MotivationDr. Sudip ChaudhuriM. Sc., M. Tech., Ph.D. (Sc.) (SINP / Cal)CSIR-UGC NET, WBCSC SLET, I.I.T. GATECSIR-UGC NET, WBCSC SLET, I.I.T. GATE

Assistant Professor (Stage-3)/ReaderGandhi Centenary B.T. College, Habra, IndiaHonorary Researcher, Saha Institute of Nuclear Physics,

Life Member, Indian Society for Radiation and Photochemical Sciences (ISRAPS)

chaudhurisudip@yahoo.co.in

Independence is no doubt a matter of joy. But ….. this independence has thrown on us great responsibilities. By independence, we have lost the excuse of blaming the British for excuse of blaming the British for anything going wrong. If hereafter things go wrong, we will have nobody to blame except ourselves.

----B. R. Ambedkar in the closing speech of the 1st Constituent Assembly of India

‘We are fortunate to witness the emergence of the Republic of India and our successors may well envy us this day. But fortune is a hostage which has to be jealously guarded by our own to be jealously guarded by our own good work and which has a tendency to slip away, if we slacken in our efforts or if we look in wrong directions.’

- Jawaharlal Nehru

What is Motivation?

Motivation is a process that starts with a physiological or psychological deficiency or need that activates a behavior or drive that is aimed at a goal or incentive.

1. Needs- are created whenever there is a physiological or psychological imbalance.

2. Drives- are set up to alleviate needs.

3. Incentives- defined as anything that will alleviate a need and reduce a drive.

What Is Motivation?

Direction

PersistenceIntensity

Motivation …

involves the processes that energize, direct, and that energize, direct, and

sustain behavior.

Motivation Definition:

That which gives the impetus to behaviour by arousing, sustaining and directing it towards the successful attainment of goals

So, motivation:

energises people to act energises people to act

moves you from a resting state to an active state

directs behaviour & organises it towards a

particular goal-state

maintains behaviour until the goal is achieved

Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation Two kinds of motivational forces:

Those that are internally generated (intrinsic) and those that are externally generated (extrinsic)

So examples of intrinsic motivation are feeling good about doing something (ego boosts), good about doing something (ego boosts), gaining knowledge or competence as a result of engaging in a behaviour

In contrast, examples of extrinsic motivation include money, materialistic gains (new car, bigger office, more friends) and basically engaging in a task merely to obtain rewards or avoid punishments

Extrinsic vs. Intrinsic Motivation

Extrinsically motivated students …

• Do something to obtain something else.• Are influenced by rewards and punishments.

Intrinsically motivated students …

• Are internally motivated to doing something for its own sake.

• Increase motivation when they are given some personal choice.

Maslow’s Theory

“We each have a hierarchy of needs that

ranges from "lower" to "higher." As

lower needs are fulfilled there is a lower needs are fulfilled there is a

tendency for other, higher needs to

emerge.”

Daniels, 2004

Maslow’s Theory

Maslow’s theory maintains that:

Once a given level of need is satisfied, it no

longer serves to motivate.longer serves to motivate.

A person does not feel a higher need until

the needs of the current level have been

satisfied. Maslow's basic needs are as follows:

Food

Air

Water

Basic Human Needs

Physiological Needs

Water

Clothing

Sex

Protection

Stability

Pain Avoidance

Safety and Security

Safety Needs

Pain Avoidance

Routine/Order

Social Needs

Affection

Acceptance

Inclusion

Love and Belonging

Social Needs Inclusion

Esteem Needs Self-Respect

Self-Esteem

Respected by

Esteem

Respected by Others

Self-Actualization

Achieve full potential

Fulfillment

Maslow’s Theory

Self-Actualisation

Esteem

Social

Safety

Physiological

Meeting Needs in the Classroom

As educators, it is our responsibility to

meet the five basic levels of needs in meet the five basic levels of needs in

the classroom. Implementation

strategies include:

Implementing in the Classroom

Self-Actualization

Provide challenges

Encourage autonomy

Esteem Feedback

Acknowledge success

Social IntroductionsSocial Introductions

Interact with students

Inclusive activities

Safety Maintain a safe and non-threatening atmosphere

Create a comfortable environment

Physiological Room temperature

Pacing/Breaks

Esteem

Self-Actualization

Belonging

Summary

Safety

Belonging

Physiological

Criticisms of Maslow’s Theory (based on Biological Approaches)

Maslow’s theory based on Biological Approaches fail to take into account cognitive influences on what motivates us:

Gratifying the self-actualizing need of growth-motivated individuals can actually increase rather than decrease this need.Why is it that money can motivate some people

while for others it is not important? For example, why do some people work as

volunteers for no wages and other people seek highly paid jobs?

So, there must be something else other than pure biological energy, that motivates different people for different reasons

Cognitive Influences on Motivation

The contemporary view of motivation emphasises the importance of cognitive processes

How important something is to you

How confident you are in your ability to succeed succeed

are two cognitive factors that will influence motivation

So if passing your driving test is essential in gaining that ideal job you might become too stressed and not perform as well

Incentive Theory of Motivation

Incentive theory maintains that external stimuli motivate behaviour

Individuals are attracted to behaviours that offer positive incentives and discouraged from those behaviours that they associate with negative behavioursnegative behaviours

The value of an incentive is influenced by both cognitive and biological factors. So drug-taking behaviour might be motivated by both biological addiction (craving) and cognitive evaluations (taking the drug in the past has made the person feel relaxed and happy)

Expectancy Theory

Based on cognitive processes, and motivation here is provided by our thoughts about engaging in behaviour

Expectancies refer to beliefs about how we will do if we engage in a certain behaviourdo if we engage in a certain behaviour

So if we expect to do well then we will be more likely to engage in the behaviour

If we feel that the chance of succeeding is poor we will be less likely to become involved

Expectancy X Value Theory

The expectancy x value theory states that goal-directed behaviour is motivated by two cognitive judgements:

Firstly, the strength of an individual’s Firstly, the strength of an individual’s expectation that engagement in a particular behaviour will lead to goal obtainment (expectation value)

Secondly, the value that the individual places on the goal (incentive value)

e.g. successful promotion

Attribution theory

Bernard Weiner

Attribution: things happen for a reason.

What reason do you give for success or failure?

Your frame of mind makes a huge difference.

Attribution and Motivation

Attribution theory proposes that every individual tries to explain success or failure of self and others by offering certain ‘attributions’

Weiner's attribution theory (1992) identified Weiner's attribution theory (1992) identified ability, effort, task difficulty, and luck as the most important achievement attributions that serve to motivate action

He classified these attributions into three factors: locus of control, stability and controllability

Attribution TheoryBernard Weiner

Attribution theory: In their effort to make sense of their own behavior or performance, individuals are motivated to discover its underlying causes.

Locus: Students who perceive their success as being due to internal factors (i.e., effort) are more likely to have higher self-esteem.more likely to have higher self-esteem.

Stability: If a student attributes a positive outcome to a stable cause, there is an expectation of future success.

Controllability: Failure due to external factors causes anger. Failure due to internal factors may cause guilt.

Three Dimensions of attributions

Dimension Description Personal Domain

Locus of cause Internal/

external

Ability internal

Luck external

Stability Constancy or Ability is stableStability Constancy or durability

Ability is stable

Effort unstable

Controllability Perceived attribute can or cannot be controlled by the individual

Effort is controllable

Ability is uncontrollable

Attribution TheoryAttribution Theory

INTERNAL EXTERNAL

STABL

ABILITYTASK

DIFFICULTY

LOCUS OF CONTROL

LE

UNSTABLE

EFFORT LUCK

Am I smart or what? Math is hard.

I studied a lot. Man, I got lucky.

Dimensions of Major AttributesStability Locus of Causality Controllability

Attribution Stable Unstable Internal External Control-lable

Uncon-trollable

ability x x x

effort x x x

Task difficulty x x x

luck x x x

Mood, illness x x x

Help from others

x x x

Con’tAttribution Dimension Consequence

Help from others

external Self-image not altered

unstable No decrease in success expectancy

uncontrollable Gratitude for help

Anger for hindrance

Task difficulty

external No enhancement of self-esteem for success outcome

stable Same outcome expected again

uncontrollable Depression and frustration for failure outcomes

Attribution Theory

Properties of achievement attributionsAttribution Dimension Consequence

Ability internal Competence or incompetence;

pride or shame

stable Pride or shame magnified

Failure=resignation/apathy

uncontrollable Failure= resignation/apathy magnifiedmagnified

effort internal Pride in success

unstable Does not decrease success expectancy

controllable Magnifies pride or guilt

Luck external Self-image not altered

unstable No decrease in success expectancy

uncontrollable Surprise at either success or failure

Positive frame (high nAch)

Attribute success:

Own ability or effort.

Attribute failure:

Lack of effort.

Try harder next time.

Negative frame (low nAch)

Attribute success:

Easy test.

Lucky break. Lucky break.

Attribute failure:

Lack of ability.

Same outcome next time.

Achievement Motivation

Competition is a process in which the comparison of an individual’s performance is made with some standard in the presence of at standard in the presence of at least one other person who is aware of the criterion for comparison and can evaluate.

Achievement tasks

Achievement relatedbehavior

Success or Success or failure

Emotional Response

Causal Cognitions

Achievement motivation

HIGH ACHIEVERS

success is important

take risks

LOW ACHIEVERS

Worry about failure

avoid competition take risks

want feedback

persistent

seek out competitive situations

avoid competition

ATKINSON & McCLELLAND’S

theory of Achievement Motivation

HIGH NACH

A

What are the characteristics of each personality type?

HIGH NAF

LOW NACH

LOW NAF

B

Achievement motivation is concerned with NACH (need to achieve)-

It has two constructs -

1] Motive to achieve success - Mas

2] Motive to avoid failure - Maf2] Motive to avoid failure - Maf

Everybody has both constructs - usually the value of each differs - it is this difference which influences whether you seek out achievement situations

Nach = Mas - Maf

Motivating force for Achievement Motivation

In people with high nACh

Pleasure in success

Confident of abilities Confident of abilities

Experienced success

Sets realistic goals

For people low in nAch

Motivating force is fear of failure

Long history of experiencing failure

Afraid of ridicule and dissapointment

nAch and risk-taking

What kind of risk-taker is Santa?

Getting all the wreaths onto the north pole?onto the north pole?

Moderate risk-taker.

Chose a task of intermediate difficulty.

High in nAch.

Person with low nAch

Might pick a task that was too difficult.

Should we expect success?

Not blame him if he fails.

Didn’t expect him to succeed.

Children with ring toss

High nAch children picked middle distance.

Challenge but not impossible.

Low nAch picked long distances (couldn’t win).

Or near distances (couldn’t lose).

Teaching / Parenting styles

Parents who reward

self-control and independence

child with high nAchchild with high nAch

Set high standards

Child works at own level

Makes mistakes

Encourage good performance

Teachers / Parents of low achievers

Set impossibly high standards.

Punish child when he or she doesn’t achieve goal.

Or jump in and solve the problem. Or jump in and solve the problem.

Parent’s actions don’t encourage self-control.

Child begins to fear failure.

Prepare for exam

Need to achieve vs fear of Failure.

nAch > fF approach behavior.

Looking forward to success.

Positive frame.

Good outlook.

Negative frame

fF > nAch

avoidance behavior.

May work hard to prepare.

Tense and anxious Tense and anxious

frame of mind.

Bad outlook.

Overcoming negative frame

Learning optimism.

Start out with easy task.task.

Learn to value success.

External reward at first.

Internalize the motivation with continued success.

Motivation

Attributions

includesincludes

includes

Attributions

Self-efficacy

Goal orientationsIntrinsic motivation

Hope/fearSense of controlTeacher

includes

Modified by

Effective Modeling

Rationale

Strategies

component

component

component

SupervisedPractice all

provide

give

demonstrate

Makeexplicit

Provide practice

exampleexample Model all

Model part

Model part

Practice all

UnsupervisedPractice

demonstrate

Motivation, Teaching, and Learning

Achievement Processes

Extrinsic and Intrinsic

Motivation

Values and Purpose

Mastery Motivation and

MindsetSelf-Efficacy

Goal-Setting, Planning, and

Self-Monitoring

ExpectationsAttribution

Self-Efficacy and Motivation (Bandura)

A social cognitive model of motivation focused on the role of perceptions of efficacy

Bandura defined self-efficacy as: ‘individuals' confidence in their ability to organise and execute a given course of action to solve a problem or accomplish a task’action to solve a problem or accomplish a task’

He distinguishes between two kinds of expectancy beliefs

Firstly, outcome expectations, which are beliefs that certain behaviours will lead to certain outcomes

Secondly, efficacy expectations, which are beliefs about whether one can effectively perform the behaviours necessary to produce the outcome

Self-Efficacy

Make sure students are not overly aroused or anxious

Help students develop short- and

Teach specificstrategies

Provide students with support from positive adult and peer models

develop short- and long-term goals

Teacher Reactions

To the best of his/her ability, the teacher wants students to attribute causes to internal, stable, controllable factors such as:stable, controllable factors such as:

Effort

Perseverance

Hard Work

Trying

Perceptions of behaviors

Hyperactivity, bragging and rule-breaking are perceived as controllable thereby eliciting anger and dislike

Shyness and physical disabilities are perceived as uncontrollable and elicit sympathy

Thus, children react to peers based on their perceptions: correct or incorrect.

Learned Helplessness

Individuals with low self-concept experiencing few successes:

Attribute failure to lack of ability Attribute failure to lack of ability

See no relationship between their success and their actions

Mastery-Oriented Children

Acknowledge errors but do not view them as failures by attributing this to unstable factors.

Maintain strategies in face of failure and often increase sophistication in these strategies.

Unflagging optimism

Thus, these children, unlike the helpless ones, see themselves as instrumental in becoming successful

Increasing SelfIncreasing Self--RegulationRegulation

Task comprehension

Challenge

Goals Goals

Specific

Immediate

Moderately difficult

What to avoid that may undermine students feelings of control. Easy tasks

Unsolvable tasks

Lack of diverse opportunities to display learning

Student-teacher interactions that might increase feelings

Increasing Internal LOCIncreasing Internal LOC

Student-teacher interactions that might increase feelings of control Take personal interest

Show you are an expert who can complete these tasks.

Display your teaching skill

Model

Increasing Internal LOCIncreasing Internal LOC

What can teachers do in relation to rewards and grades to increase student belief that they have control?

Be clear about course rules/expectations

Emphasize criteria used in gradingEmphasize criteria used in grading

Show students how they have or have not met criteria

Anticipate excuses and create opportunities to undermine excuses

Teacher characteristics that promote motivationTeacher characteristics that promote motivation

Personal Teaching Efficacy

Teacher Modeling and Enthusiasm Research shows that enthusiastic teachers increase learner

autonomy, self-efficacy and achievement

Model enthusiasm by communicating genuine interest in the topic

Teacher caring– teachers investing in the development and

learning of students—investing time

High

Working With Students with Achievement Problems

Protectionof Self-Worthby Avoiding

FailureGuide setting of realistic goals,

Low Achieverswith Low

ExpectationsProvide

reassurance and High

AnxietyModify

negative thoughts by engaging

students in more positive, task-focused

thoughts

realistic goals, strengthen link

between effort and self-worth, and

encourage positive self-perceptions

cognitive retraining, and reward effort

and progress toward realistic

goals

Working with Students with Achievement Problems

PerfectionistsIdentify cost/benefits,

decrease self-

ProcrastinatorsEncourage

acknowledgement of problem, assist in decrease self-

criticism, set realistic goals and time limits,

and encourage acceptance of

criticism

problem, assist in time management and task analysis,

and teach behavioral and cognitive

strategies for dealing with problem

Summary

Teacher expectation of performance and verbal/body language cues effect student attribution.

Thus, proactive classrooms structure tasks that meet the needs of low achievers by creating opportunities for success at challenging tasks.(co-operative learning is one such structure)

Con’t

Teachers need to be LEARNING oriented instead of performance oriented.performance oriented.

Intelligence is seen as dynamic (not fully stable)

Grades are related to learning (criterion) rather than normative (relational)

Con’t

Errors are seen as part of learning rather than as failure Attribution to lack of effort rather than lack of

abilityability

Meta-cognitive skills are taught

Risk-taking is valued and rewarded

Tasks are challenging but broken into steps that can be accomplished well.