presentation on research methodologies
DESCRIPTION
TRANSCRIPT
![Page 1: Presentation on research methodologies](https://reader033.vdocuments.site/reader033/viewer/2022061300/54c7036b4a79591c038b47c8/html5/thumbnails/1.jpg)
Training on“Research Methodologies”
(20-24 December 2010)
![Page 2: Presentation on research methodologies](https://reader033.vdocuments.site/reader033/viewer/2022061300/54c7036b4a79591c038b47c8/html5/thumbnails/2.jpg)
DEFINING RESEARCH
• Research is an ORGANIZED and SYSTEMATIC way of FINDING ANSWERS to QUESTIONS
![Page 3: Presentation on research methodologies](https://reader033.vdocuments.site/reader033/viewer/2022061300/54c7036b4a79591c038b47c8/html5/thumbnails/3.jpg)
KEY WORDS
• SYSTEMATIC because there is a definite set of procedures and steps which you will follow. There are certain things in the research process which are always done in order to get the most accurate results.
![Page 4: Presentation on research methodologies](https://reader033.vdocuments.site/reader033/viewer/2022061300/54c7036b4a79591c038b47c8/html5/thumbnails/4.jpg)
(Continued)
• ORGANIZED in that there is a structure or method in going about doing research. It is a planned procedure, not a spontaneous one. It is focused and limited to a specific scope.
![Page 5: Presentation on research methodologies](https://reader033.vdocuments.site/reader033/viewer/2022061300/54c7036b4a79591c038b47c8/html5/thumbnails/5.jpg)
(Continued)
• FINDING ANSWERS is the end of all research. Whether it is the answer to a hypothesis or even a simple question, research is successful when we find answers. Sometimes the answer is no, but it is still an answer.
![Page 6: Presentation on research methodologies](https://reader033.vdocuments.site/reader033/viewer/2022061300/54c7036b4a79591c038b47c8/html5/thumbnails/6.jpg)
Key Words (Continued)
• QUESTIONS are central to research. If there is no question, then the answer is of no use. Research is focused on relevant, useful, and important questions. Without a question, research has no focus, drive, or purpose.
![Page 7: Presentation on research methodologies](https://reader033.vdocuments.site/reader033/viewer/2022061300/54c7036b4a79591c038b47c8/html5/thumbnails/7.jpg)
What is the value of research?
![Page 8: Presentation on research methodologies](https://reader033.vdocuments.site/reader033/viewer/2022061300/54c7036b4a79591c038b47c8/html5/thumbnails/8.jpg)
Types of Research
Some commonly used categories are:
• Primary Research Secondary Research • Pure Research Applied Research
• Scientific Research Social Research
• Experimental Research Evaluative Research
![Page 9: Presentation on research methodologies](https://reader033.vdocuments.site/reader033/viewer/2022061300/54c7036b4a79591c038b47c8/html5/thumbnails/9.jpg)
Primary ResearchPrimary research (also called field research) involves the collection of data that does not already exist, which is research to collect original data. Primary Research is often undertaken after the researcher has gained some insight into the issue by collecting secondary data. This can be through numerous forms, including questionnaires, direct observation and telephone interviews amongst others. This information may be collected in things like questionnaires and interviews .
![Page 10: Presentation on research methodologies](https://reader033.vdocuments.site/reader033/viewer/2022061300/54c7036b4a79591c038b47c8/html5/thumbnails/10.jpg)
Secondary ResearchSecondary research (also known as desk research) involves the summary, collation and/or synthesis of existing research rather than primary research, where data is collected from, for example, research subjects or experiments.
![Page 11: Presentation on research methodologies](https://reader033.vdocuments.site/reader033/viewer/2022061300/54c7036b4a79591c038b47c8/html5/thumbnails/11.jpg)
Pure/Basic ResearchBasic research or fundamental research (sometimes pure research) is research carried out to increase understanding of fundamental principles.
Many times the end results have no direct or immediate commercial benefits: basic research can be thought of as arising out of curiosity. However, in the long term it is the basis for many commercial products and applied research.
Basic research is mainly carried out by universities.
![Page 12: Presentation on research methodologies](https://reader033.vdocuments.site/reader033/viewer/2022061300/54c7036b4a79591c038b47c8/html5/thumbnails/12.jpg)
Applied Research
• Solve specific problems help practitioners. Market new product.
• Choose one policy over the other.
• For improving productivity problem with machines, raw material, persons working.
![Page 13: Presentation on research methodologies](https://reader033.vdocuments.site/reader033/viewer/2022061300/54c7036b4a79591c038b47c8/html5/thumbnails/13.jpg)
Types of applied research- Action research: Those who are being
studied participate in research process; research incorporates popular knowledge; focus on power with goal of empowerment increase awareness; tied to political action
- Impact Assessment: Estimate the likely consequences of planned change.
- Evaluation Research: Did the program work? Measures the effectiveness of program.
![Page 14: Presentation on research methodologies](https://reader033.vdocuments.site/reader033/viewer/2022061300/54c7036b4a79591c038b47c8/html5/thumbnails/14.jpg)
The Eleven Steps in a Research Project
• Define the topic
• Find out what is known about the topic
• Clarify concepts and their measurement
• Establish an appropriate data collection method
• Operationalize concepts and design the research/data collection instruments
• Select a sample of subjects/respondents
• Consider the purpose, value and ethics of the study
• Collect the data
• Process the data
• Analyse the data
• Present the results
![Page 15: Presentation on research methodologies](https://reader033.vdocuments.site/reader033/viewer/2022061300/54c7036b4a79591c038b47c8/html5/thumbnails/15.jpg)
Research Techniques
• Experimental technique.
• Surveys. Quantitative
• Content analysis.
• Use of existing statistics.
• Field research.• Case study. Qualitative
• Focus group discussions» Mixed methods/techniques
![Page 16: Presentation on research methodologies](https://reader033.vdocuments.site/reader033/viewer/2022061300/54c7036b4a79591c038b47c8/html5/thumbnails/16.jpg)
VARIABLE
![Page 17: Presentation on research methodologies](https://reader033.vdocuments.site/reader033/viewer/2022061300/54c7036b4a79591c038b47c8/html5/thumbnails/17.jpg)
Variable• A central idea in research.• Variable is a concept that varies.• Anything (concept/term) that can take
on differing or varying values. Could be numerical.
• Variation can be in quantity, intensity, amount, or type.
• Examples: Production units, Absenteeism, Gender, Religion, Motivation, Grade, Age.
![Page 18: Presentation on research methodologies](https://reader033.vdocuments.site/reader033/viewer/2022061300/54c7036b4a79591c038b47c8/html5/thumbnails/18.jpg)
HYPOTHESIS
![Page 19: Presentation on research methodologies](https://reader033.vdocuments.site/reader033/viewer/2022061300/54c7036b4a79591c038b47c8/html5/thumbnails/19.jpg)
BackgroundOnce variables identified establish the relationship through logical reasoning.
Proposition.•Proposition is a statement about variables judged to be true.
![Page 20: Presentation on research methodologies](https://reader033.vdocuments.site/reader033/viewer/2022061300/54c7036b4a79591c038b47c8/html5/thumbnails/20.jpg)
Definition• Hypothesis is a testable
counterpart of proposition i.e. If variables refer to empirical reality then it could be testable. Therefore
• Hypothesis is a testable proposition.
![Page 21: Presentation on research methodologies](https://reader033.vdocuments.site/reader033/viewer/2022061300/54c7036b4a79591c038b47c8/html5/thumbnails/21.jpg)
Example 1
• Level of job commitment of the Officers is associated with their level of efficiency.
![Page 22: Presentation on research methodologies](https://reader033.vdocuments.site/reader033/viewer/2022061300/54c7036b4a79591c038b47c8/html5/thumbnails/22.jpg)
Example –2
• Level of job commitment of the Officers is positively associated with their level of efficiency.
![Page 23: Presentation on research methodologies](https://reader033.vdocuments.site/reader033/viewer/2022061300/54c7036b4a79591c038b47c8/html5/thumbnails/23.jpg)
Example – 3 • The higher the level of job
commitment of Officers the lower their level of absenteeism.
![Page 24: Presentation on research methodologies](https://reader033.vdocuments.site/reader033/viewer/2022061300/54c7036b4a79591c038b47c8/html5/thumbnails/24.jpg)
TOOLS FOR DATA COLLECTION
![Page 25: Presentation on research methodologies](https://reader033.vdocuments.site/reader033/viewer/2022061300/54c7036b4a79591c038b47c8/html5/thumbnails/25.jpg)
Data Collection Methods• Quantitative Methods: Findings can be reduced to
numerical summaries; relatively more objective and ‘scientific’
• Qualitative Methods: Findings are expressed in words, narrative and not numbers; more naturalistic and open, relies on interpretation and emphasizes ‘meanings’.
• Participatory Methods: Close to qualitative research but less formal; exclusive to development work; attempts to correct the imbalance between researcher and subjects of the research.
![Page 26: Presentation on research methodologies](https://reader033.vdocuments.site/reader033/viewer/2022061300/54c7036b4a79591c038b47c8/html5/thumbnails/26.jpg)
Quantitative, Qualitative & Participatory Methods in Use
Quantitative Quantitative MethodsMethods
Qualitative Qualitative MethodsMethods
Participatory Participatory MethodsMethods
•SurveySurvey•ExperimentsExperiments
•Focus GroupFocus Group•Interviews Interviews (Semi-(Semi-structured/in-structured/in-depth)depth)•Field Field ObservationsObservations•Case StudiesCase Studies•EthnographyEthnography
•MappingMapping•Ranking and Ranking and ScoringScoring•Transect WalkTransect Walk•Seasonal Seasonal CalendarsCalendars
![Page 27: Presentation on research methodologies](https://reader033.vdocuments.site/reader033/viewer/2022061300/54c7036b4a79591c038b47c8/html5/thumbnails/27.jpg)
SURVEY
![Page 28: Presentation on research methodologies](https://reader033.vdocuments.site/reader033/viewer/2022061300/54c7036b4a79591c038b47c8/html5/thumbnails/28.jpg)
Survey
– Survey is a method of collecting data in which a specifically defined group of individuals are asked to answer a number of identical questions to produce quantitative datasets, amenable to computer-based analysis.
![Page 29: Presentation on research methodologies](https://reader033.vdocuments.site/reader033/viewer/2022061300/54c7036b4a79591c038b47c8/html5/thumbnails/29.jpg)
Types of Survey• Demographic Surveys
• Health & Nutrition Surveys
• Opinion Surveys
• KAP Surveys
• Rapid Assessment Surveys
![Page 30: Presentation on research methodologies](https://reader033.vdocuments.site/reader033/viewer/2022061300/54c7036b4a79591c038b47c8/html5/thumbnails/30.jpg)
Successful Surveys• Depend on
– Proper Sampling– Questions Asked/Questionnaires– Administering Questionnaires/Interviewing – Data Processing and Frame of Analysis
![Page 31: Presentation on research methodologies](https://reader033.vdocuments.site/reader033/viewer/2022061300/54c7036b4a79591c038b47c8/html5/thumbnails/31.jpg)
SAMPLE AND SAMPLING TERMINOLOGY
![Page 32: Presentation on research methodologies](https://reader033.vdocuments.site/reader033/viewer/2022061300/54c7036b4a79591c038b47c8/html5/thumbnails/32.jpg)
Sampling
Sampling is the process of selecting units (e.g., people, organizations) from a population of interest so that by studying the sample we may fairly generalize our results back to the population from which they were chosen.
![Page 33: Presentation on research methodologies](https://reader033.vdocuments.site/reader033/viewer/2022061300/54c7036b4a79591c038b47c8/html5/thumbnails/33.jpg)
Key Sampling Terms
• The group you wish to generalize your findings to is called the population in your research.
• The listing of the accessible population from which you'll draw your sample is called the sampling frame.
• The sample is the group of people who you select to be in your study based on some principles of sampling.
![Page 34: Presentation on research methodologies](https://reader033.vdocuments.site/reader033/viewer/2022061300/54c7036b4a79591c038b47c8/html5/thumbnails/34.jpg)
Sampling Methods
• A probability sampling method is any method of sampling that utilizes some form of random selection. With a probability sample, we know the odds or probability that we have represented the population well. – Simple Random Sampling, Systematic Random
Sampling, Cluster Sampling, Stratified Sampling
• Non-probability sampling does not involve random selection; with non-probability samples, we may or may not represent the population well. – Convenience Sampling, Snowball Sampling, Quota
Sampling, Expert Sampling
![Page 35: Presentation on research methodologies](https://reader033.vdocuments.site/reader033/viewer/2022061300/54c7036b4a79591c038b47c8/html5/thumbnails/35.jpg)
Sample Size
• Depends on
– Population Size (Little difference beyond 25,000)– Confidence Interval– Confidence Level– Level of variation with respect to the main variable
you’re studying– Type of Survey (For opinion surveys 1000 is
considered appropriate)
![Page 36: Presentation on research methodologies](https://reader033.vdocuments.site/reader033/viewer/2022061300/54c7036b4a79591c038b47c8/html5/thumbnails/36.jpg)
Confidence Interval
• If you use a confidence interval of 4 and 47% percent of your sample picks an answer you can be "sure" that if you had asked the question of the entire relevant population between 43% (47-4) and 51% (47+4) would have picked that answer.
![Page 37: Presentation on research methodologies](https://reader033.vdocuments.site/reader033/viewer/2022061300/54c7036b4a79591c038b47c8/html5/thumbnails/37.jpg)
Confidence Level
• Tells you how sure you can be about your confidence interval. It is expressed as a percentage and represents how often the true percentage of the population who would pick an answer lies within the confidence interval.
• The 95% confidence level means you can be 95% certain; the 99% confidence level means you can be 99% certain.
• Most researchers use the 95% confidence level.
![Page 38: Presentation on research methodologies](https://reader033.vdocuments.site/reader033/viewer/2022061300/54c7036b4a79591c038b47c8/html5/thumbnails/38.jpg)
Sample Size Calculator
• http://www.surveysystem.com/sscalc.htm
![Page 39: Presentation on research methodologies](https://reader033.vdocuments.site/reader033/viewer/2022061300/54c7036b4a79591c038b47c8/html5/thumbnails/39.jpg)
QUESTIONNAIRE
![Page 40: Presentation on research methodologies](https://reader033.vdocuments.site/reader033/viewer/2022061300/54c7036b4a79591c038b47c8/html5/thumbnails/40.jpg)
Individual Exercise
• You have been asked to develop a questionnaire to measure the accessibility of women and children to safe drinking water in UC XYZ. Write down just 5 substantive questions you’d include in your questionnaire.
![Page 41: Presentation on research methodologies](https://reader033.vdocuments.site/reader033/viewer/2022061300/54c7036b4a79591c038b47c8/html5/thumbnails/41.jpg)
Types of Questions
• Open-ended questions state a question and leave room for the respondent to write out or narrate an answer.
• Close-ended questions force the respondent to select a single response from a list.
![Page 42: Presentation on research methodologies](https://reader033.vdocuments.site/reader033/viewer/2022061300/54c7036b4a79591c038b47c8/html5/thumbnails/42.jpg)
Close-ended and Open-ended Forms of the Same Question
• D. 18 How would you rate the level of sectarian harmony and tolerance in your union council?
____________________________________________
• D. 18 How would you rate the level of sectarian harmony and tolerance in your union council?
1) Very Good 2) Good 3) Moderate
4) Poor 5) Very poor 6) Do not know
![Page 43: Presentation on research methodologies](https://reader033.vdocuments.site/reader033/viewer/2022061300/54c7036b4a79591c038b47c8/html5/thumbnails/43.jpg)
Avoid Double-Barreled Questions
• D-B question consists of two or more questions joined together.
• Makes the answer ambiguous. “Does this Co have pension and health insurance benefits?”
![Page 44: Presentation on research methodologies](https://reader033.vdocuments.site/reader033/viewer/2022061300/54c7036b4a79591c038b47c8/html5/thumbnails/44.jpg)
Examples of Double-barreled and Leading Questions
Are you satisfied with the performance of the district and provincial governments?
1. Yes 2. No 3. Not Sure
The chief justice of Pakistan was unconstitutionally deposed on November 2, 2008. Do you think he should be reinstated?
1. Yes 2. No 3. Do not know
![Page 45: Presentation on research methodologies](https://reader033.vdocuments.site/reader033/viewer/2022061300/54c7036b4a79591c038b47c8/html5/thumbnails/45.jpg)
Avoid Leading Questions
• LQ: That leads the respondent to choose one response over the other by its wording.
• Make respondents feel that all responses are legitimate.
• “You don’t smoke, do you?” “Don’t you think that women should be empowered?”
![Page 46: Presentation on research methodologies](https://reader033.vdocuments.site/reader033/viewer/2022061300/54c7036b4a79591c038b47c8/html5/thumbnails/46.jpg)
Avoid Loaded Questions
• LQ: suggest socially desirable answer or are emotionally charged.
• Should the city government repair all broken roads?
• Question loaded with such material that may hit the emotions of people e.g. Asking a husband – Have you ever been beaten up by your wife? Can be embarrassing.
![Page 47: Presentation on research methodologies](https://reader033.vdocuments.site/reader033/viewer/2022061300/54c7036b4a79591c038b47c8/html5/thumbnails/47.jpg)
Avoid Burdensome Questions
• People forget.
• Certain question may make serious demand on respondent’s memory. How did you feel about your brother when you were 6 years old?
![Page 48: Presentation on research methodologies](https://reader033.vdocuments.site/reader033/viewer/2022061300/54c7036b4a79591c038b47c8/html5/thumbnails/48.jpg)
8. Arrange Questions Sequentially• Make the questionnaire an integrated
whole. No jumping back and forth.
• Make the opening questions simple and interesting. Arouses respondent’s curiosity.
• Funnel Technique: Moving from broader issues to specific one.
![Page 49: Presentation on research methodologies](https://reader033.vdocuments.site/reader033/viewer/2022061300/54c7036b4a79591c038b47c8/html5/thumbnails/49.jpg)
9. Use Filter questions if Needed
• Asking question that doesn’t apply to the subject can be irritating or bias the answer.
• Use filter question: That screens out respondents not qualified the second question.
• Asking about bringing up of one’s children. Prior to that ask if a person is married. If yes is he/she a parent.
![Page 50: Presentation on research methodologies](https://reader033.vdocuments.site/reader033/viewer/2022061300/54c7036b4a79591c038b47c8/html5/thumbnails/50.jpg)
Advantages of Mail Questionnaire
• 1 Geographic Flexibility: Reach all corners of the country/world.
• 2. Sample Accessibility: Contact those who may inaccessible.
• 3. Save Time:
• 4. Saves Cost:
• Respondent Convenience:
• Anonymity:
• Standardized Questions
![Page 51: Presentation on research methodologies](https://reader033.vdocuments.site/reader033/viewer/2022061300/54c7036b4a79591c038b47c8/html5/thumbnails/51.jpg)
Disadvantages of Mail Questionnaire• 1. Low Response Rate• 2. Low Completion Rate• 3. Increases Cost• 4. Interviewer’s Absence• 5. No Control on Question Order• 6. Cannot use Lengthy Questionnaire• 7. No Control Over Environment• 8. Cannot catch the non-verbal
behavior• 9. Non-Literates cannot Participate
![Page 52: Presentation on research methodologies](https://reader033.vdocuments.site/reader033/viewer/2022061300/54c7036b4a79591c038b47c8/html5/thumbnails/52.jpg)
Increasing Response Rate• Cover Letter
• Money Helps
• Interesting Questions
• Follow-Ups
• Preliminary Notification
• Survey Sponsorship
• Other Techniques: Questionnaire format, facilitating the return, postage, personalization.
![Page 53: Presentation on research methodologies](https://reader033.vdocuments.site/reader033/viewer/2022061300/54c7036b4a79591c038b47c8/html5/thumbnails/53.jpg)
PILOT TESTING THE QUESTIONNAIRE
![Page 54: Presentation on research methodologies](https://reader033.vdocuments.site/reader033/viewer/2022061300/54c7036b4a79591c038b47c8/html5/thumbnails/54.jpg)
Pilot Testing
• Also called pre-testing: Small scale trial run of a particular component.
• Here focus is on trial run of questionnaire.
![Page 55: Presentation on research methodologies](https://reader033.vdocuments.site/reader033/viewer/2022061300/54c7036b4a79591c038b47c8/html5/thumbnails/55.jpg)
Involves• Small group selected on convenience.
• Could be 25+
• Similar to the one to be sampled.
• Administering questionnaire exactly as planned often is not possible (Problems in mail questionnaire).
• Usually go for personal interviewing
![Page 56: Presentation on research methodologies](https://reader033.vdocuments.site/reader033/viewer/2022061300/54c7036b4a79591c038b47c8/html5/thumbnails/56.jpg)
What aspects to be evaluated?
• Reactions of Respondents
• Discovering errors in the instrument
• Checking the sampling procedure
• Staffing and activities of research team
• Evaluating the procedure for data processing and analysis
![Page 57: Presentation on research methodologies](https://reader033.vdocuments.site/reader033/viewer/2022061300/54c7036b4a79591c038b47c8/html5/thumbnails/57.jpg)
FIELDWORK
![Page 58: Presentation on research methodologies](https://reader033.vdocuments.site/reader033/viewer/2022061300/54c7036b4a79591c038b47c8/html5/thumbnails/58.jpg)
Interviewers• In-house interviewers: hired by the
researcher
• Field Interviewing Service: A research supplier that specializes in gathering data. Trained interviewers, and supervisors. Edit questionnaires in the field. Certify how the data were collected.
• Interviewers need to be healthy, outgoing, and of pleasing appearance i.e. well groomed and well dressed.
![Page 59: Presentation on research methodologies](https://reader033.vdocuments.site/reader033/viewer/2022061300/54c7036b4a79591c038b47c8/html5/thumbnails/59.jpg)
Role of interviewer• The survey interview is a social relationship.• It is a short term secondary social
interaction between two strangers with the explicit purpose.
• Interviewer - Interviewee/respondent.• Structured conversation – interviewer asks
prearranged questions and records answers.
• The role of interviewer is difficult. They obtain cooperation and build rapport, yet remain neutral and objective.
![Page 60: Presentation on research methodologies](https://reader033.vdocuments.site/reader033/viewer/2022061300/54c7036b4a79591c038b47c8/html5/thumbnails/60.jpg)
STAGES OF AN INTERVIEW
![Page 61: Presentation on research methodologies](https://reader033.vdocuments.site/reader033/viewer/2022061300/54c7036b4a79591c038b47c8/html5/thumbnails/61.jpg)
Making initial contact -- Rapport
• Convince the respondent
• Asslaam-o-Alaykum. My name is ______ and I am working for National Survey Co. We are conducting a survey concerning “women empowerment.” I would like to get a few of your ideas.
• Personal interviewer must carry a letter of authority.
![Page 62: Presentation on research methodologies](https://reader033.vdocuments.site/reader033/viewer/2022061300/54c7036b4a79591c038b47c8/html5/thumbnails/62.jpg)
Asking the questions• Ask the questions exactly as they are worded.• Read each question very slowly.• Ask the question in the order in which they are
presented in questionnaire.• Repeat questions that are misunderstood or
misinterpreted.• Information volunteered earlier than the actual question.
Record at proper place. But do ask this question.
![Page 63: Presentation on research methodologies](https://reader033.vdocuments.site/reader033/viewer/2022061300/54c7036b4a79591c038b47c8/html5/thumbnails/63.jpg)
Probing• Verbal prompts made by the fieldworker.• Probing needed in 2 types of situations:• 1. When the respondent is to be
motivated to enlarge on, to clarify, or explain the answer.
• 2. When there is rambling.
![Page 64: Presentation on research methodologies](https://reader033.vdocuments.site/reader033/viewer/2022061300/54c7036b4a79591c038b47c8/html5/thumbnails/64.jpg)
Probing tactics
• Repetition of the question.
• An expectant pause.
• Repetition of the respondent’s reply.
• Neutral questions or comments.
![Page 65: Presentation on research methodologies](https://reader033.vdocuments.site/reader033/viewer/2022061300/54c7036b4a79591c038b47c8/html5/thumbnails/65.jpg)
Recording the responses• Closed ended questions. Tick or circle
• Open ended:
• - Record responses during interview
• - Use the respondent’s own words. Verbatim
• - Do not summarize or paraphrase.
• - Include everything that pertain to question objectives.
• - Include all your probes.
![Page 66: Presentation on research methodologies](https://reader033.vdocuments.site/reader033/viewer/2022061300/54c7036b4a79591c038b47c8/html5/thumbnails/66.jpg)
Terminating the interview• No hasty departure. Secure information.
• Respondent’s spontaneous comments at the end.
• Answer any question by the respondents.
• Leave by observing local customs. “Don’t burn your bridges”
• Thank for the cooperation.
• Find a place to edit. Record information on face page.
![Page 67: Presentation on research methodologies](https://reader033.vdocuments.site/reader033/viewer/2022061300/54c7036b4a79591c038b47c8/html5/thumbnails/67.jpg)
FOCUS GROUP DISCUSSION
![Page 68: Presentation on research methodologies](https://reader033.vdocuments.site/reader033/viewer/2022061300/54c7036b4a79591c038b47c8/html5/thumbnails/68.jpg)
• FGD are a more formal way of getting groups of people to discuss selected issues.
![Page 69: Presentation on research methodologies](https://reader033.vdocuments.site/reader033/viewer/2022061300/54c7036b4a79591c038b47c8/html5/thumbnails/69.jpg)
The purpose of FGD:
• To obtain in-depth information on concepts, perceptions, and ideas of the group.
• More than an question-answer interaction.
• Group members discuss the topic among themselves.
![Page 70: Presentation on research methodologies](https://reader033.vdocuments.site/reader033/viewer/2022061300/54c7036b4a79591c038b47c8/html5/thumbnails/70.jpg)
Focus groups are:
• Formally constituted (organized in advance);
• Structured groups brought together (people from similar background, age, sex, education, religion, or similar experiences);
• 6-12 persons;• Guided by a moderator/facilitator;
![Page 71: Presentation on research methodologies](https://reader033.vdocuments.site/reader033/viewer/2022061300/54c7036b4a79591c038b47c8/html5/thumbnails/71.jpg)
Cont.
• To address a specific issue (talk freely, agree or disagree),
• Within a fixed time frame, and • In accordance with clearly spelled
out rules of procedure.
![Page 72: Presentation on research methodologies](https://reader033.vdocuments.site/reader033/viewer/2022061300/54c7036b4a79591c038b47c8/html5/thumbnails/72.jpg)
How to conduct FGD?
![Page 73: Presentation on research methodologies](https://reader033.vdocuments.site/reader033/viewer/2022061300/54c7036b4a79591c038b47c8/html5/thumbnails/73.jpg)
1. Preparation
• Selection of topic, questions to be discussed (open ended).
• Selecting the study participants:• - Purposive or convenience sampling. • - Similar background. Age, sex, status.• - 6-12 persons in a session.• - Contact the participants. Invitations.• Making physical arrangements.
![Page 74: Presentation on research methodologies](https://reader033.vdocuments.site/reader033/viewer/2022061300/54c7036b4a79591c038b47c8/html5/thumbnails/74.jpg)
2. Conducting the session:
• One of the members of the research team should act as ‘facilitator’ for the focus group. One should serve as ‘recorder’ (rapporteur).
![Page 75: Presentation on research methodologies](https://reader033.vdocuments.site/reader033/viewer/2022061300/54c7036b4a79591c038b47c8/html5/thumbnails/75.jpg)
Functions of the Facilitator/Moderator:
• Act as a coordinator, not as an expert.• Introduce the session.• Encourage discussion.• Encourage involvement. Ask for
clarifications; reorienting the discussion when it goes off the track; bringing in reluctant participants. Deal with dominant participant
• Build Rapport. Observe nonverbal communication.
![Page 76: Presentation on research methodologies](https://reader033.vdocuments.site/reader033/viewer/2022061300/54c7036b4a79591c038b47c8/html5/thumbnails/76.jpg)
Some guidelines for the facilitator:
• Observe verbal as well non-verbal communication. What are they saying? What does it mean to them? Empathize.
• Do not try to comment on everything that is said
• Control the timings unobtrusively.
![Page 77: Presentation on research methodologies](https://reader033.vdocuments.site/reader033/viewer/2022061300/54c7036b4a79591c038b47c8/html5/thumbnails/77.jpg)
Some guidelines for the Facilitator (Cont.)..
• Summarize the main issues at the end of FGD.
• Check whether all participants agree.
• Thank the participants.
• Listen for the added comments after meeting has closed.
![Page 78: Presentation on research methodologies](https://reader033.vdocuments.site/reader033/viewer/2022061300/54c7036b4a79591c038b47c8/html5/thumbnails/78.jpg)
Functions of the Recorder
• Keep a record of the content as well as emotional reactions and nature of group interactions.
• Record the following:
• - Date, time, and place.
• - Names and characteristics of participants.
• - Description of group dynamics (level of participation, presence of a dominant participant, level of interest).
![Page 79: Presentation on research methodologies](https://reader033.vdocuments.site/reader033/viewer/2022061300/54c7036b4a79591c038b47c8/html5/thumbnails/79.jpg)
• - Opinions of the participants, as far as possible in their own words, especially the
key statements.
• - Emotional aspects (reluctance, strong feelings attached to certain opinions)
• - Vocabulary used.
Functions of Recorder (Cont.)
![Page 80: Presentation on research methodologies](https://reader033.vdocuments.site/reader033/viewer/2022061300/54c7036b4a79591c038b47c8/html5/thumbnails/80.jpg)
Functions of Recorder (Cont.)
• Assist the facilitator by drawing his/her attention to missed topics or missed comments from the participants.
• Help the facilitator resolve the conflict if necessary.
• Make sure a copy of the list of topics and key probe questions is available and referred to during the FGD.
![Page 81: Presentation on research methodologies](https://reader033.vdocuments.site/reader033/viewer/2022061300/54c7036b4a79591c038b47c8/html5/thumbnails/81.jpg)
Duration of FGD
• Between one hour to one hour and a half.
![Page 82: Presentation on research methodologies](https://reader033.vdocuments.site/reader033/viewer/2022061300/54c7036b4a79591c038b47c8/html5/thumbnails/82.jpg)
3. Analysis of Results
• After each FGD the facilitator and recorder meet to review and evaluate the discussion.
• The full report is prepared using the participants own words, listing the key statements, ideas and attitudes.
• Additional questions are formulated if needed.• Answers of different sub-groups are compared.• The findings must be recorded in a coherent
way.• The most useful quotations should be selected.
![Page 83: Presentation on research methodologies](https://reader033.vdocuments.site/reader033/viewer/2022061300/54c7036b4a79591c038b47c8/html5/thumbnails/83.jpg)
4. Report Writing
• Start with a description of the selection and composition of the group and participants, and a commentary on the group process.
• Present your findings, following your list of topics and guided by the objectives of FGD.
• Include questions whenever possible, particularly the key statements.
![Page 84: Presentation on research methodologies](https://reader033.vdocuments.site/reader033/viewer/2022061300/54c7036b4a79591c038b47c8/html5/thumbnails/84.jpg)
Limitations
• Results cannot usually be used for generalization.
• Participants often agree with responses from fellow members (for different reasons). Researcher to be cautious when interpreting the results.
•
![Page 85: Presentation on research methodologies](https://reader033.vdocuments.site/reader033/viewer/2022061300/54c7036b4a79591c038b47c8/html5/thumbnails/85.jpg)
Cont.
• The moderator may influence the participants (bias).
• FGDs have limited value in exploring complex beliefs of individuals.
• FGDs can paint a picture of what is socially acceptable in a community rather than what is actually occurring or believed. (real and ideal problems)