilience and safety of bank-financed assetsby themselves (without relying on the techno-legalprocesses controlled by ULBs). Using these Guidelines,the verification wings of banks and their empanelledtechnical experts will be in a position to check that thesafety-related codes and regulations, as specified inNBC-2005 and various Indian Standards, are compliedwith and the designs of the proposed buildings andstructures are multi-disaster-resilient. In case of a naturaldisaster, the bank-financed assets will perform as perthe codes and standards, and the natural disaster willnot have an adverse impact on these assets. Theseprovisions will assist the banks to take a considereddecision on the loan applications for financing suchconstruction. The banking system would contribute tocreating a disaster-resistant built environment in thecountry.



IMPACTS OF NATURAL DISASTERS ON ENVIRONMENTAL ANDSOCIO-ECONOMIC SYSTEMS

1. Senior Lecturer, Hindustan College of Arts & Science, Chennai2. Senior Lecturer, Hindustan College of Arts & Science, Chennai

Abstract

A trans-disciplinary approach to the underlying concept of natural disasters suggests that they are characterized bynaturally occurring events whose consequences are often aggravated by man-made actions which surpass thecapacity of man's built infrastructure to contain.

Mr.P.Muthuvel1

IntroductionNatural disasters are caused by hydro-meteorological,climatologically, geophysical and biological phenomenawhich adversely impact on the natural and builtenvironment of affected regions. The World Bank &United Nations report (2010) states that disasters exposethe cumulative effects of decisions (individual andcollective) previously taken in terms of land management(including unregulated growth of urban areas),construction techniques, implementation of sanitationinfrastructure and low investment in educationalprograms, poverty reduction and social integration,among others. Such decisions combined with highintensity natural events (e.g. floods, landslides, stormsand earthquakes) provoke an array of socioeconomicand environmental impacts. A trans-disciplinary approachto the underlying concept of natural disasters suggeststhat they are characterized by naturally occurring eventswhose consequences are often aggravated by man-madeactions which surpass the capacity of man’s builtinfrastructure to contain.

Types of natural disasters

Geological disasters

Avalanches and mudslides

During World War I, an estimated 40,000 to 80,000soldiers died as a result of avalanches during the mountaincampaign in the Alps at the Austrian-Italian front. Manyof the avalanches were caused by artillery fire.

Earthquakes

An earthquake is the result of a sudden release of energyin the Earth’s crust that creates seismic waves. At theEarth’s surface, earthquakes manifest themselves byvibration, shaking and sometimes displacement of theground. Earthquakes are caused mostly by slippagewithin geological faults, but also by other events suchas volcanic activity, landslides, mine blasts, and nucleartests. The underground point of origin of the earthquake

Mrs.G.Jaya2

is called the focus. The point directly above the focuson the surface is called the epicenter. Earthquakes bythemselves rarely kill people or wildlife.

Sinkholes

When natural erosion or human mining makes the groundtoo weak to support the structures built on it, the groundcan collapse and produce a sinkhole. For example, the2010 Guatemala City sinkhole which killed fifteen peoplewas caused when heavy rain from Tropical Storm Agatha,diverted by leaking pipes into a pumice bedrock, led tothe sudden collapse of the ground beneath a factory building.

Volcanic eruptionsVolcanoes can cause widespread destruction andconsequent disaster in several ways. The effects includethe volcanic eruption itself that may cause harm followingthe explosion of the volcano or the fall of rock. Second,lava may be produced during the eruption of a volcano.As it leaves the volcano, the lava destroys manybuildings, plants and animals due to its extreme heat.Third, volcanic ash generally meaning the cooled ash -may form a cloud, and settle thickly in nearby locations.When mixed with water this forms a concrete-likematerial. In sufficient quantity ash may cause roofs tocollapse under its weight but even small quantities willharm humans if inhaled.

Hydrological disasters

Floods

A flood is an overflow of water that “submerges” land.The EU Floods Directive defines a flood as a temporarycovering by water of land which is usually not coveredby water In the sense of “flowing water”, the word mayalso be applied to the inflow of the tides. Flooding mayresult from the volume of water within a body of water,such as a river or lake, which overflows causing the resultthat some of the water escapes its usual boundaries.While the size of a lake or other body of water will vary



with seasonal changes in precipitation and snow melt,it is not a significant flood unless the water covers landused by man like a village, city or other inhabited area,roads, expanses of farmland, etc.

Tsunami

A tsunami (plural: tsunamis or tsunami; from Japanese:%mâl, lit. “harbour wave”; English pronunciation: /tsuÐÈnQÐmi/), also known as a seismic sea wave oras a tidal wave, is a series of waves in a water bodycaused by the displacement of a large volume of water,generally in an ocean or a large lake. Tsunamis can becaused by undersea earthquakes such as the 2004Boxing Day tsunami, or by landslides such as the onein 1958 at Lituya Bay, Alaska, or by volcanic eruptionssuch as the ancient eruption of Santorini. On March 11,2011, a tsunami occurred near Fukushima, Japan andspread through the Pacific. On Dec 26, 2004 - 9.00 –9.50 1ST Tsunamis attacked coastal areas of mainlandof India including Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh andKerala.

Meteorological disasters

Blizzards

Blizzards are severe winter storms characterized byheavy snow and strong winds. When high winds stir upsnow that has already fallen, it is known as a groundblizzard. Blizzards can impact local economic activities,especially in regions where snowfall is rare. The GreatBlizzard of 1888 affected the United States, when manytons of wheat crops were destroyed, and in Asia, 2008Afghanistan blizzard and the 1972 Iran blizzard werealso significant events.

Cyclonic storms

Tropical cyclonesCyclone, tropical cyclone, hurricane, and typhoon aredifferent names for the same phenomenon, which is acyclonic storm system that forms over the oceans. Thedetermining factor on which term is used is based onwhere they originate. In the Atlantic and NortheastPacific, the term “hurricane” is used; in the NorthwestPacific it is referred to as a “typhoon” and “cyclones”occur in the South Pacific and Indian Ocean.

Extratropical cyclones

Extratropical cyclones, sometimes called mid-latitudecyclones, are a group of cyclones defined as synopticscale low pressure weather systems that occur in themiddle latitudes of the Earth (outside the tropics) nothaving tropical characteristics, and are connected withfronts and horizontal gradients in temperature and dewpoint otherwise known as “baroclinic zones”. As withtropical cyclones, they are known by different names indifferent regions (nor’easter, Pacific Northwest

windstorms, European windstorm, East Asian-northwestPacific storms, sudestada, and Australian east coastcyclones).

Heat waves

A heat wave is a period of unusually and excessivelyhot weather. The worst heat wave in recent history wasthe European Heat Wave of 2003. A summer heat wavein Victoria, Australia, created conditions which fuelledthe massive bushfires in 2009. Melbourne experiencedthree days in a row of temperatures exceeding 40 °C(104 °F) with some regional areas sweltering throughmuch higher temperatures. The bushfires, collectivelyknown as “Black Saturday”, were partly the act ofarsonists. The 2010 Northern Hemisphere summerresulted in severe heat waves, which killed over 2,000people.

Wildfires

Wildfires are large fires which often start in wild landareas. Common causes include lightning and droughtbut wildfires may also be started by human negligenceor arson. They can spread to populated areas and canthus be a threat to humans and property, as well aswildlife. Notable cases of wildfires were the 1871 PeshtigoFire in the United States, which killed at least 1700people, and the 2009 Victorian bushfires in Australia.

Space disasters

Impact events and airburst

Asteroids that impact the Earth have led to several majorextinction events, including one that created theChicxulub crater 64.9 million years ago and associatedwith the demise of the dinosaurs. Scientists estimatethat the likelihood of death for a living human from aglobal impact event is comparable to death from airlinercrash.

Solar flareA solar flare is a phenomenon where the sun suddenlyreleases a great amount of solar radiation, much morethan normal. Solar flares are unlikely to cause any directinjury, but can destroy electrical equipment. The potentialof solar storms to cause disaster was seen during the1859 Carrington event, which disrupted the telegraphnetwork, and the March 1989 geomagnetic storm whichblacked out Quebec

List of countries by natural disaster risk

This is a list of countries by natural disaster risk, asmeasured in the World Risk Index, calculated by theUnited Nations University for Environment and HumanSecurity (UNU-EHS) and featured in the 2013 World RiskReport (WRR 2013) published by the AllianceDevelopment Works/Bündnis Entwicklung Hilft (BEH).The report systematically considers a country’s



vulnerability, and its exposure to natural hazards todetermine a ranking of countries around the world basedon their disaster risk.

Table - 1Rank

39

41

47

100

% of risk

3.71%

3.78%

3.99%

7.17%

UnitedKingdom

Russia

UnitedStates

India

Country

Role of government

Governments, at all levels, have a significant role instrengthening the nation’s resilience to disasters by:developing and implementing effective, risk-based landmanagement and planning arrangements and othermitigation activities; having effective arrangements inplace to inform people about how to assess risks andreduce their exposure and vulnerability to hazards; havingclear and effective education systems so peopleunderstand what options are available and what the bestcourse of action is in responding to a hazard as itapproaches; supporting individuals and communities toprepare for extreme events; ensuring the most effective,well-coordinated response from our emergency servicesand volunteers when disaster hits; and working in a swift,compassionate and pragmatic way to help communitiesrecover from devastation and to learn, innovate and adaptin the aftermath of disastrous events.

Role of individuals

Disaster resilience is based on individuals taking theirshare of responsibility for preventing, preparing for,responding to and recovering from disasters. They cando this by drawing on guidance, resources and policiesof government and other sources such as communityorganizations. The disaster resilience of people andhouseholds is significantly increased by active planningand preparation for protecting life and property, basedon an awareness of the threats relevant to their locality.

Management of environmental and socio-economicimpacts associated to natural disasters In the previoussections we concentrated on establishing a relationbetween the environmental aspects and impacts of themost common natural disasters (e.g. floods, landslides),demonstrating the interdependence between the social,economic and environmental aspects of sustainability.This approach aims to make clear the complicitrelationship between these three aspects of

sustainability and the four disaster paradigms as astarting point in order to draw up and implement amanagement plan for preventing disasters. This effort isfundamental, as already mentioned, since reducingvulnerability depends on systematically tackling thecomplex interactions between inherent physical,environmental and social factors (vide, e.g., INGRAM etal.2006) (Fig . 1)

It is clear that establishment of context is of paramountimportance in evaluating the degree of severity of impacts,in that these are more pronounced (and socially visible)when dealing with urban and populous regions where aconsiderable amount of infrastructure is built in riskzones, drastically affecting socio-economic aspects.

Protection by international law

International law, for example Geneva Conventionsdefines International Red Cross and Red CrescentMovement the Convention on the Rights of Persons withDisabilities, requires that “States shall take, inaccordance with their obligations under international law,including international humanitarian law and internationalhuman rights law, all necessary measures to ensurethe protection and safety of persons with disabilities insituations of risk, including the occurrence of naturaldisaster.” And further United Nations Office for theCoordination of Humanitarian Affairs is formed by GeneralAssembly Resolution 44/182. People displaced due tonatural disasters are currently protected underinternational law.

Fig . 1 : Procedures for Risk Management

Ass

essm

ent o

f Ris

k

Com

mun

icat

e an

d C

onsu

lt

Mon

itor

and

Rev

iew

Risk Treatment

Establishment of Context

Risk Analysis

Risk Evaluation

Risk loentification



Conclusion

Each year natural disasters kill thousands of people andinflict billions of dollars in economic losses. No nationor community is immune to their damage. In 1989, twodisasters, Hurricane Hugo and the San Francisco area’sLoma Prieta earthquake, caused direct losses ofapproximately $15 billion and indirect losses of $30-45billion. Ninety people were killed, and more than a yearlater, thousands remained homeless as a result of thesetwo events. The World Health Organization estimatesthat between 1964 and 1983 natural disasters throughoutthe world killed nearly 2.5 million people and left anadditional 750 million injured, homeless, or otherwiseharmed. Unless action is taken to reduce the toll ofnatural disasters, these statistics can only be expectedto rise as populations increase and concentrate invulnerable urban and coastal areas. The scientific andtechnological advances of the last half century provideunprecedented though developing countries in regionsvulnerable to disasters received many developmentinitiatives and investments, the increased frequency andmagnitude of natural catastrophes associated witheconomic loss and human sufferings have considerablyhindered those initiatives. This book has sought to deriveconclusions from empirical evidence in order to integratedisaster risk management initiatives into developmentobjectives.

References

ADRIANTO, L., MATSUDA, Y. Developing EconomicVulnerability Indices of Environmental Disasters in SmallIsland Regions. Environmental Impact AssessmentReview, v. 22, p. 393-414, 2002

AERTS, J., BOTZEN, W. Flood-resilient waterfrontdevelopment in New York City: Bridging flood insurance,building codes, and flood zoning. Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci.,v.1227, p.1-80, 2011.

ALCÁNTARA-AYALA, I. Geomorphology, NaturalHazards, Vulnerability and Prevention of NaturalDisasters in Developing Countries. Geomorphology, v.47, n. 2-4, p. 107-124, 2002.

ALVINO-BORBA, A., MATA-LIMA, H. Exclusão eInclusão Social nas Sociedades Modernas: um olharsobre a situação em Portugal e na União Europeia.Serviço Social & Sociedade, n. 106, p. 219-240, 2011

ALVINO-BORBA, A., MATA-LIMA, A., MATA-LIMA, H.Desafios Ambientais e Estratégias para Desenvolvimentode Investigação e Programas de Intervenção Social.Ambiente & Sociedade, v. 15, n. 1, p. 147-155, 2012.



GENERAL EFFECTS OF NATURAL DISASTERS ON HEALTH

1. Associate Professor in Commerce, J.A. College for Women, Periyakulam.2. Assistant Professor in Commerce CA, J.A. College for Women, Periyakulam.

Abstract

Global warming has brought tremendous changes in the climate as well as in the atmosphere. Natural calamities arecommon nowadays because of all sorts of pollution. It affects all the people in different ways. The frequency ofdisasters is increasing year by year. So it is imperative to analyse the impact of natural disasters. In this paper, wehave highlighted our attention on the impact of natural disasters on health and how it can be mitigated.

B.J.Queensly Jeyanthi1

Introduction

The term “disaster” usually refers to the natural event(e.g., a hurricane, flood, earthquake, tsunami etc) incombination with its damaging effects (e.g., the loss oflife or destruction of buildings). A natural disaster isdefined as an event of nature, which devastates localresources and threatens the function and safety of thecommunity. Generally, disasters are the ultimate test ofa community’s emergency response capability. Ameticulous and well-organised emergency strategy willbe able to quickly adjust and adapt to unforeseensituations and complications. Every disaster scenariois unique in its own way and presents new and unusualchallenges to victims and rescue emergency personnelalike. In this paper we have highlighted the general viewof natural disasters in India and the health problemsrelated to all the disasters.

General View of Natural DisastersThe Indian subcontinent has a history of earthquakes.The reason for the high frequency and intensity ofearthquakes is the Indian plate driving into Asia at a rateof approximately 49 mm/year. The following is a listof major earthquakes which have occurred in India.

Table - 1 : Earth Quake in India from 2011 – 2015

C. Kalaivani2

Date

January3, 2016

October26, 2015

June28, 2015

May12, 2015

April26, 2015

Location

North East India

Northern India,Pakistan,Afghanistan

Dibrugarh, Assam

Northern India, NorthEast India


Deaths

9 dead, 100 injured inManipur & Assam

260 in Pakistan andAfghanistan till 01.34 am on27 Oct'15

0

121+

Aftershock

April25, 2015

April25, 2015

March 21,2014

April 25,2012

March 5,2012

September18, 2011

Northern India


Andaman and NicobarIslands

Andaman and NicobarIslands

New Delhi

Gangtok, Sikkim see2011 Sikkim arthquake

Aftershock

8900

0

0

1

118

Earthquake very often breaks out in North East area.Earthquake on April 25, 2015 had adverse effect itswallowed 8,900 lives (Table : 2)

Health Problems Common to All Natural Disasters

Social ReactionsAfter a major natural disaster, behaviour only rarelyreaches generalized panic or stunned waiting.Earthquake survivors often begin search and rescueactivities minutes after an impact and within hours theyhave organized themselves into groups to transport theinjured to medical posts. Antisocial behaviour such aswidespread looting also occurs only in exceptionalcircumstances. A person’s conflicting roles as familyhead and health official, can’t reporting to duty until theirrelatives and property are safe. There will be lot of rumoursabout epidemics. As a result, considerable pressure maybe put on the authorities to undertake emergencyhumanitarian work such as mass vaccinations againsttyphoid or cholera, without sound medical justification.In addition, people may be reluctant to submit tomeasures that the authorities think necessary.

During warning periods, or after the occurrence of naturaldisasters, people are reluctant to evacuate, even if theirhomes are likely to be or have been destroyed. Thesepatterns of behaviour have two major implications for



those making decisions about humanitarian programs.First, patterns of behaviour and demands for emergencyassistance can be limited and modified by keeping thepopulation informed and by obtaining necessaryinformation before embarking on extended reliefprograms. Second, the population itself will provide mostrescues and first aid, take the injured to hospitals if theyare accessible, build temporary shelters, and carry outother essential tasks. Additional resources should,therefore, be directed toward meeting the needs thatsurvivors themselves cannot meet on their own.

Communicable DiseasesNatural disasters do not usually result in massiveoutbreaks of infectious disease, although in certaincircumstances they do increase the potential for diseasetransmission. In the short- contamination of water andfood increases the diseases; hence, such diseases aremainly enteric. The risk of epidemic outbreaks ofcommunicable diseases is proportional to populationdensity and displacement. These conditions increasethe pressure on water and food supplies and the risk ofcontamination (as in refugee camps), the disruption ofpre-existing sanitation services such as piped water andsewage, and the failure to maintain or restore normalpublic health programs in the immediate post disasterperiod.

In the longer term, an increase in vector-borne diseasesoccurs in some areas because of disruption of vectorcontrol efforts, particularly following heavy rains andfloods. Residual insecticides may be washed away frombuildings and the number of mosquito breeding sitesmay increase. Moreover, displacement of wild ordomesticated animals near human settlements bringsadditional risk of zoonotic infections. In complexdisasters. where malnutrition, overcrowding, and lack ofthe most basic sanitation is common, catastrophicoutbreaks of gastroenteritis (caused by cholera or otherdiseases) have occurred, as in Rwanda/Zaire in 1994.In Chennai and Cuddalore Government has taken propermeasure to control the diseases and many health campswere conducted in the affected area by the NGOs. Manypeople are saved because of these cautious activities.

Population DisplacementsWhen large, spontaneous or organized populationmovements occur, an urgent need to providehumanitarian assistance is created. People may moveto urban areas where public services cannot cope, andthe result may be an increase in morbidity and mortality.If much of the housing has been destroyed, largepopulation movements may occur within urban areas aspeople seek shelter with relatives and friends. TheHindustan Times Report indicates that 400,000 peoplehave been displaced by the floods in Tamil Nadu . Over70,000 have been rescued and 280 people have died.Estimates suggest that the floods have caused over $1billion of damage.

Food and Nutrition

Food shortages may arise in two ways. Food stockdestruction within the disaster area may reduce theabsolute amount of food available, or disruption ofdistribution systems may curtail access to food, even ifthere is no absolute shortage. This happened in the TamilNadu flood in December 2015, though many accumulatedthe food and all the necessary items for the affectedpeople it was not properly distributed. Voiceless andDalits are not able to get the goods because of thedomination of the high caste people and more over theirshelter is in interior area so they cannot be easilyaccessed. Flooding and sea surges often damagehousehold food stocks and crops, disrupt distribution,and cause major local shortages. Food distribution, atleast in the short term, is often a major and urgent need,but large-scale importation/donation of food is not usuallynecessary. During flood, such as those occurring in TamilNadu, or in complex disasters, the homeless and refugeesmay be completely dependent on outside sources for foodsupplies for varying periods of time. Depending on thenutritional condition of these populations, especially ofmore vulnerable groups such as pregnant or lactatingwomen, children, and the elderly, it may be necessaryto institute emergency feeding programs.

Water Supply and Sanitation

Drinking water supply and sewerage systems areparticularly vulnerable to natural hazards and the

Table - 2 : Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami(26th December 2004)

Country wheredeaths occurred

Indonesia

Sri Lanka

India

Thailand

Confirmed

130,736

35,322

12,405

5,395

Estimated

167,799

35,322

18,045

8,212

Injured

n/a

21,41

n/a

8,457

Missing

37,063

n/a

5,640

2,817

Displaced

500,000

516,150

647,599

7,000



disruptions that occur in them pose a serious healthrisk. The systems are extensive, often in disrepair, andare exposed to a variety of hazards. Deficiencies inestablishing amounts and quality of potable water anddifficulties with the disposal of excreta and other wastesresult in the deterioration of sanitation, contributing toconditions favourable to the spread of enteric and otherdiseases.

Mental Health

Anxiety, neuroses, and depression are not major, acutepublic health problems immediately following disasters,and family and neighbours in rural or traditional societiescan deal with them temporarily. Wherever possible, effortsshould be made to preserve family and community socialstructures. The indiscriminate use of sedatives andtranquilizers during the emergency relief phase is stronglydiscouraged. In industrialized or metropolitan areas indeveloping countries, mental health problems aresignificant during long-term rehabilitation andreconstruction and need to be dealt with during thatphase. The psychological stress experienced by floodvictims will strongly influence mental and physical well-being. Psychological effects can continue to last formonths and even years after the flood and are thereforean important consequence.

Damage to the Health Infrastructure

Natural disasters can cause serious damage to healthfacilities and water supply and sewage systems, havinga direct impact on the health of the population dependenton these services. In the case of structurally unsafehospitals and health centres, natural disasters jeopardizethe lives of occupants of the buildings, and limit thecapacity to provide health services to disaster victims.The earthquake that struck Mexico City in 1985 resultedin the collapse of 13 hospitals. In just three of thosebuildings, 866 people died, 100 of whom were healthpersonnel. Nearly 6,000 hospital beds were lost in themetropolitan facilities. As a result of Hurricane Mitch in1998, the water supply systems of 23 hospitals inHonduras were damaged or destroyed, and 123 healthcenters were affected. Peru reported that nearly 10% ofthe country’s health facilities suffered damage as a resultof El Niño events in 1997–1998. International BusinessTimes reports that in India in December 2015, 18 patientsdied over a span of three days after flood waters enteredthe rooms affecting generators and cutting off power tothe hospital building.

Environmental impact

Beyond the heavy toll on human lives, the Indian Oceanearthquake has caused an enormous environmentalimpact that will affect the region for many years to come.It has been reported that severe damage has beeninflicted on ecosystems such as mangroves, coral reefs,

forests, coastal wetlands, vegetation, sand dunes and rock formations, animal and plant biodiversityand groundwater. In addition, the spread of solid and liquidwaste and industrial chemicals, water pollution and thedestruction of sewage collectors and treatment plantsthreaten the environment even further, in untold ways.The environmental impact will take a long time andsignificant resources to assess.

According to specialists, the main effect is being causedby poisoning of the freshwater supplies and of the soilby saltwater infiltration and a deposit of a salt layer overarable land. It has been reported that in the Maldives,16 to 17 coral reef atolls that were overcome by seawaves are completely without fresh water and could berendered uninhabitable for decades. Uncountable wellsthat served communities were invaded by sea, sand,and earth; and aquifers were invaded through porousrock. Salted-over soil becomes sterile, and it is difficultand costly to restore for agriculture. It also causes thedeath of plants and important soil micro-organisms.Thousands of rice, mango, and banana plantations inSri Lanka were destroyed almost entirely and will takeyears to recover. On the island’s east coast, the tsunamicontaminated wells on which many villagers relied fordrinking water. The Colombo-based International WaterManagement Institute monitored the effects of saltwaterand concluded that the wells recovered to pre-tsunamidrinking water quality one and a half years after the event.

Remedy for reducing the health impact of disasters

Interested donors and social activists could:

••••• Support local efforts to strengthen criticalservices and build community resilience. On alarger scale, strengthen water treatment and sewerfacilities to better withstand disasters. On a smallerbut equally as important scale, fund efforts to improvehealth care equipment, support hygiene programs,and ensure plans for mental health access are inplace.

••••• Help risk reduction activities such asvulnerability assessments for potential disaster-prone areas and impact mitigation. Collectreliable data about the needs of affected communitiesafter disasters occur. In addition, identifymarginalized and vulnerable populations that sufferthe most in disasters, assessing their unique needs.In terms of mitigating impact, include the creation ofpublic health communications that are reliable,consistent, and culturally relevant.

••••• Fund training for healthcare providers to identifyand strengthen the most vulnerablepopulations. Recognize that different populationsmay be more vulnerable to different disasters.



••••• Support programs that assist caregivers in disaster-affected areas. They may be coping with their owngrief while assisting others.

••••• Support research into the ongoing effects of disasters on populations, as well as effective ways tobuild coping capacities among individuals and communities. Also worth study: methods of promotingearly recovery and mitigation of the impact of future disasters.

Conclusion

Natural disasters have become common events in recent years, especially in India. The debate on whether suchevents are potentially affecting the development of affected areas is still under way. An effective disaster mitigationprogram must include public education, professional training, and multi-discipline collaboration. Programs, whicheducate the public and promote personal disaster safety, are the backbone to a successful disaster response.Disaster plans must also account for the possibility of mass evacuation and should also provide a basic stockpileof medical supplies.

References

Natural Disasters – Protecting the Public Health’s Pan American Health Organization, 2000.

Cutter, S., Boruff, B., and Shirley, W. L. (2003). Social vulnerability to environmental hazards. Social ScienceQuarterly, 84(2), 242-261.Jaramillo, C (2007). Natural disasters and growth: evidence using a wide panel of countries. Documento CEDE2007-14. Bogotá.



A STUDY ON PEOPLE SOURCES OF NATURAL DISASTERIN THENI DISTRICT

1. Assistant Professor of Commerce, Nadar Saraswathi College of Arts and Science, Theni2. Assistant Professor of Commerce, Nadar Saraswathi College of Arts and Science, Theni

Abstract

Natural resources are the raw materials supplied by the earth and its processes and include things in the physicalenvironment used for housing, clothing, heating, cooling, and transportation and to meet other human wants andneeds. For example, trees are used for shelter, animals for food and clothing, plants for medicine, minerals and fossilfuels for power, transportation, heating and cooling. These resources include soil, air, water, sunshine, forests, wildlife,fish, fossil fuels, metals and minerals produced by the earth’s natural processes. Using natural resources to meethuman needs and wants has an impact on the global environment. Each time raw materials are used to producegoods, there are ecological, social, and economic impacts. Managing these natural resources and utilizing conservationtechniques is necessary to help societies meet present and future needs.

R.Rathna1

Introduction:

Natural resources are the raw materials supplied by theearth and its processes and include things in the physicalenvironment used for housing, clothing, heating, cooling,and transportation and to meet other human wants andneeds. For example, trees are used for shelter, animalsfor food and clothing, plants for medicine, minerals andfossil fuels for power, transportation, heating and cooling.These resources include soil, air, water, sunshine,forests, wildlife, fish, fossil fuels, metals and mineralsproduced by the earth’s natural processes.

Using natural resources to meet human needs and wantshas an impact on the global environment. Each timeraw materials are used to produce goods, there areecological, social, and economic impacts. Managingthese natural resources and utilizing conservationtechniques is necessary to help societies meet presentand future needs. The primary economic value of amatured resource derives from the services it provideshumans.

Natural disasters such as earthquakes, tsunamis, andfloods can often come at the least expected time. Others,such as hurricanes and cyclones are increasing inseverity and destruction. Typically, the poor are the worsthit for they have the least resources to cope and rebuild

P.Surya2

Objectives:

The study has the following objectives:

1. To study the Natural disaster problems and solution.

2. To discover the communication ways.

3. To identify the problem faced by the respondenttowards Natural Disaster.

4. To offer valuable suggestions.

Research Methodology:

The data needed for the study is collected from bothprimary and secondary sources. The primary dataneeded for the study is collected from 40 respondentsby using Questionnaire. Judgment sampling was adoptedto collect primary data. The analysis of data collectionis completed and presented systematically with the useof Microsoft Excel and Ms-word.

Hypothesis:

• There is no association between the Occupation ofthe respondents and Problems of natural disasters

• There is no association between the Occupation ofthe respondents and Precautions of natural disasters

Tools for the study:In the following tools are used:

1. Frequency

2. Chi-square



Analysis of Data

Table 1: Demographic profile of the study

Source: Primary Data

Table 1 indicate the gender category 63 Percentage of male respondents; 45 Percentage of age group in the above50 years category; 75 Percentage of respondents are Post Graduate and 30 Percentage of respondents are BusinessPeople.

Table 2: Problems created in natural disasters

Particulars Category No. of Respondents Percentage

Male 25 63

Gender Female 15 37

Total 40 100

Below 20 2 5

21 – 30 12 30

Age 31 – 50 8 20

Above 50 18 45

Total 40 100

UG 10 25

EducationQualification PG 30 75

Total 40 100

Business people 12 30

Former 8 20

Occupational Status Self-employee 10 25

Working person 10 25

Total 40 100

Table 2 indicate the Problems created in natural disastersMost of the respondents (38 Percentage) are denotedthe damaged the properties.

Table 3: Precautions of natural disasters


Announcement 12 30

Fix the Measurement Machine 18 45

Take the Safety Action 6 15

Follow the Government norms 4 10

Total 40 100

Precautions



Suffer the income 8 20

Last in our relationship 10 25

Damaged the Properties 15 38

Affect the resources 7 17

Total 40 100

Problems created innatural disasters




Table 3 indicates the Precautions of natural disasters Most of the respondents (45Percentage) are denoted the Fixthe measurement Machine.

Table 4: Communication from the government

Table 4 indicates the Communication from the government Most of the respondents (50Percentage) are denotedSocial Media

Testing the Hypothesis:

There is no association between the Occupation of the respondents and Problems of natural disasters

Table 4


Radio 10 25

Television 10 25

Social Media 20 50

Total 40 100


Communication


Table 4 indicates the chi-square test value is 0.077134 (5% significant level) at 1 degree of freedom is less than thechi-square value. so the null hypothesis is accepted. So there is a significant relationship between occupationswith precautions of natural disasters

Table-5

Business people 6 4 1 1 12

Former 2 3 2 1 8

Self-employee 2 5 2 1 10

Working person 2 6 1 1 10

Total 12 18 6 4 40

Precautions of Natural Disasters

OccupationalStatus Announcement

Follow theGovernment

normsTotal

Business people 4 3 3 2 12

Former 2 2 2 2 8

Self-employee 1 3 5 1 10

Working person 1 2 5 2 10

Total 8 10 15 7 40

Precautions of Natural Disasters

OccupationalStatus

Suffer theincome

Last in ourrelationship

Damaged theProperties

Affect theresources


Fix theMeasurement

Machine

Take theSafety Action

Table 5 indicates the chi-square test value is 0.82 (5% significant level) at 1 degree of freedom is less than the chi-square value. so the null hypothesis is accepted. So there is a significant relationship between occupations withProblems of natural disasters



Findings:

• The gender category 63 Percentage of male respondents;

• 45 Percentage of age group in the above 50 years category;

• 75 Percentage of respondents are Post Graduate.

• 30 Percentage of respondents are Business People.

• Problems created in natural disasters Most of the respondents (38 Percentage) are denoted the damaged theproperties.

• The Precautions of natural disasters Most of the respondents (45Percentage) are denoted the Fix themeasurement Machine.

Suggestion

• There should be a proper multi-tier organizational structure in a focused and co-ordinated manner responsible forthe overall management at national, state, districts and village levels.

• The basic design of disaster management should consist of planned co-ordinated efforts in following importantareas: -Identification and prediction -Early warning system -Evacuation -Relief -Rescue -Rehabilitation -Compensation -Reconstruction -Preparedness

• There is a need to share the expertise and experiences so that states can learn from each other.

Conclusion:

Conclusions India in the recent years have made significant development in the area of disaster management. Anew culture of preparedness, quick response, strategic thinking and prevention is being ushered. The administrativeframework is being streamlined to deal with the various disasters. Effort are also being made to make disastermanagement a community movement wherein where is greater participation of the people. However, a lot more needto be done to make disaster management a mass movement in near future.

References

• Brown, L.R. 1998. “Struggling to Raise Cropland Productivity.” In State of the World. Washington, D.C.: Worldwatch Institute. Crooks, R., and others. 1999.

• Natural Resources Management: A Strategic Framework for East Asia and the Pacific. World Bank East Asiaand the Pacific Region. Washington, D.C. Engelman, R., and P. LeRoy. 1993.

• Sustaining Water: Population and the Future of Renewable Water Supplies. Population and Environment Program,Population Action International. Washington, D.C. Ekbom, A., and J. Bojö 1999.

• Poverty and Environment: Evidence of Links and Integration into the Country Assistance Strategy Process.Discussion Paper No. 4, Environment Group, Africa Region, World Bank. Washington, DC.



A CASE STUDY ON UTTARKHAND HEAVY FLOOD

1. Assistant Professor, Seethalakshmi Ramaswami College, Trichy

Abstract

The main objective of this study is to assess the effectiveness of the PSI disaster mitigation and preparednessstrategies, mainly mason training programmes and disaster preparedness initiatives in earthquake safety. The successof these The Role of NGOs in Disaster Mitigation and Response – A Case Study in Uttarakhand, Northern India 3programs directly influences the effectiveness of disaster mitigation, management of disaster planning, and otheractivities in response to disasters, in particular earthquakes. Thus, directly impacting the lives of local citizens andcommunities relies on appropriate training of masons and local groups. An impact assessment of the quality andeffectiveness of PSI’s training programmes will help to improve the overall process of constructing buildings resilientto earthquakes in rural areas. This will also instill an increased level of awareness and emphasize the need foreducation and disaster preparedness within local communities. A summary of the successes and failures of PSI’sinitiatives can be used to exemplify how NGOs are best suited to the field of disaster mitigation and preparedness andcan subsequently be disseminated to other organisations and further underscore the need to mainstream DMP.

R.Sheela1

Introduction:

Natural Causes

The floods were essentially caused by heavy rain fallin Uttarakhand in mid-June, with the monsoon havingentered the state about a fortnight earlier than usual.We look at the possible natural causes that may haveaccentuated the floods.

Early monsoon: The early onset of monsoon caughtpeople unawares (hence causing significant damage tolife and property), but there is no plausible reason forthe earliness of monsoon to have intensified the floods.

Extreme rainfall event: High rainfall magnitudes arenot very rare in Uttarakhand. While we have not analysedthe data, rainfall in the affected districts does not seemto have been so high as to suggest an exceptionallyrare event.

Widespread rains: The rainfall events before andduring the above floods occurred widely over thecatchments of Alaknanda, Bhagirathi and other rivers,thereby sending high runoff into these rivers. But suchwidespread rains in these regions are also not asexceptional as the flood fury suggests.

Objectives of this study:

1. Evaluation of the impact and effectiveness of themason training programmes.

2. Evaluation of how effective the programmes have beenin mobilizing communities for disaster preparedness andresponse activities.

3. Evaluation of how effective the programmes have beenin increasing the number of earthquake safe housesbeing built in the area.

Heavy rains at the start of monsoon: It seems to usthat heavy rains rarely occur in Uttarakhand at the verystart of monsoon. Usually, the rains are relatively lightand scattered at first, before increasing in magnitudeand spread after 2 or 3 weeks. In the present case,however, the monsoons entered the State with a bang,which may have been a factor that intensified the floods.This is because rains cause landslides/landslips due tounstable slopes and loose rocks/boulders, which tendto (partially) block the stream paths; and when theseblockages get blown away, the dammed up waterdisgorges with high flood peaks. Thus, whereas inprevious years minor landslides would occur at the startof monsoon, and their blockages get dismantled beforethe onset of heavy rains, in the present case both minorand major landslides would have occurred simultaneouslyin mid-June, thereby producing dam-burst like floods.

Manmade Causes

Local anthropogenic factors were certainly a crucialreason for the devastating flood peaks. A large numberof commentaries have highlighted several factors ofsignificance - rampant deforestation, slope cutting,blasting of rocks, haphazard disposal of debris, andriverbank constructions. These activities invariably tendto enhance landslides (through weakened rockstructures and soil stabilities), increase the runoff rates,and/or disrupt river flows. Such activities are largelyrelated to extensive and growing pilgrimage and tourism



in the State. But the increasing number of dams (and barrages) in the region is also considered by many to be a keyfactor. In our view, there is much confusion about dams. In our opinion dams do have significant adverse effects onriver health, but they do not cause or accentuate floods by their mere existence (except when floodgates areoperated irresponsibly). The conventional manner of constructing dams–involving rock blasting, careless disposal ofdebris, deforestation, etc.–may be major factors that promoted the high flood waves in Uttarakhand, but not thedams themselves. In fact, dams may actually provide safety against floods: the Managing Director of UttarakhandJal Vidyut Nigam Limited had in fact pointed out that Tehri Dam had actually absorbed the flood wave of Bhagirathiriver on June 16th, thereby preventing downstream flood damage.

District-wise rainfall trends in Uttarakhand from 2008 to 2012

UttarkashiChamoli Rudraprayag

R/F*%

departure from LPA#R/F*

%departure from LPA#

R/F*%

departure from LPA#

2008 163.8 59 148.9 -30 298.3 98

2009 32.2 -69 17.8 -92 197.3 31

2010 121.8 18 166.6 -21 189.9 26

2011 170.5 57 369.6 70 363.7 146

2012 41.1 -62 95.4 -56 45.6 -69

*Rainfall#Long Period Average

In 2011, Uttarkashi received 146 per cent excess rainfall compared to the long period average (LPA). The correspondingfigures for 2010, 2009 and 2008 are 26 per cent, 31 per cent and 98 per cent. Chamoli received 57 per cent excess rainfallin June in 2011, 18 per cent in 2010 and 59 per cent in 2008.Rudraprayag also received a deficit rainfall in 2008, 2009,2010 and 2012, but the year 2011 witnessed excess rainfall of 70 per cent.

What exactly took place on the night of June 16?

There was rainfall of 120 mm in 24 hours before the flash flood of June 16 at Kedarnath. The town and the glacier aboveare 3 km apart. As there is no automatic weather station there, the data has been collected from satellite. There isevidence that a small lake was formed during the rains above Kedarnath town. The lake must have lasted for a shortduration. It was a 100 square hectare lake which contained 10 million litre of water. The water that collected in the lakecame down along with the water from the glacier. The lake burst due to a breach in the blockade that formed its boundary.Coupled with heavy rain in the area, this caused flash floods. It is because of the lake that there was excessive streamrun-off and a third channel was formed.

Conclusion

The remedies for the natural and manmade faces of disasters like the Uttarakhand floods are different in nature.Natural causes cannot be waived away, but we can prepare to face them. Thus, knowing that monsoons may set invigorously in mid-June, it may be prudent to remove tourists and valuable assets from hazard-prone regions by earlyJune. And, in case of extreme natural events thereafter, locals can be alerted (and evacuated) at short noticethrough early warning systems. On the other hand, manmade causes are eminently preventable by adopting suitablepreventive measures (plus remedial measures where needed). The complete strategy calls for an expert review ofboth types of problems and a consequent plan of action. We believe that the government has already embarked onsuch expert assessments and we hope that all issues will be reviewed with an open mind and wide consultations,taking account of factual data, people’s concerns, and the environmental and socio-economic realities of the region.



ROLE OF COMMUNITY AND GOVERNMENT IN DISASTERMANAGEMENT

1. Research Scholar, Head & Associate Professor, Department of Business Administration, Sri Adi Chunchanagiri Women’sCollege, Cumbum

2. Associate Professor, Department of Business Administration, Mother Teresa Women’s University, Kodaikanal

Abstract

Nature is bountiful full of resources used by the living organisms use for their survival and well being. But nature hasits own control system. In recent times ecological balance has been disturbed by human activities and catastrophessuch as floods, drought, earth quake, tsunami, happens from time to time causing immense damage to life andproperty of living organisms. A descriptive study was made to find the outcome of natural disaster. An attempt wasmade by the researcher to explain the role of community and the government to control the natural disaster.

Keywords: Natural Disasters, Flood, Drought, Earth quake, Tsunami, Causes, Control measures.

S.Susila1

Introduction:The Indian sub continent is highly prone to naturaldisasters. Floods, droughts, cyclones and earthquakeare recurrent phenomena in India. Susceptibility todisasters is compounded by frequent occurrence of man-made disasters such as fire. The changing topographydue to environmental degradation also increasesvulnerability to natural disasters. Major disasters thatIndia has experienced in the recent past are theearthquake in Latur (Maharashtra in 1993) super cyclonein Orissa (1999), the earthquake in Gujarat (2001),Tsunami in Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh in 2004, theearthquake in Nepal(2015). Frequent disasters lead toenormous loss of life and property. Natural disasterscannot be prevented but their damaging impact can bereduced through better forecast, and preparedness totake up effective rescue measures. Disastermanagement is essentially a development problem.Preparedness and planning for disaster managementhave to be taken up along with environmental concernsthat the country is facing today.

Natural Disaster

Disaster is a geological process and is defined as anevent concentrated in time and space, in which a societyor sub-division of a society undergoes sever danger andcauses loss of its members and physical property. Thereare two types of disasters namely natural disaster andman-made disaster. Natural disaster refers to thosedisasters that are generated by natural phenomena. Forexample: earthquake, cyclone, flood, tsunami, landslidesand drought. Man-made disasters usually refer to thedisaster resulting from man-made hazards. Fire,accidents and epidemics are the some of the man-made

Dr.Al. Malliga2

disaster. This paper discuss on the role of communityand government in managing natural disaster and themanagerial perspective to minimise it.

Role of Community in Managing Natural Disaster

Since is the first responder in any disaster situation,there is a great need for community level initiatives inmanaging disasters. The initiatives taken by variousagencies, including the state need to be people centricand the level of community participation should begauged through the role played by the community in theprocess of planning and decision making. Effort shouldbe made to strengthen local economies, thereby makingpeople independent of external assistance. The voluntarysector has been in the forefront of mobilizingcommunities enabling them to cope with disasters inthe past decades. Their initiatives and experiences havebeen consolidated and demonstrated on a larger scalewith the help of the state. Development organisationsworking in communities share a good rapport with thehelp of the community, which helps the state inimplementing its plans more effectively. Village levelplans prepared after the Super Cyclone in Orissa couldbe seen as an example of the same.

Measures are initiated to undertake reconstruction ofthe physical infrastructure and restoration of economicand emotional well being and to eliminate or reduce theincidence of severity. They are as follows:

• Community awareness on health and safetymeasures;

• Counselling programme for those who have lost thenear and dear ones;

• Restoring the essential services -roads,communication links, electricity, etc.;



• Providing shelters;

• Collecting usable materials for construction fromrubble;

• Providing financial support;

• Finding employment opportunities;

• Reconstructing new buildings.

• Land use planning;

• Preventing habitation in risk zones;

• Disaster resistant buildings;

• Finding ways to reduce risk even before the disasterstrikes;

• Community awareness and education.

The first few hours before and after a disaster are criticaland precious for saving lives and reducing further injury.Often external help may take time to reach the disastersite. In any disaster, often the neighbours are first torespond. The first responders are people who act first ina disaster situation, usually lack basic response skillsto deal medical or other emergencies. The aim ofcommunity level management is to train the individualsand the members of local community to deal withemergency situation effectively. Trained communitymembers are life saving assets in such situations. Thuscommunity level management involves people’sparticipation.

Role of the Government in Managing NaturalDisaster

Government has got the whole machinery in place andthe relief work is carried out with the help of the followingagencies- Indian Red Cross Society ,Indian Institute ofTropical Meteorology, UNDP India, Tata Energy ResearchInstitute, Housing and Urban Development CorporationLtd., Ministry of Urban Development and Council foradvancement of People’s Action and Rural Technology(CAPART). All these agencies in the past responded tomajor disasters in the country. For example, in the stateof Orissa in the aftermath of Super Cyclone in 1999,they provided immediate relief services to the affectedfamilies. Further, they collected and distributed reliefmaterial, helped in providing immediate shelter, supportedvoluntary organizations for implementing activitiespertaining to the relief and rehabilitation work and providedtraining to masons for repairing damaged houses. Thevast network of partner voluntary organizations providesthe Government with a greater opportunity to implementDisaster Management plans at the grassroots level muchmore effectively. The programme components wouldinclude the following:

• Development of state and district disastermanagement plans.

• Development of disaster risk management andresponse plans at Village/ Ward, Gram Panchayat,Block/Urban Local Body levels.

• Constitutions of Disaster Management Teams andCommittees at all levels with adequate representationof women in all committees and team. (Village/ Ward,Gram Panchayat, Block/Urban local body, Districtand State.)

• Capacity Building of Disaster Management Teamsat all levels. Special training for women in first aid,shelter management, water and sanitation, rescueand evacuation, etc.

Measures taken by the government in anticipation ofduring and immediately after a disaster for minimizingits adverse impact has following main elements:

• Activate the emergency operation centres (controlroom);

• Deployment of search and rescue teams.

• Issuing updated warning;

• Setting up community kitchens using local groups;

• Set up temporary living accommodation, toiletfacilities and medical camps;

• Mobilising resour ces;

Future ChallengesThere is a growing need to look at disasters from adevelopment perspective. Disasters can have devastatingeffect on communities and can significantly set backdevelopment effort to a great extent. But then, it couldbe also offer an opportunity to invest in developmentefforts in a post disaster scenario. Disasters areopportunities for communities to reinvent themselves.

Disaster prevention, mitigation, preparedness and reliefare four elements, which contribute to and gain from theimplementation of sustainable development policies.These elements, along with environmental protection andsustainable development, are closely inter-related. TheYokohama Strategy, emanating from the internationaldecade for disaster reduction in May 1994, emphasisthat disaster prevention, mitigation and preparednessare better than disaster-response in achieving the goalsand objectives of vulnerability reduction. The governmentof India has adopted mitigation and prevention asessential components of its development strategy. TheTenth Five Year Plan emphasizes the fact thatdevelopment cannot be sustainable without mitigationbeing built into the development process. In brief,Disaster management is being institutionalized intodevelopment planning. But there are various underlyingproblems in the whole process. In fact a number ofproblems stem from social inequalities.



In the long run, the onus is upon the local communitiesto handle disasters with the help of the state and othersuch organizations. It is a well known fact that thecommunity dynamics is quite complex in a country likeIndia. There is a need to address specific local needs ofvulnerable communities through local traditions andcultures. Restoration of common property resources withthe participation of the local level bodies is a realchallenge. The historical focus of disaster managementhas been on relief and rehabilitation after the event butnow the focus is on planning for disaster preparednessand mitigation. Given the high frequency with which oneor other part of the country suffers due to disasters,mitigating the impact of disasters must be an integralcomponent of our development planning.

Findings

The investigations reveal that the country lacked a masterplan for natural disaster management includingprediction, warning, mitigation and preparedness,unspecified responsible governmental authority, unclearline of authority, ineffective collaboration amonginstitutions in different levels, lack of encouragement forparticipation of local and international NGOs, lack ofeducation and knowledge for tsunami in potential disastereffected communities, and lack of informationmanagement or database system.

Suggestions for mitigation of natural disaster

The proposed integrated approach which includes bothproactive and reactive strategies can be applied tomanaging natural disasters. During the recovery period,government, NGO’s, public health and local emergencymanagement officials must ensure the following tominimize or prevent natural disaster.

• An adequate supply of safe water and food for thedisplaced population.

• In addition to offering acute emergency care,community plans should provide for the continuity ofcare for homeless residents with chronic conditions.

• Encroachment of flood ways should be banned

• Building walls prevent spilling out the flood water overflood plains.

• Diverting excess water through channels or cannelsto areas like rivers, lakes, etc., where water is notsufficient.

• Building check dams on small streams, move buildingoff the flood plains.

• Instead of raising buildings on flood plain, it can beused for wildlife habitat parks, recreational areas,which are not susceptible to flood damage.

• River networking in the country also reduce flood.

• Satellite pictures of pre-flood and post flood with otherinformation contribute to the flood managementprocess.

• Optical and microwave data from IRS is also usedfor flood management.

• Flood warning and flood forecast are also given bythe central water commission.

• Reduction of runoff by increasing infiltration throughappropriate afforestation.

• The government need to educate the publicperiodically about their environment, climate, weatherand some natural disasters that can happen.

• The government also needs to understand the terrainof the region and the likelihood of a drought, so thatthere are no surprises if they happen.

• Taking measures to stop all forms of water pollutionis important, because on the onset of droughts,humans resort to surface water such as streams andlakes and the like.

• Water conservation and storage is important becausethis practice makes us cope better when there is ashortage.

• Satellite images are used by meteorologicaldepartments for forecasting the weather conditions,which reveal the strength and intensity of the storm.

• Radar system is used to detect the cyclone and isbeing used for cyclone warming.

• For observing the exact location of cyclone, everyhalf an hour satellite pictures are analysed.

• More number of trees can be planted on the coastalbelts.

• Construction of dams, dykes, embankments, windbreaks.

• Damage to property and life can be prevented byconstructing earthquake-resistant building preferablywooden houses in earthquake prone areas.

• Seismic hazard map should give the information aboutthe magnitude of intensity of anticipated earthquakesand Seismologist should analyse the pattern of microseismicity and indicate the possibility of occurrenceof earthquakes in a potential area.

• Conduct needs assessment for affectedcommunities, including a review of public healthinfrastructure.

• Establish active and passive surveillance systemsfor deaths, illness, and injuries.

• Educate the public about maintaining safe andadequate supplies of food and water.



• Establish environmental controls.

• Monitor infectious disease and make determinationsabout needed immunizations (e.g., tetanus).

• Institute multifaceted injury control programs.

• Establish protective measures against potentialdisease vectors.

• Monitor potential release of hazardous materials.

• Assure evacuation plans for people with specialneeds in nursing homes, hospitals, and home care.

• Work with local communities to improve buildingcodes (e.g., developing improved designs for windsafety).

Conclusion

All of us are living on disaster prone areas, may be ofdifferent natures, types and intensities and the interestingfact is that disaster varies in terms of nature, type andintensity as per the geographical location. A pro-activestance to reduce the toll of disasters in the countryrequires a more comprehensive approach that comprisesboth pre-disaster risk reduction and post-disasterrecovery. It is framed by new policies and institutionalarrangements that support effective action.

References

1. Chauhan.(2008). Configuring disaster risk reductioninto development processes. Disaster Advances.

2. Long Hualou.(2011). Disaster PreventionManagement: A Geographical Perspective. DisasterAdvance



A STUDY ON PROBLEMS OF NATURAL DISASTERS

1. Research scholar, Nadar Saraswathi College of Arts & Science, Theni2. Research scholar, Nadar Saraswathi College of Arts & Science, Theni

Abstract

Natural disasters can have catastrophic impacts. These may be economic, social and environmental. Damage toinfrastructure can severely impede economic activity. Social impacts can include loss of life, injury, ill health,homelessness and disruption of communities. Environmental damage can range from the felling of trees to thereshaping of entire landscapes. Natural disasters happen all over the world and they can be utterly devastating forpeople’s lives and the environments in which they live. Although natural disasters are caused by nature and there isnothing that we can do to prevent them happening, there are many different natural causes that lead to naturaldisasters, and being aware of these causes enables us to be better prepared when such disasters do arrive. Thispaper explains problem of natural disasters in detail.

Gopika.S. Sivan 1

Introduction:

Natural disasters such as earthquakes, tsunamis, andfloods can often come at the least expected time. Others,such as hurricanes and cyclones are increasing inseverity and destruction. Typically, the poor are the worsthit for they have the least resources to cope and rebuild.

One common natural disaster is flooding, which occurswhen a river bursts its banks and the water spills outonto the floodplain. This is far more likely to happenwhen there is a great deal of heavy rain, so during verywet periods, flood warnings are often put in place. Thereare other risk factors for flooding too: steep-sidedchannels cause fast surface run-off, while a lack ofvegetation or woodland to both break the flow of waterand drink the water means that there is little to slow thefloodwater down. Drainage basins of impermeable rockalso cause the water to run faster over the surface.

Earthquakes are another common natural disaster thatcan cause many fatalities. The movements of the platesin the earth’s crust cause them. These plates do notalways move smoothly and can get stuck, causing abuild-up of pressure. It is when this pressure is releasedthat an earthquake occurs. In turn, an earthquake underthe water can also cause a tsunami, as the quake causesgreat waves by pushing large volumes of water to thesurface.

Tsunamis can also be caused by underwater volcaniceruptions. Volcanic eruptions are another natural disaster,and they are caused by magma escaping from insidethe earth. An explosion takes place, releasing the magmafrom a confined space, which is why there are often alsohuge quantities of gas and dust released during avolcanic eruption. The magma travels up the inside of

U.Nivetha2

the volcano, and pours out over the surrounding area aslava.

One of the most common natural disasters, but alsoone of the most commonly forgotten, is wildfires. Thesetake place in many different countries all over the world,particularly during the summer months, and can becaused by a range of different things. Some of the thingsthat can start the wildfires can be totally natural, whileothers can be manmade, but the speed at which theyspread is entirely down to nature. The two natural causesof wildfires are the sun’s heat and lightning strikes, whilethey can also be caused by campfires, smoking,fireworks and many other things. The reasons that theyspread so quickly are prolonged hot, dry weather, wherethe vegetation dries out, which is why they often takeplace in woodland.

Categories of natural disasters

Natural disasters fall into three broad groups:

1. Those caused by movements of the Earth. Theseoccur with the minimum amount of warning andi n c l u d e e a r t h q u a k e s , v o l c a n i ceruptions and tsunamis. They are difficult to predictand impossible to stop. All that can be done is totake appropriate action to limit damage and loss oflife after they occur.

2. Weather related disasters. These willinclude hurricanes, tornadoes, extreme heat andextreme cold weather. There will usually be somedegree of advanced warning, but since weather isunpredictable, nothing can be done to stop thesedisasters from developing once the weather systemdevelops. Again, in areas prone to this sort of disaster,



some provision can be made to limit damage andloss of life.

3. Floods, mudslides, landslides and famine. These areusually the consequence of extreme weather events,or are supplementary to other natural disasters. Oftenthey are the result of extreme and unforeseenconditions.

Natural disaster-Earthquake:

The first indication of an earthquake might be a roaringor rumbling sound that gradually grows louder. Theremight be a rolling sensation that starts out gently butwithin a second or two becomes very violent. Alternativelythere might be a violent jerk followed by severe shakingthat makes it very difficult to stand up or move from roomto room.

The strength of an earthquake is usually measured usingthe moment magnitude scale. An earthquake measuringbetween 6.1 and 6.9 on this scale could cause a lot ofdamage in a very populated area. Around 100 of theseoccur each year. One measuring 7.0 to 7.9 would beconsidered a major earthquake and would causesignificant damage. About 20 of these occur each year.The earthquake that occurred in Japan on 11 March 2011was measured at magnitude 9.0 by the US GeologicalSurvey and was one of the most powerful ever recorded.

Natural disaster-Tsunami:

If an earthquake occurs under the sea it can cause atsunami. The most destructive of these are generatedfrom large shallow earthquakes with an epicenter or faultline near or on the ocean floor. The sudden verticaldisplacement generates waves that can travel greatdistances at high speed. While out in the ocean thesewaves can be no more than a few centimeters high, butas they approach the shore the waves are compressedand become very much higher

Natural disaster-Volcano:

Volcanoes are mountains that are characterized by havinga crater that opens downwards to a reservoir of moltenrock. When pressure from gases within the molten rockbecomes too great, an eruption occurs. These can bequite modest and result in little more than a trickle, orthey can explode with considerable force and beaccompanied by lava flows, flattened landscapes,poisonous gases, flying rock and ash.

Due to their great heat the lava flows are a great firehazard and in forested areas wildfires often result. Lavaflows destroy everything in their path, interruptingwatercourses and causing flooding and mudslides, butsince they generally move fairly slowly, people canusually get out of their way.

Volcanoes also give out gases such as carbon dioxideand sulphur dioxide. These are normally quicklydispersed by the wind, but can collect in hollows. Highconcentrations can cause suffocation. This is the mostcommon cause of death following a volcanic eruption

Natural disasters - Cyclones:

Tropical cyclones have been the cause of a number ofnatural disasters. They are storms with large low-pressure centers’ and numerous thunderstorms thatproduce high winds and heavy rain. Generally they areknown as hurricanes, but in the northwest pacific regionthey are known as typhoons. A hurricane is defined ashaving a wind speed in excess of 73 mph (117 kph), butmaximum sustained winds in the strongest tropicalcyclones have been estimated to reach 195mph.Cyclones form out in the ocean and there aredistinct hurricane seasons in different parts of the world,lasting for between five and eight months. Specialweather watches are kept during these times and inpopulated areas there are generally well-rehearsed plansthat are put in place when a tropical cyclone approaches

Natural disasters –Tornado:

Tornadoes can also be a lethal weather event. A tornadois a violent, dangerous rotating column of air that is incontact with the surface of the Earth and acumulonimbus cloud. Because of their appearance theyare often call twisters.

Most tornadoes are about 250 feet across, have windspeeds of up to 110 mph and blow themselves out aftera few miles, but in extreme cases they can be 2 milesacross, attain speeds of more than 300 mph and stayon the ground for considerable distances.

Conclusion

Disasters are hazards that cause destruction orenvironmental changes. A natural disaster is the effectof a natural hazard (e.g., flood, tornado, hurricane,volcanic eruption, earthquake, or landslide). This paperexplains problem of natural disasters in detail. The mainproblems of natural disasters are deaths, disability,increase in communicable disease, psychologicalproblems, food shortage, socioeconomic losses,shortage of drugs and medical supplies, environmentaldisruption.

References

1. www.globalissues.org

2. www.earthimes.org

3. www.childfund.org



ORGANIZATIONAL STYLE PERSPECTIVE OFDISASTER STRESS DISASTER: AN EMERGING

STRESS MANAGEMENT PERSPECTIVE

1. Assistant Professor of Commerce, Nadar Saraswathi College of Arts and Science, Theni2. Assistant Professor of Commerce, Nadar Saraswathi College of Arts and Science, Theni

Abstract

This paper examines the sources of stress likely to be encountered by managers when responding to a disaster.Stressors relating to environmental (e.g. time pressure, level of risk, heat), organisational (e.g. bureaucracy,appropriateness of information, decision support and management systems) and operational (e.g. incident command,decision making, team and media management) demands are considered. The mediating role of personality andtransient states of physical (e.g. fitness and fatigue) and psychological (e.g. high levels of occupational stress) statesare reviewed in terms of their influence on stress. Strategies for identifying which of these potential stress factors canbe controlled or reduced and for training emergency managers to deal with the others are discussed.

A.Hepcy Prasanna1 V.Sundari2

Introduction

Stress occurs when an event or stimulus requires us tochange in some way. Stress is our brain’s way of saying,‘I know I have to change, but I don’t have to like it!’ Stressinvolves an imbalance between what is demanded of usand what we are able to cope with or respond to. Haveyou ever been in a situation in which you felt completelyoverwhelmed? Maybe you felt like you were unable tocope with what you were experiencing? If so, what youwere feeling was stress.

Stress varies based on the individual and situation. Moststress is temporary, although there are situations wherestress can last for a long time. For example, peoplewho work in sales and advertising generally find thatthere are high levels of stress associated with theircareers.

Environmental Stressors

Stressors that are found in our surroundings are calledenvironmental stressors. Everyday life is full ofenvironmental stressors that cause minor irritations. Ifyou use an alarm clock to wake up, the loud noise fromyour alarm is an environmental stressor. Extremetemperatures are also environmental stressors and canlead to discomfort. Other common environmentalstressors include:

• Noise

• Crowding

• Air quality

• Colors

• Tornadoes and other natural disasters

• War and other manmade disasters

• Light

• Insects

Recent research has linked extreme temperatures,crowding, and noise with increased levels of discomfortand aggression. Studies have also shown that crime ratesare higher during those hot summer days. Different colorscan raise or lower your stress levels. For example, greenis often associated with life and growth and is known toreduce tension and anxiety. Exposure to light canimprove your mood and decrease fatigue, whileprolonged exposure to darkness can interfere with sleeppatterns and lead to symptoms of depression.

Stressors Relating To Organizational Environmental

Tackling work-related stress is essential to ensure thewell-being of both you and your employees and tosafeguard the performance of your business. Stress canbe particularly damaging for owner-managers and theself-employed. Though a degree of pressure can helpyou to perform effectively, excessive demands canreduce your productivity and make it more difficult totake important decisions.

Stress can also undermine employees’ effectiveness,cause a rise in sickness absences and increase staffturnover. You have a legal responsibility to ensure youremployees don’t become ill, either physically or mentally,because of work-related stress. This guide helps youidentify and tackle possible causes of stress in yourbusiness - from excessive workloads and communicationproblems to insufficient training and poor management.

Objectives of the Study

• To study the level of Stressors relating toenvironmental factors.



• To analyze the problems in organization amongmanagers.

• To ascertain the cause of stress.

• To know about the operational demands and others.

Common Causes of Stress at Work

• Excessively high workloads, with unrealisticdeadlines making people feel rushed, under pressureand overwhelmed.

• Insufficient workloads, making people feel that theirskills are being underused.

• A lack of control over work activities.

• A lack of interpersonal support or poor workingrelationships leading to a sense of isolation.

• People being asked to do a job for which they haveinsufficient experience or training.

• Difficulty settling into a new promotion, both in termsof meeting the new role’s requirements and adaptingto possible changes in relationships with colleagues.

• Concerns about job security, lack of careeropportunities, or level of pay.

• Bullying or harassment.

• A blame culture within your business where peopleare afraid to get things wrong or to admit to makingmistakes.

• Weak or ineffective management which leavesemployees feeling they don’t have a sense ofdirection, or over-management, which can leaveemployees feeling undervalued and affect their self-esteem.

• Multiple reporting lines for employees, with eachmanager asking for their work to be prioritised.

• Failure to keep employees informed about significantchanges to the business, causing them uncertaintyabout their future.

• A poor physical working environment, egexcessive heat, cold or noise, inadequate lighting,uncomfortable seating, malfunctioning equipment,etc.

Stress Management Strategies

Avoid unnecessary stress

Not all stress can be avoided, and it’s not healthy toavoid a situation that needs to be addressed. One maybe surprised, however, by the number of stressors inyour life that they can eliminate.

Learn how to say “no” – Know your limits and stick tothem. Whether in personal or professional life, refuse toaccept added responsibilities

Avoid people who stress out – If someone consistentlycauses stress in life. Limit the amount of time spendswith that person or end the relationship entirely.

Alter the situation

If can’t avoid a stressful situation, try to alter it. Figureout what can be done to change things so the problemdoesn’t present itself in the future. Often, this involveschanging the way to communicate and operate in dailylife. Manage time better. Poor time management cancause a lot of stress. Don’t stretched too thin and runningbehind, it’s hard to stay calm and focused. So planahead and make it sure.

Adapt to the stressor

If stressor can’t be changed one should adapt to stressfulsituations and regain sense of control by changing theexpectations and attitude.

Reframe problems. Try to view stressful situations froma more positive perspective. Rather than fuming about atraffic jam, look at it as an opportunity to pause andregroup, listen to favorite radio station, or enjoy somealone time.

Adjust the standards. Perfectionism is a major sourceof avoidable stress. Stop setting up for failure bydemanding perfection. Set reasonable standards forothers, and learn to be okay with “good enough.”

Accept the things that can’t be changed

Some sources of stress are unavoidable. It can’t preventor change stressors such as the death of a loved one, aserious illness, or a national recession. In such cases,the best way to cope with stress is to accept things asthey are. Acceptance may be difficult, but in the longrun, it’s easier than railing against a situation you can’tchange.

Don’t try to control the uncontrollable. Many things inlife are beyond control— particularly the behavior of otherpeople. Rather than stressing out over them, focus onthe things control such as the way you choose to reactto problems.

Learn to forgive. Accept the fact that we live in an imperfectworld and that people make mistakes. Let go of angerand resentments. Free from negative energy by forgivingand moving on.

Make time for fun and relaxation

Beyond a take-charge approach and a positive attitude,one can reduce stress in life by nurturing oneself.Regularly make time for fun and relaxation; then onewill be in a better place to handle life’s stressors whenthey inevitably come.



Connect with others. Spend time with positive peoplewho enhance life. A strong support system will bufferfrom the negative effects of stress.

Do something to enjoy every day. Keep sense of humor.This includes the ability to laugh. The act of laughinghelps body fight stress in a number of ways.

Healthy ways to relax and recharge:

• Go for a walk.

• Spend time in nature.

• Call a good friend.

• Have a good workout.

• Savor a cup of coffee or tea.

• Play with a pet.

• Work in your garden.

• Curl up with a good book.

• Light scented candles.

• Take a long bath.

• Listen to music.

• Watch a comedy.

• Get a massage.

Adopt a healthy lifestyle

Increase your resistance to stress by strengthening yourphysical health.

Exercise regularly. Physical activity plays a key role inreducing and preventing the effects of stress. Make timefor at least 30 minutes of exercise, three times per week.Nothing beats aerobic exercise for releasing pent-upstress and tension.

Eat a healthy diet. Well-nourished bodies are betterprepared to cope with stress. Start the day right withbreakfast, and keep the energy up and mind clear withbalanced, nutritious meals throughout the day.

Get enough sleep. Adequate sleep fuels mind, as wellas body. Feeling tired will increase stress because itmay cause you to think irrationally.

Conclusion

Stress is a mental, emotional or physical reactionresulting from an organisation. Most of the mangersexpressed that stress is created in all levels of workingenvironment. The mangers should avoid unnecessarystress, alter the situation, adapt to the stressor, acceptthe things that can’t be changed, make time for fun andrelaxation and adopt a healthy lifestyle at organisationallevel. “Reduce stress and lead a better life”



THE ROLE OF SOCIAL MEDIA IN CRISIS PREPAREDNESS,RESPONSE, AND RECOVERY

1. Head, PG Dept.of Commerce Computer Application, St.Joseph’s College (Autonomous), Trichirapalli.

Abstract

In recent years, social media has exploded as a category of online discourse where people create content, share it,bookmark it and network at a phenomenal rate. The five key characteristics of social media: collectivity, connectedness,comprehensiveness, transparency and collaboration lend itself to be used increasingly to support crisis managementfunctions. This paper examines the various categories of social media tools to recognize how they can be utilised toenhance analytical and response capabilities of organisations for crisis management.

Dr.D.John Prabakaran1

Introduction

Crisis management is a critical organisational functionthat involves planning and dynamic incident responseto situations as they unfold, often in erratic ways. Thecascading effects of an unfolding crisis can underminea country’s ability to operate effectively and may resultin serious harm to its people, structures, assets andreputation. The advent of a plethora of social media toolshas changed the landscape of crisis managementconsiderably over recent years with possibilities for socialaction now becoming realities. With readily availablesoftware tools such as online discussion platforms andnews aggregators, organisations can now disseminate,acquire and analyse information more efficiently andcomprehensively.

While social media can impact politics, socialmovements and the communication of information, thetechnology alone cannot be responsible for sparking therevolts. Ultimately, social media is a tool, and the sametool that can cause a negative impact, can also bringabout positive outcomes by facilitating and acceleratingthe speed and wideness of communication, if properlyutilised. This paper examines the use of social mediatools by Governments and non-governmentalorganisations (NGO) for crisis preparedness, crisisresponse and crisis recovery, and describes some ofthe key considerations for social media to be usedeffectively during the crisis response phase. It drawslessons as well as best practices that can be applied toreinforce government crisis management capabilitiesthrough the use of social media.

The Social Media LandscapeThe medium is not always the message. Social mediadevoid of purpose and content would do little to enablepeople to prepare, respond, and recover in the face of

disasters. Generically speaking, social media can bedefined as “a form of new media that facilitates socialinteraction and communication through the use of onlineinternet-based platforms.” Within this broad sphere,social media tools can be categorised into the following:

Social networks and blogs: Social networking sitesrefer to sites that allow people to build their own personalpages to enhance content sharing and communicationwith other people (e.g., Facebook). Blogs are onlinejournals or discussion sites used to post content andrelevant updates (e.g., The Huffington Post).

Bookmarking sites: This refers to websites that helppeople store, classify, share and search links throughthe practice of folksonomy1 techniques on the internet(e.g., delicious.com, digg.com and reddit.com). Whenpeople tag and share content on bookmarking sites, thevisibility of shared content typically improves across theboard.

Collaborative projects: Collaborative projects arecommunal databases created through user generatedcontent (e.g., Wikipedia).

Content communities: Content communities are onlinecommunities where people share various types of contentsuch as photos, audio and videos (e.g., YouTube, Flickr);e. Social reviews. This refers to websites that allowpeople to search, rate and share information as well asprovide recommendations (e.g., Google Places). Usingsocial reviews, people are able to vote on content basedon personal interest, inclinations and perceived relevance.

Effective in utilizing social media tools for crisismanagement, there is a need to shift our paradigmacross seven areas:

Purpose : Prior to the advent of social media tools, theuse of the Internet was largely confined to informational



purposes. With social media tools, people can now sharecontent. However, to truly exploit the capabilities of socialmedia tools, we need to go one step further and findways to engage people through the use of more creativeand interactive social applications to enhancecollaboration with like-minded communities;

Core Activity : Effective handling of a crisis situationrests on the ability of crisis managers to gather accurateinformation on the changing environment and needs ofaffected populations. To generate actionable knowledge,social media tools of the future will have to be equippedwith robust capabilities to support decision-makingprocesses with timely analytical insights;

Stakeholders : Whereas the state has a monopoly ofinformation in the past, this is no longer the case now.The ease by which information can be collected andtransmitted to a wider audience using social media toolsmeans that we have to deal with multiple parties, includingNGOs and individual citizens. Social media tools allowus to undertake crowdsourcing2 , as a means ofgathering a variety of perspectives on existing challengesas well as innovative and effective solutions to enhancethe management of crises;

Information Content: The analysis of rising issues andtheir cross-cutting effects can be rather complex. Thefocus on discrete data alone, such as factual information,may not be sufficient to generate useful insights to guidestakeholder response. New social media capabilities canhelp crisis managers analyse the interdependencies ofdetached data and their associated relationships so asto provide a better understanding of emerging issuesand their emergent effects;

Treatment of Information: Concerns about privacy,security, and data confidentiality can often result indecisions to reduce the scope of Crowd sourcing refersto the act of sourcing tasks traditionally performed byspecific individuals to a group of people or communityto solve complex problems and contribute relevant andfresh ideas.

Data interchange: The implementation of social mediaplatforms that support information transparency andsharing can help to integrate and streamline crisismanagement processes to satisfy the information needsof all stakeholders involved, and improve the speed andaccuracy of crisis communications.

Software Tools: In-house systems typically require aextensive capital investment and possess real limitationsto full integration with external systems. Crisis managersneed to examine how they can leverage and be pluggedinto the open-source platforms which can provide a rangeof flexible tools to gather information, and equip peoplewith the necessary social media and user-generated

content management capabilities to enhance analyticalprocesses and work streams; g. Output. The over-relianceon specialists to provide assessments do not sufficientlytake into account the individual’s general lack ofunderstanding for the unknown as well as his or her owncognitive biases when conducting research and analysis.A crisis response formulated by considering specialistassessments, stakeholder perspectives andcrowdsourced opinions using social media would enablestakeholders to make better decisions within acceptablelevels of risk and uncertainty. Meeting the challengesposed by crisis situations will mean using a much moredecentralized, comprehensive and interactive process.

Crisis management:

Crisis management can be broadly divided into threephases:

• Crisis preparedness

• Crisis response and

• Crisis recovery

During the crisis preparedness phase, the focus is onpreventive activities that seek to reduce known risks thatcould lead to a crisis. Recognising that not all crisescan be averted, there would be an equal focus in thisphase on crisis management planning and training ofthe crisis management team.

During crisis response, the focus will be on the speedand effectiveness of the initial response. There will be aneed for quick situational awareness to help authoritiesrespond effectively after the crisis hits. The effective useof social media tools will be critical during this phase toengage community networks in order to gather, analyseand disseminate information in a timely manner.

While the immediacy of response has passed, the crisisrecovery phase requires longer term planning and supportto restore the situation back to normalcy.

Across these three stages, social media tools can beused for

• Information dissemination

• Disaster planning and training

• Collaborative problem solving and decision making and

• Information gathering.

Information dissemination: Information disseminationthrough social media tools is an effective means toprovide reliable information quickly to the public to enablethem to better prepare for and respond to crises. However,the effectiveness is dependent on the reach andpenetration of social media platforms acrosstechnological know-how, education, age, language andculture. As an example, the United Nations Office for



the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (UNOCHA) isable to provide early warning for rapid response tocomplex humanitarian emergencies based oninformation gathered because of OCHA’s multimediaplatforms such as ReliefWeb and the IRIN news service,which are aimed at providing more detailed analysis toa wider audience.

Disaster planning and training: Gamificationleverages social media for disaster planning and trainingto promote personnel training, scenario planning andcollaboration between various crisis managementagencies from the public sector, private sector and civilsociety organizations. Gamification can enhance currentcrisis management practices through sustainedstakeholder training and collaboration. In this respect,the Kenyan Red Cross and the World Bank bring togetherdisaster relief experts and software engineers to workon identifying key challenges and to develop possiblesolutions through interactive discussions to overcome arange of possible scenarios related to natural disasterrisk and response.

Collaborative problem solving and decisionmaking: Group sourcing using social media facilitatescollaborative problem solving and decision making byintegrating various streams of information from mobileand web-based technologies to fill the perceived sense-making and information gaps as well as to aggregate,analyse and plot data about urgent humanitarian needs.As the knowledge base grows, authorities become betterpositioned to manage and respond to a range of possiblecrisis-related scenarios. As an illustration, respondersfrom the United States Institute of Peace collectinformation to improve their situational awareness so asto make more informed decisions on the allocation ofresources based on emerging trends;

Information gathering: On-the-scene footage, citizenjournalism and disaster assessment are central toinformation gathering for coordinating crisis response.Al Jazeera uses a community platform that leverageson email, mobile text messages and smart phoneapplications; Gamification refers to the use of gamingmechanics to non-gaming situations to promote desiredbehaviours and the adoption of appropriate applicationsto support these behaviours. To allow the public to voicetheir concerns, perceptions, and thoughts regarding on-going developments. Various international organisationsand government agencies have used social mediaplatforms and technologies to enhance their capabilitiesin crisis management. The New York City’s Office ofEmergency Management for example, uses Sahana tomanage its all hazards sheltering plan involving over 500shelters capable of housing over 80,000 persons duringa crisis. The Dutch Government, on the other hand,

operates the www.crisis.nl as a focal point for publicdissemination of information during an emergency.Ushahidi, downloadable software that enables people tosubmit eyewitness reports during a disaster that canthen be displayed onto a map has been successfullydeployed during the Haiti Earthquake (2010) tocrowdsource data from people on the ground to aid reliefefforts. Sense Place is another map-based webapplication that integrates multiple text sources (news,RSS, blog posts) that can then be translated onto amap to allow emergency responders to easily filterthrough by place or time, so as to analyse changingissues and perspectives.

Framework for Whole of Government CrisisManagement using Social Media

The framework comprises the following elements:

• General consent for Managing Crises UsingSocial Media: Obtaining senior management buy-in on the value of harnessing social media tools as acomplementary approach to Whole-of-Government(WOG) crisis management is essential to send astrong and consistent message to agencies involvedin crisis-related work.

• Strategic Guidelines: Establishing clear andconsistent guidelines for ministries on the use ofsocial media tools for crisis management are needed.A different and more expedited process may beneeded to ensure information is put out onto the socialmedia in a timely manner either for reassurance orto obtain critical intelligence.

• Capability Progress: Three capabilities areidentified: i. Early Detection. Pre-emptive and earlydetection mechanisms need to be in place so thatearly signs of a brewing crisis can be discovered.This will require an active sense-making platformwhere social networks, blogs and forums are regularlymonitored. Active dialogue and engagement withcommunity and active groups on social media arealso needed so that these relationships can beleveraged on during a crisis; ii. Optimised TaskHandling. Dedicating resources to support informationdissemination, disaster planning and training,collaborative problem solving and decision makingas well as information gathering within theorganisation could help ensure that tasks are handledoptimally from the onset of a crisis. The targeted useof social media tools could serve to complementexisting analytical processes residing withinministries to enhance crisis preparedness, responseand recovery efforts

iii. Integrated Public Alert and Feedback System. Anintegrated public alert and feedback system that



incorporates social media tools that allow for a seamlessand straightforward communication from the governmentto the public and for the public to send relevantinformation to enhance government operations during acrisis is needed.

• Measurement Activities: The use of suitable leadingindicators to monitor the application of social mediatools can help guide ministries in the evaluation ofexisting crisis management plans that influence onsocial media tools. Developing leading indicators inareas such as operational efficiency and utilizationof public perspectives could provide insights intoexisting organizational practices and how these maybe improved to enhance crisis management.Measurement approaches should be reliable withingovernment to aid benchmarking efforts. A leadingindicator may be used to monitor for possibleemerging signals before new developments occur.

Conclusion :With increasingly more individuals using their mobilephones to go online worldwide, surpassing time spenton traditional media such as television, radio and print,it would be essential to carefully consider how socialmedia applications can be incorporated into an integratedcrisis management platform for effective crisismanagement. Leveraging social media technologies forcrisis management provide citizens with a greater rolein preparing for and managing crises which will help buildresilient communities. Embracing resilience as a civicvalue and a social norm should ultimately be the wayforward to encourage citizens to take the actionsnecessary to help themselves and others during timesof crisis.

References :

1. Augustine, N. R. (1995, November/December).Managing the crisis you tried to prevent. HarvardBusiness Review, 73(6), 147-158.

2. Barton, L. (2001). Crisis in organizations II (2nd ed.).Cincinnati, OH: College Divisions South-Western.

3. Ben Ramalingam and Harry Jones with ToussaintReba and John Young. 2008. Exploring the Scienceof Complexity: Ideas and Implications forDevelopment and Humanitarian Efforts. WorkingPaper 285. Overseas Development Institute.

4. Benoit, W. L. (1997). Image repair discourse andcrisis communication. Public Relations Review, 23(2),177-180.

5. Cheung, V. (2007). The Power of Social NetworkingSites, CNET Asia. retrieved October 3, 2011 .

6. Cole, R. (2009). Social Media: What Does it Meanfor Public Managers?, Public Management. October,2009. 8-12.

7. Coombs, W. T. (2004a). Impact of past crises oncurrent crisis communications: Insights fromsituational crisis communication theory. Journal ofBusiness Communication, 41, 265-289.

8. Coombs, W. T. (2007a). Ongoing crisiscommunication: Planning, Managing, andresponding (2nd ed.). Los Angeles: Sage.

9. Coombs, W. T., & Holladay, S. J. (1996).Communication and attributions in a crisis: Anexperimental study of crisis communication. Journalof Public Relations Research, 8(4), 279-295.

10. Cormode,G. and Krishnamurthy, B. (2008). Keydifferences between Web 1.0 and Web 2.0, FirstMonday, June 2008, 13(2), retrieved October 3, 2011from 16 http://firstmonday.org/htbin/cgiwrap/bin/ojs/index.php/fm/article/view/2125/19 72.

11. Fearn-Banks, K. (2001). Crisis communications: Acasebook approach (2nd ed.). Mahwah, NJ:Lawrence Erlbaum.

12. Flynn, S and Bates, S. (2011). Connecting America:Building Resilience with Social Media.

13. James Mooney and A.C. Reiley, The Principles ofOrganisation (New York: Harper, 1939).



DISASTER RECOVERY CONTROL FROM VARIOUSNATURAL DISASTER RESOURCES ANDGEOLOGICAL DISASTERS RESOURCES

1. Assistant Professor, Department Of IT/CSE, CPA College-Bodinayakanur2. Head and Assistant Professor, Department of BBA, CPA College-Bodinayakanur

Abstract

Natural disasters are extreme, sudden events caused by environmental factors that injure people and damageproperty. Earthquakes, windstorms, floods, and disease all strike anywhere on earth, often without warning. As examples,we've chosen disasters that have occurred around the world throughout history. The major forecasters are calling forAtlantic hurricane activity for 2015 to be a below average to way below-average year. While the long-term averages forthe past 65 years are 11 named storms, 6 hurricanes, 3 intense hurricanes, NOAA predicts 8.5 named storms, 4.5hurricanes, and 1 major hurricane. Climatologists, meteorologists, and hydrologists at the National Oceanic andAtmospheric Administration (NOAA) compiled a list of the world's most notable weather, water, and climate events inthe twentieth century. Criteria for selection included an event's magnitude, meteorological uniqueness, as well as itseconomic impact and death toll. Events are listed in chronological order. IT disaster recovery control measures can beclassified into the following three types: Preventive measures - Controls aimed at preventing an event from occurring.Detective measures - Controls aimed at detecting or discovering unwanted events. Corrective measures - Controlsaimed at correcting or restoring the system after a disaster or an event.

Keywords: Earthquakes, windstorms, floods,ITdiscovery recovery control

S.Kamala Devi1

IntroductionA natural disaster is a major adverse event resultingfrom natural processes of the Earth; examples includefloods, volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, tsunamis, andother geologic processes. A natural disaster can causeloss of life or property damage, and typically leaves someeconomic damage in its wake, the severity of whichdepends on the affected population’s resilience, or abilityto recover.[An adverse event will not rise to the level of adisaster if it occurs in an area without vulnerablepopulation. In a vulnerable area, however, such as SanFrancisco in 1906, an earthquake can have disastrousconsequences and leave lasting damage, requiring yearsto repair.

Geological disastersAvalanches and mudslidesDuring World War I, an estimated 40,000 to 80,000soldiers died as a result of avalanches during themountain campaign in the Alps at the Austrian-Italianfront. Many of the avalanches were caused by artilleryfire.

EarthquakesAn earthquake is the result of a sudden release of energyin the Earth’s crust that creates seismic waves. At theEarth’s surface, earthquakes manifest themselves byvibration, shaking and sometimes displacement of theground. Earthquakes are caused mostly by slippage

within geological faults, but also by other events suchas volcanic activity, landslides, mine blasts, and nucleartests. The underground point of origin of the earthquakeis called the focus. The point directly above the focuson the surface is called the epicenter. Earthquakes bythemselves rarely kill people or wildlife. It is usually thesecondary events that they trigger, such as buildingcollapse, fires, tsunamis (seismic sea waves) andvolcanoes, that are actually the human disaster. Manyof these could possibly be avoided by better construction,safety systems, early warning and planning.

Survey from Hurricane SeasonHurricane Season 2015—PredictionsThe major forecasters are calling for Atlantic hurricaneactivity for 2015 to be a below average to way below-average year. While the long-term averages for the past65 years are 11 named storms, 6 hurricanes, 3 intensehurricanes, NOAA predicts 8.5 named storms, 4.5hurricanes, and 1 major hurricane.

Hurricane Season 2014—ReviewThe 2014 Atlantic hurricane season had below-normalactivity. NOAA reports 8 named storms (top winds 39mph or higher), 6 hurricanes (top winds 74 mph or higher),2 major hurricanes (category 3–5; winds at least 111mph). Hurricane Gonzalo was the strongest Atlantichurricane of 2014, clocking in with 145 mph winds.Gonzalo hit Bermuda, followed by the United Kingdom,where it killed three people.

S.Vijayalakshmi2



Hurricane Season 2013—ReviewThe 2013 Atlantic hurricane season had below-normalactivity. TSR reports only 2 hurricanes, no majorhurricane, and 13 tropical storms. The U.S. has nowgone eight years without a major hurricane landfall—anunprecedented feat since record-keeping began in 1900.

2. Worst Weather of the Twentieth CenturyClimatologists, meteorologists, and hydrologists at theNational Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration(NOAA) compiled a list of the world’s most notableweather, water, and climate events in the twentiethcentury. Criteria for selection included an event’smagnitude, meteorological uniqueness, as well as itseconomic impact and death toll. Events are listed inchronological order.

Major StormsCyclones, hurricanes, and typhoons are the same kindof tropical storm but are called by different names indifferent areas of the world. A tropical cyclone is thegeneral term for violent circular winds with torrential rainsthat originate in the tropics. When they occur in theAtlantic Ocean, they are called hurricanes. In the IndianOcean, they are called cyclones. In the Pacific Ocean,they are called typhoons.

Natural disaster

For the Anathema album, see A Natural Disaster. Forthe songs, see Natural Disaster (Plain White T’s song)and Natural Disaster (Example song).

India: 1900, 1907, 1965–67; China: 1907, 1928–30, 1936, 1941–42;Soviet Union: 1921–22

1912, 1922

1931

1952

1953

1954

1958

1970

1971

1972

1982–83

1991

1991

1998

Asian Droughts

China Typhoons

Yangtze River Flood, China

Great Smog of London

Europe Storm Surge

Great Iran Flood

Typhoon Vera, Japan

Bangladesh Cyclone

North Vietnam Flood

Iran Blizzard

El Niño

Typhoon Thelma,Philippines

Bangladesh Cyclone

Hurricane Mitch,Honduras

A rope tornado in its dissipating stage, Tecumseh,Oklahoma.A daytime wildfire in California.



Sinkhole

When natural erosion or human mining makes the groundtoo weak to support the structures built on it, the groundcan collapse and produce a sinkhole. For example, the2010 Guatemala City sinkhole which killed fifteen peoplewas caused when heavy rain from Tropical Storm Agatha,diverted by leaking pipes into a pumice bedrock, led tothe sudden collapse of the ground beneath a factorybuilding.

Volcanic eruptionsVolcanoes can cause widespread destruction andconsequent disaster in several ways. The effects includethe volcanic eruption itself that may cause harm followingthe explosion of the volcano or the fall of rock. Second,lava may be produced during the eruption of a volcano.As it leaves the volcano, the lava destroys manybuildings, plants and animals due to its extreme heat .Third, volcanic ash generally meaning the cooled ash -may form a cloud, and settle thickly in nearby locations.When mixed with water this forms a concrete-likematerial. In sufficient quantity ash may cause roofs tocollapse under its weight but even small quantities willharm humans if inhaled. Since the ash has theconsistency of ground glass it causes abrasion damageto moving parts such as engines. The main killer ofhumans in the immediate surroundings of a volcaniceruption is the pyroclastic flows, which consist of a cloudof hot volcanic ash which builds up in the air above thevolcano and rushes down the slopes when the eruptionno longer supports the lifting of the gases. It is believedthat Pompeii was destroyed by a pyroclastic flow. A laharis a volcanic mudflow or landslide. The 1953 Tangiwaidisaster was caused by a lahar, as was the 1985 Armerotragedy in which the town of Armero was buried and anestimated 23,000 people were killed.

A specific type of volcano is the supervolcano. Accordingto the Toba catastrophe theory, 75,000 to 80,000 yearsago a supervolcanic event at Lake Toba reduced the

human population to 10,000 or even 1,000 breeding pairs,creating a bottleneck in human evolution. It also killedthree-quarters of all plant life in the northern hemisphere.The main danger from a supervolcano is the immensecloud of ash, which has a disastrous global effect onclimate and temperature for many years.

4. Hydrological disasters

It is a violent, sudden and destructive change either inquality of earth’s water or in distribution or movement ofwater on land below the surface or in atmosphere.

FloodsA flood is an overflow of water that “submerges” land.The EU Floods Directive defines a flood as a temporarycovering by water of land which is usually not coveredby water.[In the sense of “flowing water”, the word mayalso be applied to the inflow of the tides. Flooding mayresult from the volume of water within a body of water,such as a river or lake, which overflows causing the resultthat some of the water escapes its usual boundaries.While the size of a lake or other body of water will varywith seasonal changes in precipitation and snow melt,it is not a significant flood unless the water covers landused by man like a village, city or other inhabited area,roads, expanses of farmland, etc.

Limnic eruptions

A limnic eruption occurs when a gas, usually CO2,

suddenly erupts from deep lake water, posing the threatof suffocating wildlife, livestock and humans. Such aneruption may also cause tsunamis in the lake as therising gas displaces water. Scientists believe landslides,volcanic activity, or explosions can trigger such aneruption. To date, only two limnic eruptions have beenobserved and recorded. In 1984, in Cameroon, a limniceruption in Lake Monoun caused the deaths of 37 nearbyresidents, and at nearby Lake Nyos in 1986 a muchlarger eruption killed between 1,700 and 1,800 peopleby asphyxiation.



Tsunami

A tsunami (plural: tsunamis or tsunami; from Japanese:“harbour wave”; also known as a seismic sea wave or asa tidal wave, is a series of waves in a water body causedby the displacement of a large volume of water, generallyin an ocean or a large lake. Tsunamis can be caused byundersea earthquakes such as the 2004 Boxing Daytsunami, or by landslides such as the one in 1958 atLituya Bay, Alaska, or by volcanic eruptions such asthe ancient eruption of Santorini. On March 11, 2011, atsunami occurred near Fukushima, Japan and spreadthrough the Pacific.

5. Problems of Hurricanes

Hurricanes result in the destruction to infrastructure andloss of lives, vegetation, and livestock. Many hurricanescause floods, which can wash away homes and people.The strong winds can destroy large trees and buildings,or use objects as missiles that can cause great damage.The loss of life resulting from hurricanes mean the laborforce will be lessened. The destruction of vegetation andlivestock means countries will have to source more oftheir food from other countries.

Disaster Planning : prevention, preparedness,response, recovery.

A library or archives disaster is an unexpected eventwhich puts collections at risk. No institution can beexcluded from or is immune to the possibility. Disasterplanning is a matter of basic security for libraries andarchives, their staff and their collections. It is consideredto be an essential part of any preservation programmeto be implemented by any kind of library or archives. Aformal written plan enables an institution to respondefficiently and quickly to an emergency, and to minimizedamage to the building and its contents.

Conclusion and Future Enhancement

Natural disasters cannot be prevented, but measurescan be taken to eliminate or reduce the possibility oftrouble. Regardless of the many forms a disaster maytake, the actual damage to collections is usually causedby fire or water. Even when they are not the initial factor,fires and floods almost invariably occur as secondarycauses of library and archives disasters.

Disaster recovery (DR) involves a set of policies andprocedures to enable the recovery or continuation of vitaltechnology infrastructure and systems following a naturalor human-induced disaster. Disaster recovery focuseson the IT or technology systems supporting criticalbusiness functions, as opposed to business continuity,which involves keeping all essential aspects of abusiness functioning despite significant disruptive events.Disaster recovery is therefore a subset of businesscontinuity. Recent research supports the idea thatimplementing a more holistic pre-disaster planningapproach is more cost-effective in the long run. Every$1 spent on hazard mitigation(such as a disasterrecovery plan) saves society $4 in response and recoverycosts.[8]

As IT systems have become increasingly critical to thesmooth operation of a company, and arguably theeconomy as a whole, the importance of ensuring thecontinued operation of those systems, and their rapidrecovery, has increased. For example, of companies thathad a major loss of business data, 43% never reopenand 29% close within two years. As a result, preparationfor continuation or recovery of systems needs to be takenvery seriously. This involves a significant investment oftime and money with the aim of ensuring minimal lossesin the event of a disruptive event.

Reference

1. Disaster recovery. Computer Business Research...Retrieved 3 August 2012.



2. Systems and Operations Continuity: DisasterRecovery. Georgetown University. UniversityInformation Services. Retrieved 3 August 2012.

3. Disaster Recovery and Business Continuity, version2011. IBM. Retrieved 3 August 2012.

4. A Brief History of natural Disaster,safetynet247.co.ukSunGard Data Systems:Company history, fundinguniverse.com

5. Posts Tagged Springboard Research: The ChangingDefinition of Mission-Critical. BottomLineIT. Retrieved3 August 2012.

6. Disaster Recovery Guide - Guide to getting startedwith disaster recovery

7. Disaster Recovery Journal - Disaster recovery-focused magazine publication



CHENNAI FLOODS - 2015 - CAUSATIVE PARAMETERS AND FLOOD MANAGEMENT

1. Associate professors of Commerce ,Seethalakshmi Ramaswami College (Autonomous) Tiruchirapalli2. Assistant Professor & Research Scholar

Abstract

Floods have become frequent recurring natural disaster all over the world now-a-days due to anthropogenic impactsover climate. India is highly vulnerable to floods and out of the total geographical area of 329 mha, more than 40 mhais flood prone. Floods are recurrent phenomenon, which cause huge loss of lives and damage to livelihood system,property, infrastructure and public utilities. It is a cause for concern that the flood related damages are showing anincreasing trend. Following the enactment of the Disaster Management Act, 2005, (DM Act, 2005) the Government ofIndia (GOI) constituted the National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) as the apex body for Disaster Managementin India with the mandate, inter alia, for laying down policies and guidelines on Disaster Management. At the nationallevel, there is to be a paradigm shift from the erstwhile relief centric and post-event syndrome to pro-active prevention-, mitigation- and preparedness-driven Disaster Management. These efforts will conserve developmental gains andalso minimise loss of lives, livelihood systems and property. Flooding in the cities and the towns is a recent phenomenoncaused by increasing incidence of heavy rainfall in a short period of time, indiscriminate encroachment of waterways,inadequate capacity of drains and lack of maintenance of the drainage infrastructure. In this context, an attempt ismade in this paper to highlight the havoc of recent Chennai flood, the causes and consequences and the lessons tobe learnt to mitigate and manage with full vigor.

Dr.R.Lalitha1

Introduction

Disaster is an extreme event within the earth’s systemthat results in death, injury to humans and damage orloss of valuable goods. Natural Disasters, such as,Flood, Earth quake, Fire, Tsunami, Cyclone, Volcano,Land slide, Drought, etc., have become the growingepidemic all over the world. Until 20th century, our Indiansubcontinent faced few disasters like earth quakes andlandslides mostly confined to the active Himalayanmountain belt and flood or drought occurred in few places.But recently these disasters have started recurring allover the country.

Flood

Floods have become frequent recurring natural disasterall over the world now-a-days due to anthropogenicimpacts over climate. India is highly vulnerable to floodsand out of the total geographical area of 329 mha, morethan 40 mha is flood prone. Floods are recurrentphenomenon, which cause huge loss of lives and damageto livelihood system, property, infrastructure and publicutilities. It is a cause for concern that the flood relateddamages are showing an increasing trend. Among allnatural disasters, the occurrence of flood is recurrentand the same is depicted in the following chart.

K.Sujatha2

Following the enactment of the Disaster ManagementAct, 2005, (DM Act, 2005) the Government of India (GOI)constituted the National Disaster Management Authority

(NDMA) as the apex body for Disaster Management inIndia with the mandate, inter alia, for laying down policiesand guidelines on Disaster Management. At the nationallevel, there is to be a paradigm shift from the erstwhilerelief centric and post-event syndrome to pro-activeprevention-, mitigation- and preparedness-driven DisasterManagement. These efforts will conserve developmentalgains and also minimise loss of lives, livelihood systemsand property.

Flooding in the cities and the towns is a recentphenomenon caused by increasing incidence of heavyrainfall in a short period of time, indiscriminateencroachment of waterways, inadequate capacity of



drains and lack of maintenance of the drainageinfrastructure. In this context , an attempt is made inthis paper to highlight the havoc of recent Chennai flood,the causes and consequences and the lessons to belearnt to mitigate and manage the with full vigor.

Objectives of the Study;

• To understand the conceptual framework of disaster,especially of flood.

• To summarise the causes and consequences ofChennai flood 2015.

• To highlight the golden rules of disaster managementand the lessons learnt from Chennai flood

• To suggest the possible and feasible measures tomitigate and manage damages of flood in future.

Floods have been a recurrent phenomenon in India andcause huge losses to lives, properties, livelihoodsystems, infrastructure and public utilities. On an averageevery year, 75 lakh hectares of land is affected, 1600lives are lost and the damage caused to crops, housesand public utilities is Rs. 1805 crores due to floods. Themaximum number of lives (11,316) was lost in the year1977. The frequency of major floods is more than oncein five years. Floods have also occurred in areas, whichwere earlier not considered flood prone. Eighty percentof the precipitation takes place in the monsoon monthsfrom June to September. The rivers bring heavy sedimentload from the catchments. These, coupled withinadequate carrying capacity of the rivers are responsiblefor causing floods, drainage congestion and erosion ofriver-banks. Cyclones, cyclonic circulations and cloudbursts cause flash floods and lead to huge losses. Thefact that some of the rivers causing damage in Indiaoriginate from neighboring countries adds fuel to theproblem. Continuing and large scale loss of lives anddamage to public and private property due to floodsindicate that one should still to develop an effectiveresponse to floods.

Keeping in view the fact that the problem is becomingmore severe and losses are mounting every year, allkey agencies, including the central ministries, anddepartments, state governments, local bodies includingPanchayat Raj Institutions (PRIs), and Urban LocalBodies (ULBs) like metropolitan development authorities,municipal corporations, municipal councils and districtauthorities will develop detailed FMPs based on theseGuidelines. State governments and local authorities willplay an important role in the formulation and effectiveimplementation of such action plans. The communitiesand other stakeholders will play an important part inensuring compliance to the regulations and their effectiveenforcement. The State Disaster ManagementAuthorities (SDMAs) will be responsible for reviewing

and monitoring the implementation of the action plansat the state-level.

Flood Management:

As the apex body, NDMA has formulated the guidelineto mitigate and manage the flood with the mission tominimise vulnerability to floods and consequent loss oflives, livelihood systems, property and damage toinfrastructure and public utilities. These Guidelines reston the following objectives aimed at increasing theefficacy of the FMPs, which will be prepared at variouslevels:

1. Shifting the focus to preparedness by implementing,in a time-bound manner, an optimal combination oftechno -economically viable, socially acceptable andeco-friendly structural and non structural measuresof FM.

2. Ensuring regular monitoring of the effectiveness andsustainability of various structures and takingappropriate measures for their restoration andstrengthening.

3. Continuous modernisation of flood forecasting, earlywarning and decision support systems.

4. Ensuring the incorporation of flood resistant featuresin the design and construction of new structures inthe flood prone areas.

5. Drawing up time-bound plans for the flood proofing ofstrategic and public utility structures in flood proneareas.

6. Improving the awareness and preparedness of allstakeholders in the flood prone areas.

7. Introducing appropriate capacity developmentinterventions for effective FM (including education,training, capacity building, research and development,and documentation.)

8. Improving the compliance regime through appropriatemechanisms.

9. Strengthening the emergency response Capabilities

Causes of Chennai Flood:

The rain fall and the runoff on the surface area is thecause of flood. When there is an extraordinary rain falloccurs on a single day, that will cause a flood to the lowlying area. The surface area of Chennai is 178 squarekilo meter and that of Kancheepuram district andTiruvallur district is 4393 square kilo meter and 3422square kilo meter respectively. The annual average rainfall of India is 1200 millimeter (mm). The annual averagerain fall of Tamilnadu is 945 mm. The North East monsoonfetched 1612 mm rain fall to Chennai and on 1.12.2015was 480 mm. This huge rainfall on a single day causedall the damages. This huge rainfall brought 135 TMC(Thousand Million cubic feet) of water. The capacity of



Chembarambakkam tank is only 3 TMC. Maximum discharging capacity of Chembarambakkam is 29000 cubic feetper second (cusecs). Certainly the opening of the tank has not flooded Chennai but the heavy down pour on a singleday made the entire calamity.

The general opinion of the majority of the people is that the Adayar River inflated because of the chembarambakkam(CBM) inflow and caused the havoc. But the fact is otherwise. It cannot be totally ignored that there are encroachmentsin the river. The following statistics will prove the above statement.

Length fromCBM tank

(in Km)

Width of Adayarriver (in Meter)

Depth of river(in Meter)

Left bank height(in meter)

Right bank(in meter)

Place

Outer ring road 8.4 116 11 10 13

Airport 13.4 222 6 8 7

Nandambakkam 18.4 59 9 7 6

Saidapet 23.4 83.3 4 5 9

Thir.vi.ka nagar 28.8 485 1 4 5

Discharge details of Chembarambakkam tank:

1.12.2015 3.141 960 900

2.12.2015 3.396 26000 29000

3.12.2015 3.094 10200 11000

4.12.2015 3.132 4900 5000

Date CapacityinTMC

Inflow incusecs

Outflow incusecs

There are more than 278 tanks and all the surplusbecause of the heavy down pour contributed andworsened the situation.

Management Perspectives:The Disaster Management Act 2005 empowers theperson on the spot to take immediate decision withoutwaiting for any protocol according to the situation in thesite. The act protects the person on the action taken byhim, so nobody will be waiting for the higher ups in caseof disaster for any guidance. The thing that the authoritieshave to do is to educate the public against all disasters.When they are aware of the do’s and don’ts during anydisaster, the risk factor is reduced and life loss would beprevented.

Three Golden Rules to Mitigate the Flood:

1. Learn from the past:

In urban area whenever people venture to purchasehouse plots they should ask the senior citizen livingin that area about the previous flood incidents andapproximate height of flood water inundated in thatarea. After this incidence it shall be government policythat the Government permits only first floor and groundfloor shall only be used as a car park. If we don’tlearn from the past, we will be punished by the future.

2. Expect the unexpected:

When the rain fall is increasing, people should beprepared in taking care of the following 1. Battery 2.Torch light 3. Candle 4. Match box 5. Cash 6.Important telephone numbers should be noted in apocket diary 7. Non perishable Foods 8.Fuel 9. Safeguarding important documents 10. Escape plan andreassembling place. A mock drill in the summervacation always helps to act quickly in case ofemergency

3. Prepare for the worst:

React as though it has happened. Be the first to safeguard yourself, don’t wait for the Government oranybody to come for rescue. Listen to the warningsgiven by the Indian meteorological department andact accordingly. Even internet applications areavailable for anyone to view the satellite weatherforecast

Five lessons learnt from Chennai flood:Recent Floods:

The worst rain fall in 100 years has killed more than 200people and displace 40,000 people. About 20,000 hectarecrops were damaged, piling up the losses tounimaginable levels. Government and public should bein 24x365 alert to minimize the consequences.

Stop unplanned urbanization:

The Government has to pay attention to the growingmenace of unplanned urbanization that is happeningunder the guise of development. Lakes are beingreclaimed to create land for construction, wetlands andmangroves are being pushed back without a secondthought and all this is being done to accommodate thedaily rush of people from rural place to cities. Chennai



is the only city having biggest slum next to Mumbai.Nowhere else in the world this sort of worst scenery isprevailing. All the slum dwellers are living on the banksof river and they were the worst affected.

Act on encroachments immediately:

Rise in poverty and increase in population has increasedthe proliferation of slums that are built on the banks ofrivers. This has led to many water bodies and pathwaysto disappear creating a huge possibility of flash floodentering highly populated areas.

Improve co-ordination between various agencies:

During this disaster initially there was a non co ordinationamongst various agencies bickering over trivial issuesand lack of co-ordination often leads tomiscommunication and delay in help . Soon the youngergeneration rise up to the occasion and used theinformation technology to connect various utilities andserved well. At least by now the teams should be keptintact and live

Pay attention to the environment:

Climate changes, unseasonal rains and risingtemperatures are all the result of huge environmentaldamage we humans are causing to nature and naturalresources. We all need to focus on reducing pollutiondue to vehicles, industries, dumping of untreated effluentsand e-waste being generated and this will need aconscious effort from all of us.

Conclusion:

Natural disaster is unavoidable. Proper urban planning,strict encroachment removal implementation in the waterbodies and awareness among the public will lead todisaster risk reduction.

References:

• Palanivel K, Saravanavel.J. and Gunasekaran ,2015,Disaster Management ,

• Muthukumar. M and Ramaswamy, S.M , 2007,Remote Sensing and GIS Applications inGeomorphology for landslide hazard mapping.

• Kumanan.C.J, Palanivel K, Saravanavel.J. 2011,Project report of HRVA- Hazard Risk and Vulnerabilityassessment in Tiruchirapalli Urban limit submittedto collectorate.



MANAGERIAL PERSPECTIVE OF NATURAL DISASTER

1. CMI

Abstract

This paper explores the various managerial perspectives of natural disaster that can be adopted as theory andpractice during different emergency situations. The unevenness in environment and ecology are perhaps the rootcause for natural disaster. Thus the first part of the paper examines what the distinct causes for these imbalances arewhich lead to natural disasters. Facing natural disaster with unconditional awareness is a skill and of course it isrelated to different strategies which have to be adopted during such unpredictable circumstances. Today the world isfacing natural disasters one after another at any time anywhere in any form. When there are natural disasters likeearthquake, tsunamis, flood etc. occurs, the managerial perspective of such disasters should concentrate on the (1)governance and control – how the situation will be handled (2) risks – rehabilitating the affected people to a saferplace with adequate support of food, clothing, medical, shelter and care (3) values – ensuring the hope with moralsupport (4) precautions – safeguarding the victims from exploitation, abuse (5) technologies – which can be adoptedto help them to come out from the fall outs of natural disasters and restructure of the affected areas and people and (6)social responsibility – will make corporate, organization and even individual to act for the benefit of the victims atlarge. These six dimensions are addressed in the course of the paper.

As natural disasters, often, can decimate hundreds and thousands of precious lives, precautions by authorities definitelyreduce can the volume of causalities. The comparison between western and eastern managerial perspectives ofnatural disasters may bring out crystal clear dimension on natural disaster management.

Fr. Alex Louis1

IntroductionLooking at the vulnerability of the country to varioushazards like the floods, cyclones and drought which canbe predicted, to the more sudden disasters likeearthquakes, landslides and various manmade disasterswhich cannot be predicted and are very frequent in thepresent day world, it is time for us to have an insightinto these hazards and get ourselves prepared. Disastersbring along with them heavy loss to life, property andlivelihood. So, it is time to make disaster managementa way of life – and an essential life skill. Let’s be preparedfor the safety of our near and dear ones than to be avictim of it and repent later.

People have been living with risk ever since they joinedtheir efforts, shared their resources and assumed theresponsibilities in social groups. Social development andhuman well being have advanced only because peoplehave taken risk. Time and again, we see the terrible tollthat natural disasters inflict on vulnerable communitiesaround the world. Over the recent decades there hasbeen an alarming increase in the occurrence of naturaldisasters and the magnitude of their social, economicand environmental impacts. This extensive damage tolives, property and livelihood of the affected communitieshas turned back the development clock of the areas bydecades.

Knowing about risk that lead to disasters, helps us tounderstand how they affect our livelihoods andenvironment and to have collective efforts dedicated tomanage those conditions. This paper on effective disastermanagement comprises of the following sections:

1) Why disasters?2) What to Do?3) Towards a Safer World

Why Disasters?

Any calamity that causes loss or damage to life andproperty of human beings is known as a disaster.Disasters are of two types: The natural and themanmade. The naturally occurring disasters cannot bepredicted well in advance and hence human beings donot have the power to prevent them. The only way out inthe case of naturally occurring disasters is to managethe situation with proper attention. But in the case ofman-made disaster, they are not unavoidable. WithProper care, and necessary steps, such calamities canbe tacked with ease. Earthquakes, cyclones, tornadoes,landslides, tsunami, volcanic eruptions etc. belong tothe section of the naturally occurring disasters. One ofthe main reasons behind them is the colliding of thetectonic plates and the pressure variations in theatmosphere, both of which are something natural.Perhaps that is why the term ‘Act of God ‘is used tospeak about them. But today, in the present scenario,



things seem to be different. Human activities lead to thedepletion of the natural environment and atmosphericconditions, thus triggering the natural disasters.

What to Do?

Today, in a broader view, most of the disasters are dueto human intervention. At least, we can say that thesedisasters are triggered by human intervention. We cansay that dealing with disasters today, must mainly focuson the managerial perspective of these disasters.

• Governance and Control: We cannot stop hazardsfrom happening but preparedness can make all thedifference between life and death. People habitatingin highly vulnerable pockets cope up with frequentdisasters on the basis of their acumen, accumulatedknowledge, accumulated skills and resources of thecommunity and they have managed to survive thefury of the nature through centuries. Failing to prepareis preparing to fail. According to the geographicalconditions, in 99%of the cases, disaster prone areascan be identified and thus the necessary preparationscan be done well in advance. With the necessaryawareness given to the people regarding the stepsto be taken in case of a disaster, much can be done.Just being in panic would not be of much use. Rather,a proper plan for dealing with the disaster must betaken with the help of the government. In case of adisaster, the situation must be under control so thatthe people are at ease and with hope.

• Risks – Search and Rescue Skills Whenever andwhere ever disasters strike the first responder forsearch and rescue always begins at the local levels:individual and neighborhood. It is a daunting task forthe locals to rescue the victims due to lack of skilledhuman resources. Disasters or emergencies disruptnormal life. Proper planning for the evacuation of thepeople and rehabilitating the affected people to a saferplace with adequate support of food, clothing,medical, shelter and care in a place where the effectsof the disaster will be the least. The place must beidentified in terms of easy transportation, andaccommodation capacities. Financial aid to be usedin an emergency must be set apart for suchpurposes. Circumstances where the situation is graveand the local rescuers do not have required skillsand equipments then specialist assistance fromoutside the community is required

• Values – Care must be given in ensuring the hopewith moral support. Availability of the proper manpower for ensuring the comfort of the disaster effectedmust be arranged. Help of the adequate anddedicated personnel must be made available in suchsituations.

• Precautions – There are all chance for theexploitation of the victims and even for their abuse,both physical and mental. Proper security care withthe help of the armed forces must be ensured.Moreover, care must be given in avoiding the chancesfor the sexual exploitation of the women and kids.

• Technologies – Dealing temporarily with the effectsof the disaster will not be of much use. Rather, withall the available technologies a reconstruction andresurrection from the effects of the disasters mustbe followed which can be adopted to help them tocome out from the fall outs of natural disasters andrestructure of the affected areas and people.Reconstruction, not just in a physical sense, but alsoin all levels must be taken into consideration.

• Social Responsibility – Disaster management isnot just the responsibility of a few individuals or thatof the government. It is an activity where each andevery member of the society has a role to play,however small it may be. Thus steps to makecorporate, organization and even individual to act forthe benefit of the victims at large.

Towards A Safer WorldDisaster management has always been a necessaryfactor in the life of human beings. Disaster can happenanywhere at any time. Being afraid of it is not the solutionfor it. Rather what is required is the power to cope withwhat has happened and the ability to hope against hope.A proper disaster management team being employedright from the local level government can do much here.Proper training given right from the school level aboutthe most necessary thing that each individual must doduring an emergency of disaster will be of great use.We have the power in us and we have what it costs usto do. So why panic and why withdraw? If Japan, a smallcountry was restores within months after a great numberof tsunamis, why can’t India do? Yes we can. And wemust.



NATURAL DISASTERS: RESPONSIBILITIES AND RESPONSES BY EVERYINDIVIDUALS

1. Correspondent & Assistant Professor of Commerce, Patrician College of Arts & Science, Chennai

Rev.Bro.Dr.S.Arockia Raj1

Introduction

The Wikipedia defines the term disaster quite nicely: “Adisaster is a natural or man-made event that negativelyaffects life, property, livelihood or industry often resultingin permanent changes to human societies, ecosystemsand environment.”

Disasters are highly disruptive events that cause suffering,deprivation, hardship, injury and even death, as a resultof direct injury, disease, the interruption of commerceand business, and the partial or total destruction of criticalinfrastructure such as homes, hospitals, and otherbuildings, roads, bridges, power lines, etc. Disasterscan be caused by naturally occurring events, such asearthquakes, hurricanes, flooding, or tornadoes, or theycan be due to man-made events, either accidental (suchas an accidental toxic spill or nuclear power plant event),or deliberately caused (such as various terroristbombings and poisonings).

Definition of disaster

A disaster is a serious disruption of the functioning of asociety, causing widespread human, material, orenvironmental losses which exceed the ability of affectedsociety to copy using only its own resources. Disastersare often classified according to their speed of onset(sudden or slow), or according to their cause (natural orman-made).

Definition of natural phenomena

Natural phenomena are extreme climatological,hydrological, or geological, processes that do not poseany threat to persons or property. A massive earthquakein an unpopulated area, for example, is a naturalphenomena, not a hazard. So is the annual flood alongthe Nile, an essential element to the well being of itsneighbouring inhabitants.

The disaster problemThere are certain phenomena leading to disasters andemergencies: disaster trends, where they occur and whois most affected by them. From the outset it is worthreminding ourselves that disasters and emergencies areall too often regarded as aberrant events, divorced from“normal life.” In reality, however, the opposite is true.

Disasters and emergencies are fundamental reflectionsof normal life. They are consequences of the wayssocieties structure themselves, economically andsocially; the ways that societies and states interact;and the ways that relationships between the decisionmakers are sustained. Hence a flood or an earthquakeis not a disaster in and of itself.

The disaster stems from the fact that certaincommunities or groups are forced to settle in areassusceptible to the impact of a raging river or a volcaniceruption. It is essential to make a distinction betweenhazards and disasters, and to recognize that the effectof the former upon the latter is essentially a measure ofthe society’s vulnerability.

The following diagram illustrates this combination ofopposing forces. Vulnerability is seen as the progressionof three stages:

1. Underlying causes: a deep-rooted set of factorswithin a society that together form and maintainvulnerability.

2. Dynamic pressures: a translating process thatchannels the effects of a negative cause into unsafeconditions; this process may be due to a lack ofbasic services or provision or it may result from aseries of macro-forces

3. Unsafe conditions: the vulnerable context wherepeople and property are exposed to the risk ofdisaster; the fragile physical environment is oneelement; other factors include an unstable economyand low income levels.

Causal factors of disastersThe magnitude of each disaster, measured in deaths,damage, or costs for a given developing countryincreases with the increased marginalization of thepopulation. This is caused by a high birthrate, problemsof land tenure and economic opportunity, and the lackor misallocation of resources to meet the basic humanneeds of an expanding population. As the populationincreases, the best land in both rural and urban areas istaken up, and those seeking land for farming or housingare forced to accept inadequate land. These offer lessproductivity and a smaller measure of physical or



economic safety. The following section considers eachof these issues.

Poverty

The most important single influence on the impact of adisaster is poverty. All other factors could be lessened ifthe affected population were not also limited by poverty.Virtually all disaster studies show that the wealthiest ofthe population either survive the disaster unaffected orare able to recover quickly. Across the broad spectrumof disasters, poverty generally makes people vulnerableto the impact of hazards. Poverty explains why peoplein urban areas are forced to live on hills that are prone tolandslides, or why people settle near volcanos or riversthat invariably flood their banks. Poverty explains whydroughts claim poor peasant farmers as victims an rarelythe wealthy, and why famines more other than not arethe result of a lack of purchasing power to buy food ratherthan an absence of food. Increasingly, poverty alsoexplains why many people are forced to move from theirhomes to other parts of their countries or even acrossborders to survive. Such crisis-induced migration posesconsiderable challenges both in terms of immediateassistance to the displaced and of longer-termdevelopment.

Population growth

There is an obvious connection between the increase inlosses from a disaster and the increase in population. Ifthere are more people and structures where a disasterstrikes, then it is likely there will be more of an impact.The growth of population has been so spectacular thatit is inevitable that more people will be affected by disasterbecause more will be forced to live and work in unsafeareas. Increasing numbers of people will be competingfor a limited amount of resources (such as, employmentopportunities, and land) which can lead to conflict. Thisconflict may result in crisis-induced migration. Suchgrowth occurs predominantly in developing countries,resulting in various contributors to disasters.

Rapid urbanization

Rapid population growth and migration are related to themajor phenomenon of rapid urbanization. This processis also accelerated in developing countries. It ischaracterized by the rural poor or civilians in an area ofconflict moving to metropolitan areas in search ofeconomic opportunities and security. These massivenumbers of urban poor increasingly find fewer optionsfor availability of safe and desirable places to build theirhouses. Here again, competition for scare resources,an inevitable consequence of rapid urbanization, can leadto human-made disasters.

Many landslides or flooding disasters are closely linkedto rapid and unchecked urbanization which forces low-

income families to settle on the slopes of steep hillsidesor ravines, or along the banks of flood-prone rivers. Manyearthquake victims in urban areas have beenimpoverished families whose sites have failed rather thantheir houses, usually through landslides onto the houseor out from under it.

Transitions in cultural practices

Many of the inevitable changes that occur in all societieslead to an increase in the societies’ vulnerability todisasters. Obviously, all societies are constantlychanging and in a continual state of transition. Thesetransitions are often extremely disruptive and uneven,leaving gaps in social coping mechanisms andtechnology. These transitions include nomadicpopulations that become sedentary rural people whomove to urban areas, and both rural and urban peoplewho move from one economic level to another. Morebroadly, these examples are typical of a shift from non-industrialized to industrializing societies.

One example of the impact of these transitions is theintroduction of new construction materials and buildingdesigns in a society that is accustomed to traditionalmaterials and designs. This often results in new materialsbeing used incorrectly. In disaster prone areas,inadequate new construction techniques may lead tohouses that cannot withstand earthquakes or windstorms. Compounding this problem is the newcommunity where the disaster survivors find themselvesmay not have a social support system or network toassist in the relief and recovery from the disaster. Thetraditional coping mechanisms may not exist in the newsetting and the population becomes increasinglydependent on outside interveners to help in this process.Conflicting as well as transitional cultural practices canalso lead to civil conflict, for example, as a result ofcommunal violence triggered by religious differences.

Environmental degradation

Many disasters are either caused or exacerbated byenvironmental degradation. Deforestation leads to rapidrain run off, which contributes to flooding. The destructionof mangrove swamps decreases a coast line’s ability toresist tropical winds and storm surges.

The creation of drought conditions–and the relativeseverity and length of time the drought lasts–is mainly anatural phenomena. Drought conditions may beexacerbated by: poor cropping patterns, overgrazing, thestripping of topsoil, poor conservation techniques,depletion of both the surface and subsurface watersupply, and ,to an extent, unchecked urbanization.

Lack of awareness and information

Disasters can also happen because people vulnerableto them simply didn’t know how to get out of harm’s



way or to take protective measures. This ignorance maynot necessarily be a function of poverty, but a lack ofawareness of what measures can be taken to build safestructures on safe locations. Perhaps some people didnot know about safe evacuation routes and procedures.Other populations may not know where to turn forassistance in times of acute distress. Nevertheless, thispoint should not be taken as a justification for ignoringthe coping mechanisms of the majority of people affectedby disasters. In most disaster-prone societies, there isa wealth of understanding about disaster threats andresponses. This understanding should be incorporatedinto any efforts to provide external assistance.

The list of hazard types is very long. Many occurinfrequently or impact a very small population. Otherhazards, such as severe snowstorms, often occur inareas that are prepared to deal with them and seldombecome disasters. However, from the perspective of adisaster victim it is not particularly useful to distinguishbetween minor and major disasters. Some disasters arenow of limited interest to the international community.These include avalanches, fog, frost, hail, lightning,snowstorms, and tornadoes. The international interestis less for these hazards because their impacts affectrelatively few people and the countries in which theynormally occur have sufficient resources and systemsin place to respond without external assistance. Thereare several hazard types for which there is widespreadconcern. They can be categorized as follows:

Sudden onset hazards–(geological and climatic hazards)earthquakes, tsunamis, floods, tropical storms, volcaniceruptions, landslides

Slow onset hazards–(environmental hazards) drought,famine, environmental degradation, desertification,deforestation, pest infestation

Industrial/technological–system failures/accidents,spillages, explosions, fires

Wars and civil strife–armed agression, insurgency,terrorism, and other actions leading to displaced personsand refugees Epidemics-water and/or food–bornediseases, person-to-person diseases (contact andrespiratory spread), vector-borne diseases andcomplications from wounds

Components of disaster preparedness

There are major components involved in disasterpreparedness which provide a framework upon which anational disaster preparedness strategy can bedeveloped.

Assessing vulnerability

Fundamental to all aspects of disaster management isinformation. It is a point that may appear obvious, but itis frequently overlooked. The disaster manager may know

that a particular geographic region or community issusceptible to the impacts of sudden or slow-onsethazards. However, in reality, until a decision is made onsystematic ways to compile and assess informationabout disaster vulnerabilities, the manager is and willbe working in a void.

Planning

Throughout all the activities designed to promote disasterpreparedness, the ultimate objective is to have plans inplace that are agreed upon, that are implementable andfor which commitment and resources are relativelyassured. The plan itself will have to address other pointsin this framework.

Institutional framework

A coordinated disaster preparedness and responsesystem is a prerequisite to any disaster preparednessplan. Each system design will depend upon the traditionsand governmental structure of the country under review.However, without ensuring that there is “horizontalcoordination” at central government levels amongministries and specialized government bodies and“vertical coordination” between central and localauthorities, a plan will rapidly disintegrate. This requiresa structure for decision-making, inter-ministerialcommittees to coordinate the plan, focal points withineach ministry to be responsible for the planimplementation and communication, as well as regionaland community structures to implement the plan at thelocal level.

Information systems

The preparedness plan must have an information system.For slow onset disasters this should consist of aformalized data collection process, and early warningsystem (especially for regions prone to famine), andmonitoring system to update the early warninginformation. For sudden onset disasters a similar systemmust be in place for prediction, warning, and evacuationcommunication.

Resource base

The requirements to meet an emergency situation willclearly depend upon the types of hazards the plananticipates. Such requirements should be made explicit,and should cover all aspects of disaster relief and recoveryimplementation.

Warning systemsFor most types of rapid onset disasters, a warningsystem can save many lives. By giving a vulnerablepopulation adequate notice of an impending disaster,they can either escape the event or take precautions toreduce the dangers. However, you must assume thatfunctioning communications systems, such as



telephones and telexes, may not be available in timesof a major disaster. Begin to plan a warning systemaround that assumption. Consider what type ofcommunications equipment will be needed andsustainable if power lines and receiving stations aredestroyed. Preparedness plans should include provisionsfor access to alternative communication systems amongpolice, military and government networks.

Conclusion

The Government of India over the years formulatedstrategies to cope with, prevent and mitigatedisasters because of the frequency of disasters affectingthe country. These policies consist of long and shortterm prevention and preparedness measures andimmediate response mechanisms. They also includeappropriate administrative structures to manage disasterresponse, financial systems to fund and facilitate them,the mechanisms to ensure that policies and strategiesare continuously reviewed and revised in the light ofexperiences within the country and in other parts of theworld. We, as teachers as responsible citizens of ourcountry should be a part and parcel of the disasterpreparedness drive taken up in the country.

References

1. Eichenfield, Jeff. 20 Tools That Protect HistoricResources after an Earthquake: Lessons learnedfrom the Northridge Earthquake, CaliforniaPreservation Foundation, 1996.

2. Harthorn, Roy W. CBO. Temporary Shoring &Stabilization of Earthquake Damaged HistoricBuildings, California Building Officials, SantaBarbara, 1998.

3. Kariotis, John, Krakower, Mike, and Roselund,Nels. The Engineer’s View, Loma Prieta: HistoricBuildings, Earthquake Damage & SeismicStrengthening, California Preservation Foundation,1991.

4. M2A Milofsky and Michali Architects, Krakower andAssociates, and the Roselund EngineeringCompany. Earthquake-Damaged Historic Chimneys:A Guide to the Rehabilitation and Reconstruction ofChimneys, Historic Preservation Partners forEarthquake Response, July 1995.

5. Swartley, Paige J. Model Ordinance: Post-DisasterAlteration, Repair, Restoration, Reconstruction andDemolition of Historic and Cultural Resources,California Preservation Foundation.

6. California Seismic Safety Commission, CommercialProperty Owner’s Guide to Earthquake Safety, 2006Edition, Sacramento.

7. California Seismic Safety Commission,Homeowner’s Guide to Earthquake Safety, 2005Edition, Sacramento.

8. California Seismic Safety Commission, Status of theUnreinforced Masonry Building Law; 2003 Report tothe Legislature, SSC 2003-3, Sacramento.

9. Disaster Management Programs for Historic Sites,ed. by Spennemann, Dirk H.R. and Look, David W.,Association for Preservation Technology, WesternChapter, San Francisco, USA, U.S. National ParkService and The Johnstone Centre, Charles SturtUniversity, Albury, Australia, 1998.

10. FEMA, Heritage Preservation, and NationalEndowment for the Arts, Before and After Disasters;Federal Funding for Cultural Institutions, FEMA 533,September 2005.

11. Federal Emergency Management Agency Region1, Safeguarding Your Historic Site: BasicPreparedness and Recovery Measures for NaturalDisasters, Boston, n.d. (Provides summary outlinebefore a disaster strikes, during a disaster, and aftera disaster - preventive measures,)

12. FEMA, Integrating Historic Property and CulturalResource Considerations Into Hazard MitigationPlanning; State and Local Mitigation Planning How-To Guide, FEMA 386-6, May 2005.

13. Merritt, John F., History at Risk. Loma Prieta:Seismic Safety & Historic Buildings, CaliforniaPreservation Foundation, 1990.

14. Minnesota Historical Society, State HistoricPreservation Office, Thinking About the Unthinkable:A Disaster Plan For Historic Properties in Minnesota,prepared by Claybaugh Preservation Architecture,Inc., September 1999.

15. “Treatment of Flood-Damaged Older and HistoricBuilding,” Information Booklet 81, National Trust forHistoric Preservation, 1993.



IMPACTS OF NATURAL DISASTERS IN AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTIONAND MARKETING

1. Assistant Professor, Christhu Raj Institute of Management and Research,Trichy

Abstract

In general, paddy cultivators or farmers reported that while natural disasters are a permanent risk to the economicviability of their farms, they were optimistic that their knowledge of the environment would enable them to adoptstrategies that would minimize or mitigate the risks and enhance the likelihood of crop success in a dynamic environmentwith variable conditions. Though the farmers differed in their definition of what comprised a farming community, theywere in agreement that the best strategy to overcome adversity was to rely upon the farming community, rather thangovernmental aid. The term natural disaster is most commonly defined as being a highly destructive environmentalphenomenon (e.g., volcano eruptions, earthquakes, and tsunamis) that indiscriminately impacts a large geographicarea, farmers expand this definition to include events that are more localized (e.g., microclimates) and have targetedimpacts that are inclusive of those things that are crop specific (e.g., frosts and diseases). In the following sections, thearticle deals with how natural disasters affect quality of life, how farmers use networks of social and economic supportand definitions of natural disasters are described.

IntroductionAgriculture is the foundation of the Indian economy andthe basic means of livelihood for over 60 per cent of thepopulation. GDP was no more than 17.1 per cent during2008-09 and go down further to just around 16 per centin 2009 -10.

India is largely based on agricultural economy, with two-third of its population, make out their existence fromfarmland. However, challenges before agriculture hasbeen increasing such as environmental changes andtechnological challenges increase in input price andvariations in output price are the major problems today.Agriculture production is classified into three fold suchas production of food-grain crops, commercial/cashcrops and horticulture crops.

The term agricultural marketing is composed of two wordsagriculture and marketing. Agriculture, in the broadestsense, means activities aimed at the use of naturalresources for human welfare, i.e., it includes all theprimary activities of production, used to growing cropsand livestock.

Marketing connects a series of activities involved inmoving the goods from the starting point of productionto the end point of consumption. Marketing consist ofall activities involved in the creation of time, place, formand possession utility.

Definition of Natural DisastersA working definition of natural disasters varies dependingon what individual farmers have experienced in the past

N.Kannadasan2

and what they view as future threats to their production.When asked, the informants were able to provide a listof natural disasters that have an immediate effect onagricultural production, many of which do not necessarilymeet the criteria of the standard definition of naturaldisasters, as “any event or force of nature that hascatastrophic consequences, such as avalanche,earthquake, flood, forest fire, hurricane, lightning, tornado,tsunami, and volcanic eruption” (Dictionary.com 2010).

Categories of Natural Disasters and effect onAgricultureOf the two categories of natural disasters, environmentaldisasters were more commonly cited as beingproblematic for farmers. The most common types ofenvironmental disasters are weather related events.Temperature related events such as freezes and frostswere implicated most frequently by farmers as causingthe most intensive crop damage.

The Known enemies in AgricultureWind damage was mentioned approximately half asfrequently, but was mostly limited to damage to trees,especially if the trees were in fruit. High winds couldalso cause structural damage, mostly to greenhouses,though not commonly cited as causing significant cropdamage.

Storms, however, with both high winds and hail can bedevastating to fruit crops. Informants reported thatsunburn of fruits and vegetables may also damage crops,but occurred less often than other weather related cropdamage.



Flooding can also have adverse affects on farmproduction. For example, one farmer lost an entire cropto flooding while two other farmers claimed floodingimpeded their ability to bring produce to market. Naturaldisasters, in this case flooding, do not only impactproduction, but also distribution of produce. In caseswhen drought was mentioned, most farmers spoke aboutthe current four-year drought that they fear will continueto impact their ability to grow crops, at least, in the nearfuture.

The farmers often mentioned earthquakes and fires, butfarmers reported that these types of disasters had littleeffect on the farms, as earthquakes only cause minordamage to structures, not crops, and wild fires affectingfarms are rare in this region of California.

According to farmers, while the frequency of biologicaldisasters may be higher than environmental disasters,they seem to be less catastrophic. This may be due tothe preventability or treatability of biological factors.Animal activity, such as small herbivores, gophers andsquirrels, were cited as most common type of biologicalnatural disaster that affects crops. Large herbivores,such as deer and wild boars, can cause widespreaddamage to ground crops and young trees, but arepreventable with proper fencing. Carnivores are a problemfor those farmers who also raise livestock, with mountainlions and bears being reported as responsible for livestockdeaths. Insect pest activity, such as aphids and huskflies, may decrease production or damage produce sothat it may not be sold. Informants reported that birdscause direct damage to grapes and berries throughconsumption or by spreading diseases. Birds and otherbiological pests may be prevented by various means(e.g., traps and netting) and do not pose a large threatto crops, but do raise the cost of production.

Intervention of biological disasters in AgricultureDisease-causing agents are another subtype of abiological disaster. Viruses and fungi are more commonlycited as affecting fruit and nut trees than annual vegetableproduce and, therefore, long-term and costly investmentis needed to protect fruit and nut trees, which take manyyears to mature. Disease was cited to have the potentialto destroy an entire orchard and is the main reason oneinformant refused to adopt solely organic practices eventhough she believed that organic farming was better forthe environment and people that consume the produce.

A few farmers who were interviewed indicated thatartificial (e.g., economic and political) events amplify theaffects of natural disasters. While not a category ofnatural disaster, amplifying events may have many ofthe same economic results. Farmers often cited thecurrent economy as the cause for lower sales. Bankloans and crop insurance become more difficult to obtain

during a recession. Over-regulation may prevent thepreferred treatment of a disease or infestation. Finally,water laws due to drought concerns may limit the amountof water that the farmer can give to his or her plants andlead to further crop issues.

Today, agricultural produce has to undergo a series oftransfers or exchanges from one hand to another beforeit finally reaches the consumer. There is a worldwideconsent that Agricultural marketing and the nature ofconsumption, production and marketing of agriculturalproduce is critical. There is a need to go forward policiesto address such issues. The proper implementation ofdisaster management is to be adopted in agriculture. Tobe the competitive advantage at the world scenario it isneed of the hour to enhance and safeguard theagricultural sector.

The dimensions of problems affect Agriculture• The quality of life of the farmers that were interviewed

is affected in both preparing for and responding toperceived natural disasters. For example, extremeevents can directly compromise health throughdisrupting water supply or access to medical facilitiesas well as generally increasing the likelihood ofaccidental injury.

• Loss of crops can mean loss of variety and nutritionin diet by the loss of foods consumed by the farmersand loss of income with which to purchase food.

• Prolonged financial difficulties cause long-term stress,which compromises biological immune systems andcontribute to a large variety of other health concerns.Resources redirected to disaster response orpreparedness (e.g., purchasing and installinggreenhouses, removing flammable brush, installingnew wells and irrigation) are unavailable for routinehealthcare or health insurance.

How Disaster Management solves problems inAgriculture

It is believed that when farmers utilize sustainablefarming techniques (e.g., biodynamics, permaculture,organic farming), they may protect against future naturaldisasters and improve the health of individuals workingon the farm and consuming their produce. In addition,farms growing a variety of crops in hopes of preventingtotal crop loss in the event of a natural disaster canresult in reduced outflows of chemical pollutants, havingan ancillary benefit to the health of the surroundingenvironment in which the farmer lives. These sustainablepractices are seen as a substitute or partial substitutefor healthcare insurance by introducing a nutritious dietthat benefits the farmer and the community by reducingthe future cost of medical expenses.



Changes in farmers’ economic behavior brought aboutby the impacts of natural disasters are expressed byincreased spending of preventative measures, short-termeconomic loss due to decline in crop production, andimpact of crop loss on the local economy. The increasedspending on preventive measures (e.g., green houses,fertilizers, and irrigation) leads to short-term financialloss and, at the same time, an investment for futurecrop protection enabling long-term financial security. Theseverity of the event determines if the farmer experiencesshort-term and/or long-term economic loss due to cropreduction. Depending on the duration, the inability tomeet consumer demand can be a short-term financialloss that can lead to a long-term economic hardship.The consumer may opt to seek other suppliers if thefarmer is unable to supply a product in a timely andconsistent manner, thus affecting the farmer and the localeconomy. The businesses with which farmers rely on(e.g., farm stores and labor contractors) also have a stakein the farming community and any altered state ofeconomic behavior on a farm has an effect on the localeconomy.

Farmers may go years without experiencing agovernmentally recognized natural disaster whilecontinuously coping with challenging weather events thatsome consider normal, and others consider naturaldisasters. Farmers’ experience equips them with theknowledge to manage these individually catastrophicevents and minimize potential damage. Occasionally anunusually extreme and unforeseen natural disastercauses unanticipated damage and economic loss. Thesenatural disasters reveal previously unknownvulnerabilities. Unexpected losses motivate individualfarmers to modify their farming practices. Seekingappropriate responses, these farmers engage in newlearning behaviors. These behaviors include devisingexperimental tests and agricultural techniques,researching appropriate practices on the Internet,consulting the farming community, and occasionallyseek advice from government agricultural agencies.These efforts may also result in relief provided by thecommunity in the form of donated labor. If such relief isneeded and available, it usually arrives quickly due tothe connectedness of local farm communities.

Role of Farmers in Disaster Management

• Farmers stated that they attempted to prevent orlessen the effects of natural disasters by their choiceof location, diversity of crops, and timing of harvests.

• Farmers reported that it was important to understandthe characteristics of the land both for choosing thelocation of fields, but also for the best time to plantand harvest particular varieties of crops. Thereappears to be agreement among farmers that by

understanding the land and plants one can reducethe impact natural disasters have on crops.

• One method that was reported to work for small-scalefarmers was diversifying their crops to ensure that aminor natural disaster (e.g., isolated frost) would onlyaffect part of the farm’s total crop yield. One farmerexplained that “real farmers [that are] really connectedto nature are self insured [because] you can’t beconnected to nature and have a mono-culture.”

• In another attempt to create support mechanismsagainst farm losses due to natural disasters, farmersutilized farmers’ markets and Community SupportedAgriculture (CSA) cooperatives to find customers topurchase their produce as well as making lastingconnections with the community at large.

• Merchants and farmers interviewed at each of thefarmers’ markets expressed how they were pleasedwith the opportunities that the farmers’ markets gavethem to sell their produce on a weekly basis andcreate lasting relationships with their customers, whoare often referred to as regulars. Many of thecustomers were willing to support local farmers bypaying slightly more for the local produce at themarkets or CSAs versus buying similar produce atthe grocery store.

• Many small-scale farmers expressed that farmers’markets and CSAs are the only real alternative toselling their produce wholesale. Communitymembers who take part in a CSA often wish tosupport locally grown produce more than those whoshop at the farmers’ markets.

• There is a variety of ways farmers rely on othercommunity members as well as other farmers, mostoften, physically, financially, and/or intellectually.Many of the farmers that were interviewed reportedthat they asked other farmers in their community tohelp with physical labor on the farm due to unforeseencircumstances such as a sudden frost during whichcrops needed to be covered quickly.

• Farmers also stated that they received financialassistance from other farmers and communitymembers through fundraisers.

• Finally, farmers described how they shared ideas witheach other to enhance each other’s farmingtechniques. This was most common with farmers thatwere devoting all or part of their crop to organicproduce.

• Similar to how farmers in the area relied on thecommunity, they also relied on family and friendsfinancially, physically, and intellectually, as well asemotionally.



• Many farmers said that they asked for physical laborhelp and borrowed money from their family and friendsin time of need. Friends and family were a valuableresource to many of the farmers, whether they neededhelp starting a new farm or on a well-established farmwith the daily work.

• Family and friends were also described as an outletfor the emotional struggles that occur during farmingin general as well as preparing for or recovering fromnatural disasters.

Conclusion

The serious problems experienced by the Indianagriculture is Loss of irrigation and water resources inrivers, streams, and ground water contributes to dramaticshifts in aquatic ecosystems. Agricultural pesticides cancontaminate streams, ground water, and wells.Excessive use of certain pesticides could be harmful toagricultural workers and might pose food safetyrisks. This is the right time to address all the issuesbefore us and should not reluctant to new approach.The study report findings show positive and promisingoutcomes among the production systems, farmingbusinesses, and communities that are pursuing improvedsustainability. It also reveals the importance ofgovernment agencies, farmers, food industry companies,communities, and consumers to support research,policies, programs, and institutions that help Indianagriculture move along the sustainability line.

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6. Gopinath K.and Natarajan K. IndianAgricultural Marketing, Issues and ChallengesKissan World, Vol 35 Feb2008 No.2 .

7. Zonuntluanga R. “Agricultural MarketingInfrastructures in Mizoram”, Southern Economist,Vol.44, No.7, August 1, 2005.

8. Datt, Gaurav and A. Mahajan, Datt & SundharamIndian Economy, Revised Sixty Second Edition, S.Chand & Company Ltd., Ramnagar, New Delhi, 2011,p. 498. Also see, CSO, National Accounts Statistics,2010, Central Statistical Organization, New Delhi,2010.

9. Annual Report (2009/10) of Department of Agricultureand Co-operatives, Ministry of Agriculture,Government of India, page 76, Academic Foundation,New Delhi



IMPLEMENTATION OF DISASTER MANAGEMENT IN CO-OPERATIVESOCIETIES

1. Research Scholar in Commerce, St.Joseph’s College (Autonomous), Tiruchirappalli

Abstract

Human vulnerability to disasters is an age-old phenomenon. Disasters play havoc with people’s lives. Their aftermathresults in death, destruction, misery and trauma. The unique geoclimatic conditions of our country make this regionvulnerable to natural disasters. There are varied reasons for occurrence of disasters. Modernisation and industrialisationhave disrupted the natural resource balance. This, alongwith alarming increase in population, depletion of resources,lack of knowledge and skills and rising economic disparities are considered to be mainly responsible for the vulnerabilityof society to these catastrophies. The situation, though more or less similar globally, is quite distressing in countries ofSouth Asia, such as India. The long history of disasters, and the resulting sufferings, are reasons enough to ponderover their manageability. India is mainly an agrarian society with more than half of its population still residing in thevillages. Rural sector is the major contributor to the overall GDP of the nation and hence lack of development invillages means lack of development in India. Cooperative societies are playing significant role in this and share amajor credit in the growth of rural sector which along with government and private sectors contribute to the overalleconomy of India.

A.Vasuki1

IntroductionOne of the major repercussions that disasters have, ison agriculture. A substantial part of the populationdepends on agriculture for its livelihood. Agriculturalactivity is adversely affected by any unforeseen weatherchanges or variations in physical conditions. This getsaccentuated in case of cyclones, floods and droughtsresulting in disruption of people’s livelihood and addingto the risk, damage and stress of disasters. Drought isa perennial feature, 16 per cent of India’s total area isdrought prone and approximately, 50 million people areannually affected by droughts. About 68 per cent of totalsown area of the country is susceptible to drought atone time or other. Under this latest dispensation, another‘sub-humid’ category, having an adverse water balance,has been added to arid and semi-arid category. Thedrought of 1987-88 was one of the worst in India. Droughtsituations had also affected about 11 states, in 1999-2000.

The Principles of Cooperation

The Principles of Cooperation are guidelines by whichcooperatives put their values into practice.

• First Principle: Voluntary and OpenMembership: Cooperatives are voluntaryorganisations, open to all persons able to use theirservices and willing to accept the responsibilities ofmembership, without gender, social, racial, politicalor religious discrimination.

• Second Principle: Democratic MemberControl: Cooperatives are democratic organisationscontrolled by their members, who actively participatein setting their policies and making decisions. Menand women, serving as elected representatives, areaccountable to the membership. In primarycooperatives, members have equal voting rights [onemember one vote], and cooperatives at other levelsare also organised in a democratic manner.

• Third Principle: Member EconomicParticipation: Members contribute equitably to, anddemocratically control, the capital of their cooperative.At least part of that capital is usually the commonproperty of the cooperative. Members usually receivelimited compensation, if any, on capital subscribedas a condition of membership. Members allocatesurpluses for any or all of the following purposes:developing their cooperative, possibly by setting upreserves, part of which at least would be indivisible;benefiting members in proportion to their transactionswith the cooperative; and supporting other activitiesapproved by the membership.

• Fourth Principle: Autonomy andIndependence: Cooperatives are autonomous, self-help organisations controlled by their members. Ifthey enter into agreements with other organisations,including governments, or raise capital from externalsources, they do so on terms that ensure democraticcontrol by their members and maintain theircooperative autonomy.



• Fifth Principle: Education, Training andInformation: Cooperative provide education andtraining for their members, elected representatives,managers, and employees, so that they cancontribute effectively to the development of theircooperatives. They inform the general public –particularly young people and opinion leaders – aboutthe nature and benefits of cooperation.

• Sixth Principle: Cooperation amongCooperatives: Cooperatives serve their membersmost effectively and strengthen the CooperativeMovement by working together through local, national,regional and international structures.

• Seventh Principle: Concern for theCommunity: Cooperatives work for the sustainabledevelopment of their communities through policiesapproved by their members. It undertakes need basedcommunity-related services e.g., drinking water,health care, sanitation, education, womenempowerment, and other community relatedprogrammes. A cooperative is a central rallying pointin the village and therefore it performs a lot towardsthe social responsibility and such activities bring thegeneral community closer to the cooperative.

Co-Operative Movement in IndiaTwentieth century was a century of revolutions.Capitalism was spreading its wings over feudaleconomies; and on the other hand, socialists hadestablished their rule in U.S.S.R. China and some othercountries. After Second World War most of the coloniesgot liberated and determination of their economic andpolitical life was a question on the forefront. Socio-economic needs of newly liberated countries were totallydifferent from developed countries. Mass production onall economic fronts was required in these countries foroverall development of the state. However, to achievethis, a huge capital was required which was possible inonly capitalistic mode of production. On the other hand,satisfaction of the aspirations of poor millions waspossible only in a socialistic mode of economicdevelopment. Therefore, to ensure mass production andmass participation in economic activity, most of thecountries adopted mixed economy model.

India also adopted the path of planned economy toprovide a new environment for socio- economicdevelopment of the country. To put the economy onoptimum path of growth and re-orient the social structurefor maximum social welfare have been the main objectiveof our planners. Therefore, they adopted mixed economymodel in which co-operatives have been given importantrole.

Role of Co-operative societies in India

Cooperatives cover more than 97%of Indian villages,some run by its members and some by the government.Needs of rural people are served by different forms ofprivate and government organizations includingpartnership firms, co-operatives, companies andcharitable trust. Government each year spends lakhs tocrores of rupees on rural development. But co-operativesworking in rural areas are playing noteworthy role in this.

Cooperatives originated in the West during the middleof the last century and from there these came to India.Formally co-operatives were introduced to India in 1904when the Indian Co-operative Societies Act waspromulgated. Moreover rural indebtedness was the majorforce behind the initiation of chit funds and cooperativesin India. Initially these were just to provide credits to thefarmers in the form of credit societies and gradually thesestart working in other fields such as banking, processingand marketing. The meager funds of farmers were pooledin to run cooperative and it was an attractive way tosolve their financial problems.

After independence role of cooperative societies grewto encompass socio-economic development anderadication of poverty in rural India. It became an integralpart of five year plan. With this co-operative societiesbecame a fundamental part of our economy.

Non-credit societies came in 1912. Importance of co-operative was also highlighted in the Royal Commissionon Agriculture in 1928. With the formation of the ReserveBank of India (RBI) in 1935, developing more cooperativesocieties was given due importance.

Main aim of the cooperative was to get the poor andindebted farmers out of poverty and out from the clutchesof money lenders. Within short span of time, role ofcooperatives extended beyond agricultural credit. Itstarted covering activities such as production, farming,marketing and processing. Cooperatives are now playinga very significant role in the socio-economic developmentof our country especially the rural India.

In 1951 there were 1,81,000 cooperatives of all kinds inIndia and this number increased to manifold within shortspan of time. During 2007-08 there were 1,50,000 primarycredit cooperatives and some 2,60,000 non-credit primarysocieties of all types. In India there are four major typesof cooperatives –

• The Primary agricultural credit or service societies• Agricultural non-credit societies• Agricultural co-operative marketing societies• Co-operative farming societies

Though the expansion and reach of cooperatives is highlyimpressive but their way of working is not Except for fewco-operative societies most of these lack motivation.



These are merely run by the government withoutmotivation and enthusiasm of their members. Some ofthese even lack in the required funds. Other factors thatlead to the slow progress of these societies are –mismanagement, manipulation, restricted coverage, lackof awareness, and political interference. But this doesnot mean the downfall of the massive projects. Despiteall this, cooperatives are really helping poor in becomingself-reliant. Scope of cooperative societies in rural Indiacan improve further with women participation.

Cooperatives provide credit to the farmers, the mostneeded thing in the farming. Apart from this cooperativeshelp farmers by providing top quality fertilizers, seeds,insecticides, pesticides etc at reasonable price. Farmersalso get marketing, warehousing facility andtransportation support from the cooperatives. Servicecooperative societies help the poor and marginal farmerswith tractors, threshers etc on rent. Rural cooperativesocieties are now entering into real estate, power,insurance, healthcare and communication sector. Ifthese keep on working with an objective of developmentthen days are not far when quality of rural life would befar better than urban India.

The Role of Cooperatives in Economic DevelopmentCooperatives are community-based, rooted indemocracy, flexible, and have participatory involvement,which makes them well suited for economic development(Gertler, 2001). The process of developing and sustaininga cooperative involves the processes of developing andpromoting community spirit, identity and socialorganisation as cooperatives play an increasinglyimportant role worldwide in poverty reduction, facilitatingjob creation, economic growth and social development(Gibson, 2005).

Cooperatives are viewed as important tools for improvingthe living and working conditions of both women andmen. Since the users of the services they provide ownedthem, cooperatives make decisions that balance the needfor profitability with the welfare of their members and thecommunity, which they serve. As cooperatives fostereconomies of scope and scale, they increase thebargaining power of their members providing them, amongothers benefits, higher income and social protection.Hence, cooperatives accord members opportunity,protection and empowerment - essential elements inuplifting them from degradation and poverty (Somavia,2002).

As governments around the world cut services andwithdraw from regulating markets, cooperatives are beingconsidered useful mechanisms to manage risk formembers and keep markets efficient (Henehan, 1997).

In a number of ways, cooperatives play important role inglobal and national economic and social development.With regard to economic and social development,cooperatives promote the “fullest participation of allpeople” and facilitate a more equitable distribution ofthe benefits of globalization. They contribute tosustainable human development and have an importantrole to play in combating social exclusion.

Thus the promotion of cooperatives should be consideredas one of the pillars of national and international economicand social development (Levin, 2002). In addition to thedirect benefits they provide to members, cooperativesstrengthen the communities in which they operate.According to Somavia (2002) cooperatives arespecifically seen as significant tools for the creation ofdecent jobs and for the mobilization of resources forincome generation. Many cooperatives provide jobs andpay local taxes because they operate in specificgeographical regions. According to Wikipedia (2006) andLevin (2002) it is estimated that cooperatives employmore than 100 million men and women worldwide.

Agricultural Disaster issues in India : The lessonslearntFood losses due to pests, disease, wild animals, insectsand weeds are considerable, about 35 per cent of worldcrop production is lost in spite of pesticide and controlprogrammes. Insect outbreaks are generally the resultof a combination of temperature, monoculture of crops,introduction of plants to new locations, weather pattern,and migration (ecological factors). In India, locustinfestation-prone areas are Rajasthan, Gujarat, Punjab,Haryana, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Maharashtra.

Some lessons learnt from drought of 2000 in Rajasthan:

• There should be a specific policy for drought proneareas.

• Disaster Management Policy has to be area-specificand forecasting should be dependable and timely.

• Relief must be timely.

• Proper crop planning/land use planning should bedone.

• Fodder banks should be created.

• Occupational diversification should be made available.

Disaster management has presently evoked amethodological approach that focuses on systematicobservations, their analysis and dissemination of likelyevents to structure informed application of resources intime. The most critical goal of disaster managementactivity is to reach out to the people promptly in theremotest areas and reduce vulnerability to disasters. Thiscalls for a multipronged strategy involving the governmentat various levels, international agencies, non-governmental organisations, community based



organisations, and the panchayati raj institutions to puttogether resources and efforts in managing disasters.

The Measures to be undertaken

The world over, any measure, be it preparedness,mitigation, relief or rehabilitation in the wake of disasters,is primarily regarded as the responsibility of thegovernment. But despite the vast resources at itscommand and the power to take necessary steps, dueto the range of activities involved, the government needsto involve other key stakeholders in this exercise. Whilelong-term preventive and preparedness measures aretaken up, the unprecedented nature of the disasters callsfor nationwide response mechanisms with clear-cutassignment of roles and functions by various institutionsat the central, state and district levels. This, alongwithother initiatives, forging efforts with international agencies,non-governmental organisations, panchayati rajinstitutions with emphasis on education and training,can go a long way in making a dent in disastermanagement in agriculture. To discuss issues ofdevelopment in the area of disaster management inagriculture, National Academy of Agricultural Sciences(NAAS) organised a one day brain-storming session.*

The role of the following was deliberated upon:

a) Government of India;b) International agencies;c) Non-governmental organisations;d) Panchayati raj institutions ande) Education and training in disaster management.

Our responses

• The importance of disaster management inagriculture was recognised and its furtherstrengthening through a comprehensive disastermanagement policy by the Government of Indiaproviding a renewed focus on anticipatorypreparedness, prevention and rehabilitation wasstrongly recommended.

• State government needs to be more proactive inhandling disaster related issues leading to effectivemanagement in agriculture.

• In the context of National Calamity Contingency Fund(NCCF), the existing process of preparing amemorandum of state government, sending a teamfrom central government, etc., should be reviewed,and made quicker and more convincing.

• The cropped area throughout the country is vulnerableto one or the other pest disease, insects and weeds,therefore development and implementation of aneffective and regular pest surveillance system wasrecommended, which would continuously monitorpest activity through an exclusive network.

• In affected areas, the contingency plan prepared bythe Department of Agriculture to face any naturalcalamity should be put into action to bring relief tothe farmers.

• It was felt that networking of international agencieswould go a long way for channelling multifacetedassistance ranging from pre-disaster, response,recovery and rehabilitation. The forging partnershipshould ensure immediate, medium-term and long-term livelihood interventions.

• Effective interagency and intercommunitycommunication and educating the stakeholders, helpin facing and mitigating the calamity effects. Hence,linkages for experience sharing, database transfers,action plans and strategies should be put in place. Itwould also make the initiative cost-effective andtimely.

• It was strongly felt that in addition to the technicaland managerial skills in relation to disaster and relatedactivities importance should be given to disastermanagement education also to provide knowledgeto the learners on disasters preparedness, mitigationand rehabilitation; create awareness about effectivedisaster response in various emergency situations;equip the learners with tools for meeting emergencymedical requirements; incorporate gender sensitive,empathy-based disaster management approach; andinculcate new skills and sharpen the existing skillsof government officials, voluntary activists,professionals and elected representatives for effectivemanagement.

• To empower people at grassroots levels, educationalprogrammes, such as awareness- and application-oriented certificate programmes should be designed.

• Disaster management in agriculture curricula mustbe developed and certified to establish joint standardsof practice across the nation. This is necessary toensure uniformity in standards of humanitarian andmitigation practices in the region.

Conclusion

Cooperatives have inherent advantages in tackling theproblems of poverty alleviation, food security andemployment generation. It is considered to haveimmense potential to deliver goods and services in areaswhere both the public and private sector have failed. Byand large, cooperatives (except a few large ones) are“local institutions”, addressing “local needs”, employing“local talent”, and led by “local leaders”. A situation isemerging wherein there is a possibility of peoplemigrating back to rural areas, as the cooperatives exhibitvast potential for generating self-employmentopportunities at grassroots. There must be a nationalplan should be established for development of Co-



operatives regulations, regarding purchase of material,fertilizers, pest forecasting and damage assessmentcomponents, adoption of international pest managementstrategies, extension services to engage farmers’ supportand provide pest control supplies, and a trainingcomponent to update and discover new methods ofcontrol. The inclusion of disaster management in co-operation should be done.

References

1. National Academy of Agricultural Sciences, India, July2004.

2. Ramandeep Kaur, Co-operative societies and ruralIndia, January 28, 2014. http://www.mapsofindia.com/my-india/society/co-operative-societies-and-rural-india

3. Gertler, M. (2001): Rural Co-operatives andSustainable Development, Saskatoon SK: Centre forthe Study of Cooperatives, University ofSaskatchewan

4. Gibson, R (2005): The Role of Cooperatives inCommunity Economic Development, RDI, WorkingPaper # 2005-3

5. Somavia, J. (2002): ILO Recommendations No 193on Cooperatives, at

6. www.ica.coop/europe/ra2002/speech

7. Henehan, B (1997): Cooperating for Sustainability,USA: Cornell University

8. Levin, M. (2002): The Promotion of Cooperatives, ILOCooperative Branch, at www.ica.coop/europe/ra2002/speech

9. International Journal of Applied Research,International Journal of Applied Research 2015; 1(11):557-561 Importance of cooperative movement forIndian agriculture sector, OM Ashtankar ISSN Print:2394-7500, ISSN Online: 2394-5869



IMPACTS OF NATURAL HAZARDS ON FISHERY ECOSYSTEMS – AGLOBAL PERSPECTIVE

1. Research Scholar in Commerce, St.Joseph’s College (Autonomous), Tiruchirappalli.2.Faculty in school of Management studies, BFIT Group of Institution, Dehradun,Uttarkhand

G.Alwin Raja David1

IntroductionNatural Disasters throughout human history, naturaldisasters have played a major role in the economicdevelopment and survival of humanity. The economiccost associated with all natural disasters has increased14 fold since the 1950s. Deaths since the 1950sincreased 50 percent each decade, whereas thecorresponding population growth rate was only 20percent. Worldwide, annual economic costs related tonatural disasters have been estimated at about $ 50 to100 billion. By the year 2050 it is predicted thatglobally100,000 lives will be lost each year to naturaldisasters and the global cost could top $ 300 billionannually.

Natural Disasters – Definitions

• “an event is classified as a disaster if at least 10people are killed and/or 100 or more are affected and/or an appeal for international assistance is made ora state of emergency declared” (CRED, 2000).

• “a serious disruption of the functioning of society,causing widespread human, material or environmentallosses which exceed the capacity of the affectedsociety to cope using only its own resources” (UnitedNations)

• “Temporary events triggered by natural hazards thatoverwhelm local response capacity and seriouslyaffect the social and economic development of aregion” (Anderson, 1990).

• “The interface between an extreme physicalenvironment and a vulnerable human population”(Susman et al. 1983) .

Types of Natural Disasters

Natural disasters include hydro-meteorological disastersand geophysical disasters (World Disaster Report, 2003)

1. The hydro-meteorological disasters includelandslides/avalanches; droughts/famines; extremetemperatures and heat waves; floods; hurricanes;forest/scrub fires; windstorms; and others (insectinfestation and waves/surges).

2. The geophysical disasters include earthquakes andvolcanic eruptions.

D. Vinoth Kumar2

Landslide• A landslide is a geological phenomenon which

includes a wide range of ground movement, such asrock falls, deep failure of slopes, and shallow debrisflow.

• Although gravity acting on an over steepened slopeis the primary reason for a landslide, there are othercontributing factors.

• An avalanche is caused when a build up of snow isreleased down a slope, and is one of the majordangers faced in the mountains in winter. Anavalanche is a type of gravity current .

Drought

The consequence of a natural reduction in precipitationover an extended period of time, usually a season ormore, often associated with other climatic factors (hightemperatures, high winds and low relative humidity) thatcan aggravate the severity of the event.

• An interplay between natural water availability andhuman demands for water supply.

• Three types of droughts:

• Meteorological drought

• Agricultural drought

• Hydrologic drought

Heat wave

A heat wave is a prolonged period of excessively hotweather, which may be accompanied by excessivehumidity. The term is relative to the usual weather in thearea, so temperatures that people from a hotter climatefind normal can be a heat wave if they are outside thenormal pattern for a cooler area. The term is appliedboth to “ordinary” weather variations and to extraordinaryspells of heat which may only occur once a century.

Flood

Flood is a condition that occurs when water overflowsthe natural or artificial confines of a stream of other bodyof water, or accumulates by drainage over low-lyingareas. It is a temporary inundation of normally dry landwith water, suspended matter and/or rubble caused byoverflowing of rivers, precipitation, storm surge, tsunami,



waves, mudflow, lahar, failure of water retainingstructures, groundwater seepage and water backup insewer systems.

Tropical Cyclones, Typhoons and Hurricanes

These are regional names for the same phenomenon.Tropical Cyclones – Depressions in the tropics whichdevelop into storms in the south-west Indian Ocean, theBay of Bengal, and the Arabian Sea, parts of the southPacific and along the northern coasts of Australia.Typhoons - north-west Pacific. Hurricanes - in theCaribbean, south-east United States and Central America.

Impacts of Natural Disasters

Impacts can be direct or indirect in their effect. Directimpacts arise from the direct physical damage on crops,animals and trees caused by the extreme hydro-meteorological event. Indirect impacts refers to loss ofpotential production due to disturbed flow of goods andservices, lost production capacities, and increased costsof production. These appear progressively as a result oflow incomes, decreases in production, environmentaldegradation and other factors Impacts can also beclassified as tangible or intangible. Tangible impacts arethose that can be easily measured in monetary terms.Intangible impacts are often difficult to measure inmonetary terms eg., anxiety or fear of future naturaldisasters inconvenience and disruption to farm work andstressinduced ill health and human fatalities.

Loss of perennial crops such as banana trees or forestshas long-term consequences on the ability to generateincome. Floods make land unsuitable for agriculturalproduction until waters recede, while hurricanes mightwash out arable land or permanently increase its salinitythrough storm surges and flash floods. Localizeddisasters tend to produce limited aggregate impacts,unlike countrywide natural events such as HurricaneMitch (Charveriat, 2000). Recurrent disasters in the samegeographical area might lead to reduced investment dueto the perceived risk of asset loss or emigration fromstricken areas.

Poor people are more exposed because they tend tolive in marginal areas and depend on high-risk, low returnlivelihood systems such as rainfed agriculture and facemany sources of economic vulnerability including littlephysical infrastructure. 24 out of 49 least developednations face a high risk of natural disasters. At least 6of them have been hit by between 2 to 8 major disastersper year in the last 15 years, with long termconsequences (UNDP, 2001). While damages relatedwith natural disasters are greater in absolute value indeveloped countries, loss/GDP rates are 20% higher inthe developing countries. Hurricane Andrew in 1992caused a total damage of $26.5 billions in the UnitedStates, but it was a mere 0.4% of GDP.

Economic consequences of natural disasters are ofmajor importance given the repercussions they have onthe economic development (GDP, public finances, foreigntrade, price indices). Because of the important role itplays considering the creation of national wealth andthe population needs, the agricultural sector appearsas a highly vulnerable one. In Honduras, the rate ofunemployment in the immediate aftermath of HurricaneMitch had reached an estimated 32% Activities relatedto international trade eg., export agriculture, tourism,crafts and industrial activities are affected Free zonescan be affected by cyclones and floods, with greaterprobability as they are situated in the coastal plains andon the principal deltas.

Positive Impacts of Natural Disasters

Increased rainfall to inland areas from tropical cyclonesalong coastal areas (Ryan, 1993) Fixing of atmosphericnitrogen by thunderstorms. Germination of many nativeplant species as a result of bushfires and themaintenance of fertility of flood-plain soils due to flooding(Blong, 1992). The influx of funds into disaster-reliefactivities after the occurrence of natural disasters cansometimes be positive to local communities, as wasshown for the city of Mobile, Alabama after HurricaneFederic (Chang,1984).

Impacts of Droughts

Drought impacts crop growth and development atdifferent levels including soil moisture uptake, root growth,shoot growth, various plant processes such asphotosynthesis, respiration, plant water uptake and finalyield. The impacts of drought likely to become moresevere as a result of development processes andpopulation increases. Droughts often stimulatesequences of actions and reactions leading to long-termland degradation.

Environmental Degradation and Natural Disasters

Environmental degradation is one of the major factorscontributing to the vulnerability of agriculture, forestryand rangelands to natural disasters i Poverty andenvironmental degradation are closely linked, often in aself-perpetuating negative spiral in which povertyaccelerates environmental degradation and degradationresults in or exacerbates poverty. While poverty is notthe only cause of environmental degradation, it doespose the most serious environmental threat in many low-income countries. Forest fires in Indonesia in 1997-98were deliberately set, went completely out of control andturned into wildfire surpassing any nation’s fire fightingcapabilities.

Impacts of Natural Hazards on Fishery Ecosystems

The inevitability of natural hazards makes fishery into alittle more troublesome sector. The commercial fishing



sector is vulnerable to climatic events that may damagemarine and coastal infrastructure, or impact on fishinggrounds or fish stocks.

Natural disasters are random acts of nature that occurwithout pattern. Often it is the suddenness andrandomness that are their most devastating qualities.Scientists trying to make order out of this chaos try firstto identify and then track patterns and causes of naturaldisasters. We have learned to pay attention to certainsignals and warning signs. Meteorologists have identifiedtornado and hurricane seasons and developedsophisticated ways to track and gauge the magnitudeof storms within them. By comparing water levels in waterbodies as they change during rain storms we are ableto predict an approaching flood. Even with theseprediction capabilities, there is always a level ofunpredictability. Flash floods occur out of season andtornadoes choose there own paths.

Effect of Natural disaster on FisheriesChanges in weather conditions and natural disasters,such as floods, droughts, frosts, earthquakes orpestilence, may affect the cost and supply ofcommodities, ingredients and raw materials, includingfruits, vegetables, tomatoes, grain, beef, sugar andspices. Additionally, these events can result in reducedsupplies of raw materials, lower recoveries of usable rawmaterials, higher costs of cold storage if harvests areaccelerated and processing capacity is unavailable orinterruptions in our production schedules if harvests aredelayed. Competing manufacturers can be affecteddifferently by weather conditions and natural disastersdepending on the location of their supplies or operations.Changes in the weather may also change thethermoclines in which fish such as tuna may be located.If fish are driven to lower thermoclines, it may be harderfor fishermen to catch these fish, which could reducethe supply of tuna. In addition, some scientists believethat the population of some larger fish species has beendepleted due to over fishing, potentially affecting thecurrent and future supply of tuna. If our supplies of rawmaterials are reduced, we may not be able to find enoughsupplemental supply sources on favorable terms, if atall, which could impact our ability to supply product toour customers and adversely affect our business, financialcondition and results of operations. Increased costs forraw materials could also adversely affect our business,financial condition and results of operations.

Production and income loss:• Loss due to decline in fish yield for aquaculture• Loss due to decline in fish catch.

Higher production costs• Higher input cost for aquaculture• Higher production cost due to equipment rental

• Higher cost of fuel to reach fish after their migrationto other areas. Lack of ability to sell production dueto disrupted market chains.

Disaster affect the fisheries sector in many ways. Lossof lives is major impact with economic & social loss.The losses are in the form of damaged & lost boats,gear, fish cages, aquaculture broodstock & otherproductive assets, destruction of infrastructure such aslanding and fish processing facilities, & loss ofproduction(e.g.as fish escaping from aquaculture ponds).

Disease outbreaks & other threats to farmed fishes inparticular cause the loss of production. This lossesaffected directly on the income of communities.Environmental damages through accidents such as anoil spill may result in closing of fishery.

Because aquaculture is so heavily dependent on reliablenatural resources like water, the possibility of majorcatastrophes to aquaculture during natural disastersshould be considered. Farmers should prepare for naturaldisasters through:

1. Proper facility construction2. Developing a disaster management plan3. Having emergency backup equipment on site4. Contacting power companies to get on a service

priority list

5. Considering insurance options to provide somedisaster relief.

Disaster Management Cycle:

Mitigation↓

Risk Reduction↓

Prevention↓

Preparedness↓

Response↓

Recovery

Fig. 1



Mitigation :- Any activity that reduces the chances ofhazards converting into disaster.

Risk Reduction :- Measures or action to avoid the risksas a result of disaster in future.

Prevention :- Preventive measure taken to avoiddisaster.

Preparedness :- Plans or preparation made in advanceto save the property & lives of people as well as help theresponse & rescue service operations. This includesimplementation/operation, early warning systems &capacity building.

Response:- Actions taken to save lives of people & toprevent damage of property. Try to keep environment asgood as possible during disaster.

Recovery:- Actions taken to recover the people afterdisaster & help them to come on their routine life.

Changes in weather conditions and natural disasters canaffect crop or fish supplies, which can adversely affectour operations and our results of operations.

Changes in weather conditions and natural disasters,such as floods, droughts, frosts, earthquakes orpestilence, may affect the cost and supply ofcommodities, ingredients and raw materials, includingfruits, vegetables, tomatoes, grain, beef, sugar andspices.

Additionally, these events can result in reduced suppliesof raw materials, lower recoveries of usable raw materials,higher costs of cold storage if harvests are acceleratedand processing capacity is unavailable or interruptionsin our production schedules if harvests are delayed.Competing manufacturers can be affected differently byweather conditions and natural disasters depending onthe location of their supplies or operations. Changes inthe weather may also change the thermoclines in whichfish such as tuna may be located. If fish are driven tolower thermoclines, it may be harder for fishermen tocatch these fish, which could reduce the supply of tuna.In addition, some scientists believe that the populationof some larger fish species has been depleted due toover fishing, potentially affecting the current and futuresupply of tuna. If our supplies of raw materials arereduced, we may not be able to find enoughsupplemental supply sources on favorable terms, if atall, which could impact our ability to supply product toour customers and adversely affect our business, financialcondition and results of operations. Increased costs forraw materials could also adversely affect our business,financial condition and results of operations.

Suggestions

1. Consider natural disaster potential when choosing asite and constructing facility.

2. Develop a disaster management plan that will workfor you.

3. Locate backup equipment and verify its operation.4. Notify utilities of your critical demands.5. Consider crop insurance.

Conclusion

A comprehensive assessment of impacts of naturaldisasters on agriculture requires a multi-sectoral andintegral approach involving key organizations. Priorityshould be given to supporting research with practicalapplications since research is needed to understand thephysical and biological factors that contribute todisasters. Since major impact of the natural disastersis on poor farmers with limited means in developingcountries, community-wide awareness and educationprograms on natural disasters should be a priority.Programs for improving prediction methods anddissemination of warnings should be expanded andintensified. Efforts are also needed to determine theimpact of disasters on natural resources.

References

1. h t t p : / / w w w . w i k i n v e s t . c o m / s t o c k /Del_Monte_Foods_Company_(DLM)/Changes_Weather_ Conditions_ Natural_ Disasters_ Affect_Crop_ Fish

2. WIF India Workshop Report, Enhancing Women’sRoles in Fisheries in India, 1-3 February 2010, YUVACentre, Navi Mumbai, India

3. Sathiadas. R and Biradar R.S (2000). Fisheries inthe Development of Indian Economy. In Sathiadas Rand Venkateshvaran K (eds): Proceedings of NationalSeminar of Fisheries Economics, Extension andManagement. January 5 and 6, 2000. CIFE.

4. Society for National Integration through RuralDevelopment (SNIRD), Andhra Pradesh , WIF IndiaWorkshop Report, Enhancing Women’s Roles inFisheries in India, 1-3 February 2010, YUVA Centre,Navi Mumbai, India

5. According to Ratna Mahji, the DakshinabanglaMatsyajibi Forum is also affi liated to the NFF, WIFIndia Workshop Report, Enhancing Women’s Rolesin Fisheries in India, 1-3 February 2010, YUVACentre, Navi Mumbai, India

6. Kamini Koide of Sagar Kanya Women Co-operativeSociety, Malvan, WIF India Workshop Report,Enhancing Women’s Roles in Fisheries in India, 1-3February 2010, YUVA Centre, Navi Mumbai, India



7. Vaishali Bhagwan Khadpe and Bhagwan BalkrishanKhadpe, representing the Mahila Macchimar Co-operative Society at Tulsunde, Ratnagiri, WIF IndiaWorkshop Report, Enhancing Women’s Roles inFisheries in India, 1-3 February 2010, YUVA Centre,Navi Mumbai, India

8. Ramnad District Fishworkers Trade Union Nambuthaiand Nambulakshmi, representing the Ramnad DistrictFish workers Trade Union from Rameswaram, WIFIndia Workshop Report, Enhancing Women’s Rolesin Fisheries in India, 1-3 February 2010, YUVACentre, Navi Mumbai, India

9. South Canara Regional Fisherwomen’s Organization,Karnataka , WIF India Workshop Report, EnhancingWomen’s Roles in Fisheries in India, 1-3 February2010, YUVA Centre, Navi Mumbai, India

10.SNEHA, Nagapattinam, WIF India Workshop Report,Enhancing Women’s Roles in Fisheries in India, 1-3February 2010, YUVA Centre, Navi Mumbai, India

11.Fisher Women In Kerala Fight Back, TheeradesaMahila Vedi (Women’s Wing of KSMTF) KSMTFoffice, Kerala- 695001


Page 103Department of Business Administration Mary Matha College of Arts and Science : Special issue March 2016

DISASTER MANAGEMENT IN INDIA – A HOLISTIC APPROACH

1. Associate Professor & Head, Department of Economics, St.Joseph’s College, Tiruchirappalli

Abstract

The UNO defines disaster as “the occurrence of sudden or major misfortune which disrupts the basic fabric andnormal functioning of the society or community”. India due to its geo-climatic and socio-economic condition is proneto various disasters. Disasters lead to enormous economic losses that are both immediate as well as long term innature and demand additional revenues. It shows that economic loss is accounted for 2.25% of the GDP due todisasters as per the study of the World Bank (2014). Disaster Management is an applied science which by its analysisof disasters, intends to improve measures relating to prevention, mitigation, preparedness, emergency response andrecovery. Until recently, in India, disaster management was normally viewed as a post-disaster function. It comprisedof such activities as rescue, relief and rehabilitation after the occurrence of a disaster. Such an approach was short-sighted, extravagant, and prone to unnecessary interference of politicians, and others having vested interests. However,in the recent past, there has been a paradigmatic shift in India’s approach to disaster management. The new approachis multi-sectoral, multi-disciplinary, holistic and proactive, and disaster management is now sought to be built into thedevelopment planning process itself. Currently, India has a well defined institutional framework at the national andsub-national levels.This paper analyses the impact of various disasters occurred in India and the rehabilitative andresettlement measures undertaken by the governments. The study also highlights the need for a holistic approachencompassing a suitable mix of policy reforms, institutional changes and technology options.

Dr. P. Stanly Joseph1

Introduction

Disasters affect almost every part of the world. In thecase of India, natural disasters like floods, cyclones anddrought occur repeatedly in different parts of the country.Many districts of India are prone to multiple hazardsand face different disasters around the year, but the impactdepends on the magnitude of the event and thevulnerability of the location. Climate change is expectedto exacerbate the situation. There is, therefore, a needto recognize hazards and vulnerability in a comprehensivemanner and take effective steps for prevention, mitigationand management.

Developed countries which have modern early warningsystems and effective mitigation programmes are ableto reduce the impact of natural hazards whereascountries with less preparedness and inadequatemitigation efforts suffer more from natural hazards. Inthe case of India, the human and economic losses fromdisasters are high in comparison to many otherdeveloping nations. According to an estimate by theWorld Bank direct losses from natural disaster are upto 2.25 percent of the India’s GDP. More importantly,the impact of most of the disasters is disproportionatelyhigh on the poor.

The following table exposes the various disasters thattook place in 2012 throughout the world. The casualties,people affected and the monetary losses show theimportance of disaster management and need for ascientific and holistic approach to manage those events.India’s geo-climatic conditions as well as its high degreeof socio-economic openness, makes it one of the mostdisaster prone country in the world to suffer very oftenfrom various natural disasters, namely drought, flood,cyclone, earth quake, landslide, forest fire, hail storm,locust, volcanic eruption, etc. The rapid growth of theworld’s population and its increased concentration oftenin hazardous environment has escalated both thefrequency and severity of natural disasters. With thetropical climate and unstable land forms, coupled withdeforestation, unplanned growth proliferation non-engineered constructions which make the disaster-proneareas mere vulnerable, tardy communication, poor or nobudgetary allocation for disaster prevention, developingcountries suffer more or less chronically by naturaldisasters. Asia tops the list of casualties due to naturaldisaster. Among various natural hazards, earthquakes,landslides, floods and cyclones are the major disastersadversely affecting very large areas and population inthe Indian sub-continent. The perception about disasterand its management has undergone a change followingthe enactment of the Disaster Management Act, 2005.



Table - 1 : Disaster Statistic

Drought 14 42,50,320 106,18,41,000 24,41,122

Earthquake 26 78,094 2,79,19,695 51,02,700

Epidemic 68 45,43,874 4,21,473 NA

Extreme Temperature 47 13,801 250 5,44,000

Insect Infestation 235 60,188 79,86,54,220 3,41,45,188

Mass Movement Dry 1 45 0 0

Mass Movement Wet 42 4762 38,39,116 54,500

Storm 154 1,64,179 9,32,94,512 1,10,51,900

Wildfire 2 6 0 2000

Total 590 91,15,269 198,59,70,266 5,33,41,410

Disasters No. of Events No. of People killed Total Affected Damage in (000 US $)

Source: EM-DAT, International Disaster Database, 2012.

A comprehensive legal and institutional framework for disaster management has been set up through the DisasterManagement Act passed by the Indian parliament in 2005. The act establishes a series of disaster managementauthorities at the national, state, and district levels, which are headed by the prime minister, provincial chief minister,and district magistrate and president, respectively. The act defines the functions and responsibilities of thesebodies, prescribes the process to be followed for the preparation of disaster management plans at all levels, andprovides for dedicated funds for disaster response and mitigation.

Disaster Management is an applied science which by its analysis of disasters, intends to improve measuresrelating to prevention, mitigation, preparedness, emergency response and recovery. Until recently, in India, disastermanagement was normally viewed as a post-disaster function. It comprised of such activities as rescue, relief andrehabilitation after the occurrence of a disaster. Such an approach was short-sighted, extravagant, and prone tounnecessary interference of politicians, and others having vested interests. Over the past couple of years, theGovernment of India has brought about a paradigm shift in the approach to disaster management. The new approachproceeds from the conviction that development cannot be sustainable unless disaster mitigation is built into thedevelopment process. Another corner stone of the approach is that mitigation has to be multi-disciplinary spanningacross all sectors of development. The new policy also emanates from the belief that investments in mitigation aremuch more cost effective than expenditure on relief and rehabilitation. Disaster management occupies an importantplace in this country’s policy framework as it is the poor and the under-privileged who are worst affected on accountof calamities/disasters. Currently, India has a well defined institutional framework at the national and sub-nationallevels.

The Act defines disaster management as ‘a continuous and integrated process of planning, organizing, coordinatingand implementing measures which are necessary or expedient for:

i) prevention of danger or threat of any dangerii) mitigation or reduction of risk of any disaster or its severity or consequencesiii) capacity buildingiv) preparedness to deal with any disasterv) prompt response to any threatening disaster situation or disastervi) assessing the severity or magnitude of effects of any disastervii) evacuation, rescue and reliefviii) rehabilitation and reconstruction’

The Act goes on to define mitigation as ‘measures aimed at reducing the risk, impact or effects of a disaster or athreatening disaster situation’, preparedness as a ‘state of readiness to deal with a threatening disaster situation ordisaster and the effects thereof ’, reconstruction as ‘construction or restoration of a property after disaster’ and soon. The Act, therefore, attempts to define and deal with disasters in a holistic way, linking causes, both natural andman-made with impacts, including life, property and environment, and developing a management plan that includes



not only the post disaster aspects of response, reliefand reconstruction, but also the pre disaster aspects ofprevention, mitigation and preparedness.

On the recommendation of the Thirteenth FinanceCommission, the Ministry of Finance has allocated fundsfor strengthening disaster management institutions,capacity building and response mechanisms. Year afteryear the allocation has been increasing to meet the actualneed for disaster management.

Table - 2 : Allocation of Disaster Response Fund

2010-11 6077.3

2011-12 6381.18

2012-13 6700.22

2013-14 7035.22

2014-15 7387.01

Total 33580.93

Year Amount (Rs. in crores)

Source: Thirteenth Finance Commission Report, Ministry ofFinance

Based on this philosophy, a holistic framework for nationaldisaster management has been developed, whichhighlights the interdependence of economy, environment,and development. This framework also links the issuesof poverty alleviation, capacity-building, and communityempowerment, on the one hand, and structural and non-structural issues of prevention, response, and recovery,on the other, for effective management of disaster risk.

References:

1. Dhar Chakraborti, “Challenges of DisasterManagement in India: Implications for the Economic,Political, and security environments”, National Bureauof Asian Research, Special Report Number 34.

2. Shubendu Shukla, “Disaster Management: Managingthe Risk of Environmental Calamity” InternationalJournal of Scientific Engineering and Research, Vol1, Issue 1, September 2013.

3. State Level Programmes for Disaster Managementin India, Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India.



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