PREVALENCE OF ESCHERICHIA COLI AS INDICATOR BACTERIA IN RIVER WATER OF SG. SARAWAK

Siti Faridah binti Hassan

QR 82 Master of Environmental Science E6 (Land Use and Water Resource Management) S623

20132013

I

)

j Pusat Khidmat Maldumat Akad ik UNIVERSm MALAYSIA SARAWAK

PREVALENCE OF ESCHERICHIA COLI AS INDICATOR

BACTERIA IN RIVER WATER OF SG. SARAWAI( d-

P,KHIOMAT MAKLUMAT AKAOEMIK

111111111 r~'~rlllllllill 1000246926

SITI F ARIDAH BINTI HASSAN

A dissertation submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for

the degree of Master of Environmental Science in Land Use and Water Resources

Management

"

Faculty of Resource Science and Technology

UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA SARAWAK

2013

I

DEC LARA TION

No portion of the work referred to this dissertation has been submitted in supports of

application for another master of qualification of any other university or institution of

higher learning.

I

I

(SITI F ARlDAH HASSAN)

SLUSE COHORT-II

Faculty of Resource Science and Technology

Universiti Malaysia Sarawak

11

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

First and foremost, I would like to express my gratitude and appreciation to" all of our

fellow key res'ource persons from the Faculty of Resource Science and Technology and

Faculty of Social Sciences and Universiti Malaysia Sarawak, SLUSE resource persons for

the valuable guidance and advice. With special thanks to the my dissertation supervisor, Dr

Samuel Lihan, course coordinator, Dr. Tay Meng Guan and Dr. Mohd Effendi Wasli who

assisted all the way during completing this study. Your willingness to motivate had

contributed tremendously to the completion of this fieldwork report.

I would also like to thank the community of Kg. Kudei, Kg. Gersik and Kg.Boyan that has

helped throughout the questionnaires session for the unforgettable experience. Thank you

for being cooperative during questionnaires survey, guidance and sharing of knowledge. I

would also like to extend our appreciation to my families and friends for their

. understanding and supports in completing this project. Without your helps, I would not

able to accomplish this project smoothly.

Finally, an honourable mention goes to all the SLUSE Master Program lecturers and

coordinators who have been patient and dedicated in conducting this course. Your

willingness to share the knowledge and expertise is very much appreciated. Not forgotten

the lab assistance th'itt really patience in facilitating during carried out the experiments.

III

ABSTRACT

([he study of the prevalence of Escherichia coli as indicator bacteria was carrie<I out in Sg.

Sarawak, which involved four stations. The number of bacteria colony was measured in

CFU/IOOml unit and relate to the water quality parameters such as pH, DO, FCC, TCC,

and temperature. The presence of the E. coli and other bacteria is related with the human

activities nearby the river. The drivers of the microbial contamination were studied based

on community practiced of the households waste Indirectly, the environmental awareness

among the community was measured based on participation in river activities, the opinion

about river and daily practise that bring the effect to the river. From the study, the level of

E. coli was highest at Satok Brigde station which was 90 CFU/ I OOml. This is due to the

improper sewage disposal from residential area, low flow of the river, existence of

municipal waste from local wet market, and domestic wastes. Meanwhile, the highest TCC

and number of bacteria were identified at Waterfront Kuching stations which were 415

CFU/IOOml and 3372 CFU/IOOml, respectively. The common practise of the community

that settle nearby the river was 18 % of the respondents involved in the questionnaires

survey thrown domestic waste into the water, and 49 % of the respondents channelled the

liquid waste directly to the river as well as the discharge of human waste into the river was

18% of the respondents. Lack of education and awareness campaigns on river pollution,

has lead to low enviwnmental awareness about effective and correct practice to protect and

conserve the river. The respondents opinions about river was 39.22 % of them mentioned ,

the river was polluted with a Jot of waste found on the water surface.

IV

ABSTRAK

Kajian tentang kelaziman Escherichia coli sebagai bakteria penunjuk di si Sarawak

melibatkan empat buah stesen. Bilangan koloni bakteria diukur menggunakan unit

CFU/lOOml dan dikaitkan dengan parameter kualiti air seperti pH, DO, FCC, TCC, dan

suhu. Kehadiran E. coli dan bakteria lain dikaitkan dengan aktiviti masyarakat yang tinggal

berdekatan dengan sungai. Faktor-faktor pencemaran mikrob dikaji berdasarkan amalan

pengurusan sisa isi rurnah masyarakat. Secara tidak langsung, kesedaran alam sekitar

dalam masyarakat diilliai berdasarkan penglibatan dalam aktiviti kebersihan sungai,

pendapat tentang kepentingan sungai dan aktiviti yang memberi kesan kepada sungai.

Hasil kajian menunjukkan tahap E.coli yang tertinggi dikes an di lambatan Satok iaitu 90

CFU/I OOml. Keadaan iill disebabkan oleh pelupusan kumbahan yang tidak wajar dari

kawasan kediaman, aliran sungai yang perlahan, kewujudan sisa perbandaran dari pasar

basah dan sisa domestik. Sementara itu, tahap FCC dan bakteria paling tinggi dikesan di

stesen Waterfront Kuching iaitu masing-masing 415 CFU/I00ml dan 3372 CFU/lOOml.

Amalan yang biasa diamalkan oleh 18% responden ialah membuang sisa domestik ke

dalam sungai, dan 49% responden mengalirkan sisa cecair dan 18% responden

mengalirkan najis manusia terns ke sungai. Kekurangan pengetahuan dan kempen

kesedaran tentang pencemaran sungai menyebabkan kesedaran terhadap menjaga alam

sekitar khususnya sungai adalah rendah, dan kurang mengetahui cara-cara untuk

melindungi dan menjaga sungai dengan efektif. Pendapat 39.22% responden tentang

keadaan sungai yang tercemar dan banyak sampah di pennukaan sungai.

v

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PUlat Khidmat Maklumat AJcad mik lJN1VERSm MALAYSIA SARAWAK

TABLE OF CONTENT

Page

Declaration

Acknowledgements III

List of Figures Ix

List of Tables Xi

List of Abbreviation XlI

Abstract IV

Table of Contents VI

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION AND OBJECTIVES

1.1 Introduction ofSungai Sarawak

1.2 Maps of study area 3

1.3 Statement of the problem 4

1.4 Research objectives 6

1.5 Research question 6

1.6 Scope of the Study 7

1.7 Significance ofthe Study 7

1.8 Framework of the Study 8

CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction 10

2.2 River Pollution in Sarawak 12

2.3 Biological pollution: Microbial bacteria 14

2.3.1 Total coliform bacteria 15

2.3 .2 Fecal coliform bacteria 16

2.3 .2.1 Escherichia coli 17

2.4 Sources of bacterial contamination 18

2.4.1 Wastewater 20

2.4.2 Domestic water pollution 20

VI

2.4.3 Solid waste pollution 21

2.5 Water Quality Parameters 22

2.6 Environmental awareness 24

2.6.1 Human attitudes 24

2.6.2 Education and Conservation aspects 25

CHAPTER 3 MATERIALS AND METHODS

3.1 Introduction 28

3.2 Study area 28

3.3 Water sampling 29

3.4 Sampling 31

3.5 Experimental procedures 31

3.5.1 Agar colony method 32

3.3.2 Filter membrane method 34

3.6 Questionnaire survey 35

3.7 Direct observation 36

3.8 Data analysis 37

3.9 Concluding remarks 37

CHAPTER 4 RESUL TS AND DISCUSSIONS

4.1 Introduction 38

4.2 The level of E. coli and bacteria in water 38

4.3 The drivers of fecal contamination 46

4.3.1 Throwing waste materials into the river 46

4.3.2 Channelling the liquid waste direct to the river 48

4~'3 . 3 The sewage disposal 49

4.3.4 The small scale of animal livestock and domestic use 50

4.4 The environmental awareness of river 51

4.4.1 Demographic background 51

4.4.2 The opinion about river condition 53

4.4.3 The existence of signboards about river pollution 54

4.4.4 The participation in cleaning of the river activities 56

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4.4 Concluding remarks 58

4.5 The photo of the study 59

CHAPTER 5 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Conclusion 62

5.2 Recommendation 65

REFERENCES 66

APPENDICES 70

viii

i

List of Figures

Figure 1.0 The maps of the questionnaires survey and the sampling of 3d'

the water river from Google Earth

Figure 1.1 The maps of the sampling point nearby Waterfront Kuching 4

and Discharge Point of Holiday Inn (Grand Margherita).

Figure 1.2 The framework of the study about the prevalence ofE. coli 9

and the drivers of the fecal contamination of the local

community.

Figure 2.0 The various sources of river pollution that contributes to 19

microbial contamination (Sources: Spellman, 2008).

Figure 3.0 Water sampling activities at Waterfront Kuching and the 30

Discharge point nearby Margherita hotel.

Figure 4.0 The graph of the total number of E. coli detected in four 39

different stations in the samples of water collected and in

different concentrations of (1 0- 1 and 10-2) solution.

Figure 4.1 The graph of percentage of E. coli and bacteria in samples 40

of water at different stations.

Figure 4.2 The graph of total number of bacteria detected In four 41

different stations in the water samples collected.

different stations.

waste materials into the river

Figure 4.3 The percentage of E. coli in Fecal Coliform Count (FCC) at 43

Figure 4.4 The pie chart of the percentage of community that throwing 46

Figure 4.5 The bar graph of the percentage of respondents that 48

practiced the channelling the liquid domestic waste directly

to the river.

Figure 4.6 The graph of number of respondents that have proper 50

sewage systems

Figure 4.7 The graph of the percentage of educational level of the 53

respondents

IX

Figure 4.8

Figure 4.9

Figure 4.10

Figure 4.11

Figure 4.12

Figure 4.13

Figure 4.14

Figure 4.15

Figure 4.16

Figure 4.17

The graph of respondents's opinion about level of river 53

pollution

The pie chart of respondents that realizes about awareness 55

signboards of river

The graph of respondents that participates In cleaning 56

activities of the river

The pie chart shows the percentage of the activities that 57

contribute to fecal contamination.

Photos of Nutrient Agar showing Bacteria Colonies In 58

Waterfront station (A) and Satok Bridge station (B).

Photos of EMB Agar showing E. coli Colonies. The photo 59

A is from Satok Bridge station, photo B is from Kampung

Gersik station, photo C is from Discharge point and photo

D is from Waterfront Kuching.

The photos of TCC from the water samples collected from 60

Discharge Point station (A) and Waterfront station (B).

The photos of FCC of the sample of water collected at 60

different stations which is photo A from Satok Bridge and

photo B from Waterfront Kuching and the duplicate

samples were shown in the Figures.

The photos of questionnaires survey among the respondents 61

which is photo A from Kampung Kudei and photo B from

Kampung Gersik.

The photos of the common practice in the study area 61

and pboto A taken from Kampung Gers~k and photo B taken

from Kampung Kudei.

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List of Tables

Table 2.0

Table 3.0

Table 4.0

Table 4.1

Table 4.2

Table 4.3

Table 4.4

Table 4.5

Quality of River Waters, 1987- 1998 (From DOE)

Overview of the sampling strategy in different location of

Sungai Sarawak.

The TCC, FCC and E. coli count in water samples (unit

CFU/IOO ml)

Dissolved oxygen reading (unit in mg/I)

Salinity and Conductivity readings (unit salinity mg/L;

conductivity mS/cm)

Temperature, pH, and turbidity readings (unit temperature °C;

pH unitless; and turbidity; NTU)

The age category of the respondents

The educational level of respondents

12

30

43

44

44

45

51

52

Xl

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List of Abbreviations

COD DO DOE FCC DBKU DID CFU Kg. MgIL NaCI NGO NH3N PVC Ppm PMR SPM Sg. SS TDS TCC TSS WHO

Chemical oxygen demand Dissolved oxygen Department of Environment Fecal Colifonn Count Dewan Bandaraya Kuching Utara Department of Irrigation and Drainage Colony Fonning Unit Kampung Milligram per liter Natrium Chloride Non-governmental Organization Ammoniacal Nitrogen Polyvinyl chlorofonn Parts per Million Penilaian Menengah Rendah Sijil Pelajaran Malaysia Sungai Suspended Solids Total Dissolved Solids Total Colifonn Count Total Suspended Solids World Health Organization

xii

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CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION AND OBJECTIVE

1.1 Introduction of Sungai Sarawak

The role of Sg. Sarawak as a tourism attraction of the city centre of Kuching is locally and

internationally well known. The presence of Kuching Waterfront that ran parallel to Sg.

Sarawak promotes various activities nearby the riverbank including tourism activities, local

waterway taxis, business and trading activities, and also recreational famous Regatta of

Sarawak. Many programmes are planning to enhance the capability of Sg. Sarawak

especially in tourism industries and public transportation without addressing the

environmental problem of the river. The area of the study covered Sg. Satok area, which is

nearby the human settlement and where a main local famous market is located. The study

area of Kuching Waterfront including the discharge point of the wastewater from the hotels

in the main city is also related with the fecal contamination.

The importance of Sg. Sarawak as the water supply of several divisions in Kuching is well

known as the depending of the water overwhelming on surface water. This river that are

populated and stressed with urbanization process in surrounding area had disturbed the

river system. Populated river systems tend to being easily polluted by waste generated and

disposed of human activities. There are various activitit1s that concentrated in the river and

give the impact to the river directly such as the discharge of grey water and black water to

the river without any treatment by local community nearby the river. Many other practised

such as throwing the waste into the river, farming and gardening nearby the river, and

others may contribute to the microbial contamination. The presence of various

microorganisms and bacteria in the river indicated the statue and quality of the water.

There are too numerous activities taking place such that it is reaHy difficult to pinpoint

which activities cause degradation of particular parameters. As such the prevalence of E.

coli as indicator bacteria in river water is studied and it is important to identify the drivers

of the fecal contamination that can be incurred on particular water parameters. The fecal

contamination of the drinking water sources being emphasized by the presences of E. coli

in the water samples collected from ground and surface water sources. E. coli is the only

member of total colifonn found in the faeces of human and other animals, and other

possible intestinal disease-causing bacteria, viruses, and protozoa are also pathogens that

presence in water. E. coli is the standard indicator organism for fecal contamination of

water and for the possible presence of faecal pathogens. For water intended for drinking,

the World Health Organization (WHO) recommends that E. coli must not be detectable in

any 100 ml sample. The 'good' quality is classed as zero fecal colifonns per 100 ml.

The drivers of the fecal contamination of the rivers mainly from the human activities that

lives nearby the rivers tributary is identified through the practiced of management domestic

wastes, the sewage and wastewater systems, the waste from business premises and

agricultural activities and industrial effluent produced. The drivers of the poHution need to

be identified to create systematic approaches in handling the factors that able to degrade

the water quality and reduce the possible factors that contribute to fecal contamination.

Fecal contamination is not easily identified and the effect of the pollutants not only for

aquatic life but bring the hannJul to human being as the spreading the disease. The human

resettlement nearby the river without adequate facilities of the disposed of domestic wastes

and sewage management systems is the main problems to the river. The discharge of the

effiuent of the domestic liquid and wastewater including sewage directly to the river is the

majority practiced amongst the community.

2

The public awareness about the importance of love and protect the river as well as cleaning

the river from any types of wastes including solid, liquid and microbial pollutants is vital

components of the environmental education to create greater impact of the conservation

aspects. The knowledge of the correct practised and attitudes in achieving cleaning river

are not well-known among the public due to lack of facilities, economic stress and

campaigns is not effective. The knowledge that received is not motivating the community

to act towards achieving the cleaning river without interesting incentives provides by the

government. The lack of the enforcement of the rules and policies is also contributes to the

degradation of river. The environmental awareness is important to being evaluate in order

to measure how much the public appreciate the role of the river and protect the river from

degradation.

1.2 Maps of the study area

Figure 1.0: The maps of the questionnaires survey and the sampling of the water river. The

location of the study is indicated by symbol 'arrow' above.

3

Figure 1.1: The maps of the sampling point nearby Waterfront Kuching and Discharge

Point nearby ofGrand Margherita. The sampling sites are indicated by the symbol above.

1.3 Statement of the problem

The serious water pollution in Sg. Sarawak including solid waste, biological organisms,

excess nutrients, and this situation had degrade the water quality of Sg. Sarawak. The

increasing of household waste and wastewater that are not properly treated and managed

had brought the high bacteria and E. coli contents in the river (Lau Seng, 2012). The

biological contamination of the river is able to create disease and affect the aquatic lives.

The tourism attraction of the Sg. Sarawak that become trademark of Kuching city and

hosted for Regatta event every year makes the important points to keep of the water quality

suitable for recreational activities. The fecal contamination that mainly derived from

discharge of sewage and wastewater is promoting the growth of pathogens, viruses and

bacteria that are capable to harm the health of human.

4

Pusat Khidmat MakJumat Akademik UNJVERSm MALAYSIA SARAWAJ(

The runoff of the stonn waters that mix with effluent of the sewage is able to create

pollution in the river. The effective and efficient wastewater treatments are able to treat all

the sewage and remove the bacteria and pathogen. The septic tanks usage and currents

management of the wastewater do not able to remove all the bacteria and pathogens in the

wastewater and cause the discharge of polluted water to the river. The fecal contamination

of river water is measured based on the number of fecal colifonn bacteria in water sample

collected. The faeces based pollutant is detected using indicator bacteria such as E. coli as

such the sewage and domestic waste are the main sources of the pollutants. Even though it

is difficult to assess the water quality in urban areas due to complexity of pollution sources,

the study of specific parameters of the particular criteria is considered to be focused on.

The drivers of the river pollution should be investigated in order to relate the level of E.

coli in river water to the human activities. The protection and conservation of river are the

responsibility of the public especially those who settle nearby the river and propose

rationale action to create awareness among the pUblic. Most of the problems are related

with people attitude that do not think of the effect of the behaviour to the environment.

Usually, human being will appreciate the environment when they are in trouble due to any

disaster happened. But, the education about the environment need to deliver and well

understand before the public is blamed for the ignorance and weakness. The campaigns

that have been carried out by agencies are not effective enough in conveying the

information of the role of water and the public that do not able to appreciate the importance

ofthe river.

5

1.4 Research objectives

The main objective of the study is to determine the prevalence of waterborne pathogens in

river water of Sg. Sarawak based on E. coli counts and faecal coliforms counts (FCC). The

specific research objectives are:

a) To measure the presence and level of E. coli as indicator bacteria in river water of

Sg. Sarawak.

b) To access the drivers of faecal contamination In nver water that focus on

wastewater and domestic waste.

c) To evaluate environmental awareness of the local community nearby the river in

protection and conservation of river.

1.5 Research Questions

The several research questions had been derived in order to achieve the research objectives

and ultimate point of the study. The research question is based on the objectives of the

study and focused on the methods to answer the question. The questions as details:

a) What are the activities that contribute to the fecal contamination of the river? How

the activities affect the river in term of fecal contamination?

b) What is the level of E. coli contamination in Sg. Sarawak? How many fecal

coliform bacteria and others bacteria present in CFUIl 00 ml unit? What is the

percentage of the E. coli in the water s~mples collected?

c) What is the environmental awareness of the local community nearby the river in

protection and conservation of river? What are the common practices amongst the

community?

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1.6 Scope of the Study

The scope of the study is described in the following sections and details:

a) A comprehensive and details literature review made on the components of the river

pollution and parameters used on the past studies in several countries including the

sources of the pollution.

b) A research study of the assessment of the drivers of fecal contamination including

the level ofE. coli and bacteria in water samples collected in the community nearby

the river.

c) The analysis of the environmental awareness amongst the local community nearby

the rivers involving the common practised and impact to the river of that attitudes.

1.7 Significance of the Study

Sg. Sarawak is an important source of raw water to the water supply system in this region.

Pollution of the river to poor quality of raw water will affect many people as well as other

living things. There are many pollution sources along this river which can contribute to the

degradation of water quality. One indicator to determine the water quality level is the

measurement of the presence of indicator bacteria such as E. coli, protozoa, enterococci,

and others. The level of E. coli is being related with the human activities in surrounding

area of the study. The discharge of residential area can' be different in nature as such it is

usually produces waste organic.

This study is important in terms of gauging the level of bacteria presence in river water and

the human activities with the fecal contamination. The study about attitude and behaviour

of the residents through direct observation and informal interview is important to access

7

the drivers of the pollution. Indirectly, the awareness level about the conservation and

protection of river among the local community can be measured through questionnaire

sessions. The environmental awareness is important element to ensure the resources are

managed properly and efficiently especially river that supply the sources of water that is

vital to all life processes. Therefore, this study would produce a set of valuable data for the

policy makers and related agencies to improve the river quality as well as set the proactive

campaigns and programmes involving community nearby river to the correct practised.

1.8 Framework of the Study

The focus of this study is on the level of E. coli in several water samples collected from

different location along the Sg. Sarawak. The presence of the E. coli and other bacteria are

related with the daily practice of the nearby community that contributes to the fecal

contamination of the river. The awareness level amongst the community is measured in

order to relate with the quality of the water in study area.

8

E. coli as fecal bacteria

Environmental awareness of the local community

The presence of bacteria

Increased with able to evaluate

Domestic wastes of liquid

and solid. pollutants

Sewage systems and

wastewater managements

Agricultural and animals wastes produced

The main drivers of Is accessed b the pollution related

with human activities

Figure 1.2: The framework of the study about the prevalence ofE. coli and the drivers of

the fecal contamination of the local community.

9

CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.t Introduction

In Malaysia, the importance of the rivers are no doubt and becomes the sources of life,

providing water supply for the people, irrigation for agriculture activities, cheap and

efficient transportation, rich sources of foods, sources of hydroelectric power, and water

use for industries. Rivers also plays roles as the natural habitats for riverine and aquatic

flora and fauna and support a rich biodiversity of life forms in river environment (Keizrul

and Fadhillah, 1998). Despite of the importance function of the river, the rivers also

provide a convenient means of drainage, and used for the discharge of domestic,

commercial and agriculture effluents resulting in severe pollution (Keizrul, 2002).

The river problems are derived from point sources and non-point sources especially the

organic water pollution. The main organic ~ollutants are domestic and industrial sewage,

effluents from agro-industries and animal husbandry. According to Keizrul (2002), rivers

that flow through urban areas suffer the chronic degradations due to abundance of solid

and liquid waste disposal from squatter settlement, drainage effluent from commercial

area, food centres and wet market, residual hydrocarbon from urban traffic and workshops,

excessive silt loads from land clearing. The adding of any substances to water or the

changing of water's physical and chemical characteristics in any way which can interferes

with its use oflegitimate purposes is water pollution defines by u.s. Department of Health

Education and Welfare. The situation happens in Malaysia for the context of river is

parallel with the definition of water pollution given.

Iter contamination by variety of chemical substances or eutrophication caused by several

'ents and fertilizers is definition for term water pollution by Southwick (1976). The

10

situation happen in the rivers is lead to river pollution as whole impacts. The sources of

water in Malaysia are mainly from surface water from river, stream, and lakes. The uses of

the groundwater as water supply is not much stressed currently except in certain places

only. The pollution to the sources of water especially rivers will bring problem to the water

for drinking. The latest study about the river by many researchers and government

department had discovered about many rivers in Malaysia is facing the heavy pollution due

to vast development in rural and urban area everywhere.

Data compiled by the Department of Environment (DOE), points to a trend of a slow but

steady deterioration in the water quality of the sampled rivers. In 1997, of the 117 rivers

monitored, 24 were rated as clean, 68 slightly polluted and 25 polluted. One of the major

sources of river pollution has been determined to be squatter settlements aJong river

reserves. The river corridor is an accessible and convenient locale for the poor and less

fortunate to reside and with the lacking access to basic water and sanitation facilities. The

main sources of the organic water pollution are domestic and industrial sewage, effluents

from agro-industries and animal husbandry (Keizrul, 1999).

The data shows the number of rivers that very polluted is continuously from year to year

despite all the campaigns on river conservation and cleanliness. The latest data of water

monitoring is not available but the number of river monitored is always increased. The

people continue to treat rivers as 'rubbish dumps' and open sewers cause the degradation

of river. The rapid development and industrialization over the last three decades put much

stress on our river systems. In addition, the waste products of man and the activities have

JeIIU1ted in a number of rivers that are much polluted.

oat of the research done on water pollution has been focused on point sources such as the

1mdment of industrial wastewater and municipal sewage. Water pollution comes in a

11