12

Warm-up

Look at this picture carefully and write at least five sentences on what you see. But you cannot use the verbs ‘is, are, was, were’.

Were you able to construct meaningful sentences without using the words?

Well, obviously, you could not. It is impossible to frame meaningful sentences without using helping, or auxiliary, verbs.

Auxiliary verbs These verbs, often, cannot stand on their own. For example, • The car is speeding. • They are practising on the ground. • Sheetal will go to the library tomorrow.

In these sentences, the highlighted verbs do not express a complete meaning. They help the main verbs (the underlined verbs) to complete the meaning of the sentence.

Auxiliary verbs are of two kinds—primary auxiliaries and modal auxiliaries.

Primary Auxiliaries and Modals3

13

Primary auxiliaries

The primary auxiliaries be and have are needed to help main verbs in the present and past tenses. The primary auxiliary do is needed in the formation of negative and interrogative sentences in the simple present and simple past tenses, etc.

When the verb be, do or have is followed by the main, or the principal verb, it is an auxiliary verb. When the verb be, do or have occurs alone in a sentence, it becomes the principal, or the main verb. For example, • Shalini is a wonderful artist. (be as main verb) • Shalini is painting a landscape. (be as helping verb)

Modal auxiliaries

Modals are verbs that are used to express the mood or attitude of the speaker. They are also known as modal auxiliaries.

Modals are used for several purposes.

Expressing Ability/Inability

Functions Examples

Can is used to express ability in the present time or in the future.

I can climb mountains.

Sheila can’t come to school tomorrow. She has to go somewhere. (informal)

Sheila will not be able to come to school tomorrow. (formal)

Can you see the big black rock in the distance?

Functions Examples

Could is the simple past form of can. It expresses ability in the past.

Could you climb a mountain when you were young?

I could say the alphabet when I was one and a half years old.

14

Functions Examples

We use be able to when using tenses other than the simple present or the simple past. For these two tenses, we use can and could.

Simple present: She is able to see us from that window.

Simple past: She was able to see us from that window.

Simple future: She will be able to see us from that window.

Present perfect: She has been able to see us from that window.

NoteSometimes we use be able to to express ability in the simple present and the simple future. But we usually use can for this purpose. For example,

• She can embroider using different kinds of stitches.

• She is able to embroider in different kinds of stitches.

• He can’t come before 5:30 this evening. (informal)

• He won’t be able to come before 5:30 this evening. (formal)

Functions Examples

To express an ability in the past, we use could or was/were able to.

My sister could play the piano when she was four and a half years old.

My sister was able to play the piano when she was four and a half years old.

We use only was/were able to and not could to talk about someone’s ability in a specific situation in the past.

The policemen were able to rescue the little girl from the clutches of the kidnappers.

To describe a general ability or an ability in the past by using couldn’t and wasn’t/weren’t able to

She was so tall that she couldn’t walk through the door without bending.

She was so tall that she wasn’t able to walk through the door without bending.

15

Functions Examples

We went to the open-air sandwich stall but we couldn’t get any sandwiches as it started raining heavily.

We went to the open-air sandwich stall but we weren’t able to get any sandwiches as it started raining heavily.

A. Complete the sentences with the correct form of be able to.

1. The recital was so slow, that we hardly keep up through its entire length.

2. Fiona play chess when she was just six.

3. Would you help me with my science project tomorrow?

4. Ria get into the room after breaking the door down.

5. We attend your graduation ceremony as Grandad is not very well.

6. Our cook didn’t turn up, but we cook a decent meal for ourselves.

B. Complete the sentences with could/couldn’t, was/were able to, wasn’t/weren’t able to. In some sentences, more than one answer is possible.

1. I bat well even though I was so untrained.

2. Sumit do the sums because he hadn’t practiced them at all.

3. We get away with the mischief because our Principal was travelling.

4. Dia spoke so loudly that I hear the news at all.

5. The little child recite all the rhymes in the book.

16

Seeking and Granting PermissionCan, could, may

♦ To ask someone for their permission to do something, we can use can, could, may. Could is more polite than can, while may is more formal. For example,

Functions Examples

To seek permission Could I use your colour pencils?

Can I use your colour pencils?

May I use your colour pencils?

♦ In order to grant permission to somebody, we use can and may. We use could when there is an idea of condition. For example,

Functions Examples

To grant permission to somebody You can borrow my colour pencils.

You may borrow my colour pencils.

You could borrow my colour pencils. (if you need them)

♦ When we refuse to give permission for something to somebody, we use can’t and mayn’t. For example,

Functions Examples

To refuse to give permission for something to somebody

You can’t borrow my colour pencils.

You mayn’t borrow my colour pencils.

Be allowed to ♦ When we talk about rules and what is or what is not allowed, we use can, could,

be allowed to. We especially use can and be allowed to when we talk about the present or the future. For example,

Functions Examples

To talk about rules and what is or what is not allowed

You can be on leave on Monday and Wednesday.

You are allowed to be on leave on Monday and Wednesday.

Can I leave a little early today?

17

♦ To talk about something that was allowed or not allowed in the past, we use could. For example,

Functions Examples

To talk about something that was allowed or not allowed in the past

I couldn’t go out till I had completed my homework, when I was younger.

I wasn’t allowed to go out till I had completed my homework, when I was younger.

♦ If we were allowed to do something particular in the past and we want to talk about that, we use was/were allowed to. We use could for general permission in the past. For example,

Functions Examples

To talk about something we were allowed to do in the past and we want to talk about that

Smita was allowed to sleep in her elder sister’s room because it was her birthday.

Smita could sleep in her elder sister’s room when she was a child.

C. Rewrite the sentences with the correct form of the words given in the brackets.

1. We are allowed to go home early. (can)

2. Can I use your pencil for a second? (allowed)

3. One isn’t allowed to enter the restaurant with food from outside. (can’t)

4. One isn’t allowed to use cell phones on an aeroplane. (can’t)

5. We can’t take food for the animals in the zoo. (allowed)

6. You can start writing your exams now. (allowed)

Making and Granting Requests ♦ To request somebody to do something for us, we use can, could, will, would.

Could and would are more formal and polite. For example,

Functions Examples

To make requests Can you get me a pen?

Will you get me a pen from the bureau?

18

Functions Examples

To make formal requests Could you hand me a pen?

Would you give me a glass of water?

♦ We use can/could/may I when asking something from somebody. We do not use will I/would I for this. For example,

Functions Examples

To ask something from somebody

Can I ask you a question?

Could I speak to Rahim?

May I use your car for a day?

D. Make requests for the given situations.

1. Request your friend to make a sandwich for you as you are very hungry.

2. You have booked a cab and it has arrived but you need to finish packing. Ask the cab driver to wait for five minutes.

3. You want to sleep but your neighbour is listening to loud music upstairs. Request him to reduce the volume of the music system.

4. You are late in coming into school. Request your class teacher to allow you to attend classes.

5. You are going to attend a concert that will get you late for home by an hour. Request Mum and Dad to allow you to go to the concert.

Making and Granting Offers

Functions Examples

Some of the ways to offer to do something for someone

I’ll help you with that sum.

Shall I help you with that sum?

Can I help you with that sum?

Could I help you with that sum?

Would you like me to help you with that sum?

19

E. Complete the sentences with Shall I or I will/I’ll and a verb from the box.

unscrew carry open make help switch on

1. A: It’s screwed on really tightly.

B:

2. A: I can’t complete all this homework.

B:

3. A: I’m really very hungry.

B:

4. A: This suitcase is very heavy.

B:

5. A: It’s really warm in here.

B:

6. A: I don’t have the energy to go and open the door.

B:

Making and Taking Suggestions

Functions Examples

To make suggestions Shall we go to Paris this autumn?

Why don’t we go to Paris this autumn?

How about going to Paris this autumn?

We could go to Paris this autumn.

F. Complete the sentences with the correct form of the verb given in the brackets.

Fahaad: It’s raining so hard. What about a) (stay) in for dinner today instead of going out?

Deepti: Yes, that’s a good idea. Shall we b) (order) some sandwiches from Sandwich Factory?

Fahaad: We c) also d) (make) some noodles at home.

20

Deepti: That’s right. In any case, we make better noodles than anybody around here! How about e) (chop) the vegetables for the dish while I boil the noodles?

Fahaad: And what about f) (make) some soup to go with it?

Deepti: Why don’t we also g) (stir-fry) some chicken as a side dish?

Fahaad: Yeah, that’s a great idea!

Expressing Restriction

Functions Examples

To express restriction for something on somebody

You mustn’t go near fire.

We can’t go in such shabby clothes.

You aren’t allowed to talk inside the library.

G. Tick the correct sentences. For the incorrect ones, identify the extra word and write it in the space given.

1. I have to go to work early tomorrow. i.

2. You don’t have got to go out in the rain without an umbrella. You will get drenched. ii.

3. Are we allowed come in here at this hour? iii.

4. You don’t need to worry about what you will wear for the party on tomorrow. I have got something for you. iv.

5. I can’t to see that far in the distance. v.

To Give Advice to Someone or to Express Criticism

Functions Examples

We use should, ought to, had better to give advice to somebody.

You ought to see a doctor immediately.

You should see a doctor immediately.

With had better, we warn somebody with something that we think will/may happen immediately.

You had better see a doctor.

21

Functions Examples

To express criticism over something that we think should have happened differently in the past, we use should/ought to + have + past participle.

You should have been more cautious about your health.

H. Complete the sentences with should/shouldn’t, ought/oughtn’t.

The doctor says that you 1) drink at least twelve

glasses of water every day. She also says that you 2)

drink aerated drinks or eat junk food. You have grown obese and you

will continue to grow more obese if you don’t change your lifestyle

immediately. You 3) _____________________ stay awake till late in

the night, nor 4) you sleep in till late in the day.

You 5) adopt healthy timings and live by them.

I. Respond to these statements using the prompts along with had better.

1. not/be/late/for/concert

2. you/have a cold/don’t step out/today

3. hurry/or/miss/the/flight

4. call/the vet/Simba/doesn’t/look/well

5. be/careful/with/the vase

Expressing Possibility

Functions Examples

We use could, may, might to express possibility in the present and the future times.

Shabana is not on her seat. She could be in the playground.

In negative statements, we can use may not or might not. We cannot however, use couldn’t.

Smita may not go to school tomorrow.

Smita couldn’t go to school tomorrow.

To talk about the past, we use may/might have/could have + past participle

Shabana is not on her seat. She may have gone to the playground.

22

Expressing Probability

Functions Examples

We use ought to refer to something that is possible or probable in the present or the future time.

Shradhha ought to be at the cinema by now.

We use should/ought to + have + past participle to refer to something that was possible or was expected to take place in the past.

The flight ought to have landed an hour ago.

J. Rewrite the sentences in your notebooks using the words given in brackets.

1. He’s probably sleeping. (could)

2. Perhaps Granny will give me the bicycle I want for my birthday. (might)

3. Perhaps he misspelt Srilata’s name on the form. (could)

4. Perhaps he missed the flight. (could)

5. Perhaps they’ll listen to our advice. (may)

6. Perhaps Deepak has told Ritika about the incident. (might)

K. The following paragraph has not been edited. There is an error in each line. Identify the error, write it and its correction.

1. She can drive a car when she was sixteen years old. i.

2. However, she mayn’t drive till she was eighteen. ii.

3. One day, she told her mother that she can drive iii.

4. and she could, and left home in the car. iv.

5. Her mother can do nothing as she whizzed past her. v.

L. Fill in the blanks by choosing the appropriate modals.

1. We go out and finish the match once the rain stops. (might/have to)

2. I get up early tomorrow because I have to leave early. (must/have to)

23

3. they be travelling to that country at a time like this? (Should/Might)

4. Drivers who overtake from the left know better. (could/should)

5. I wear my new dress now, or I save it for the party? (Should/Might; do/should)

6. ‘The new student feel shy while speaking in front of the whole class,’ said the teacher. (should/might)

7. Little children be careful of strangers. (may/must)

8. The shopkeeper said, ‘I be able to help you, if you

first let me know exactly what it is that you are looking for.’

(might/can; should/could)

9. ‘If I I like to ask you for your autograph,’ said the young boy to the famous actor. (be allowed to/am allowed to; could/would)

10. Rani said that we carry blankets with us; she also lend us some. (have to/should; could/would)

11. Try and guess. Your mother given you some hint. (might have/should have)

12. You be sceptical, but we be in for some very bad weather soon. (should/might; should/might)

13. You have helped the poor man, you know! (should/might)

14. I’m sorry, but I meet you only after eleven. (have to/would be able to)

15. I knew it! He have listened to me. I kept telling him, but he

simply didn’t listen! (may/should)

16. you kindly pass the salt cellar, please? We be very grateful. (Should/Could; should/would)