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PREJUDICE AND DISCRIMINATION 1

A • Affect(feelings)

B • behavioraltendencies

C • Cognition

(beliefs)

Prejudice

StereotypingDiscrimination

Prejudice and Discrimination

Prejudice:

Attitude toward the members of some group based solely on their membership in that

group (can be positive or negative)

Discrimination:

Discrimination is the behavior or actions, usually negative, towards an individual or

group of people, especially on the basis of sex/race/social class, etc.

Stereotyping:

Stereotypes involve generalizations about the "typical" characteristics of members of

the groups.

Terms that often overlaps

Attitude

An Attitude – is a distinct combination of feelings, inclinations to act, and beliefs




The Difference between Prejudice and Discrimination

A prejudiced person may not act on their attitude. Therefore, someone can be

prejudiced towards a certain group but not discriminate against them. Also, prejudice

includes all three components of an attitude (affective, behavioral and affective), whereas

discrimination just involves behavior.

Roots of Prejudice

The roots of prejudice are found in three sources.

1. Social source

2. Emotional source

3. Cognitive source

Social Sources of Prejudice:

The social sources of the prejudice are conformity, unequal status, the self fulfilling

prophecy, stereotype threat, social identity and intergroup bias




.

Unequal Status

People view enemies as subhuman and depersonalize them with labels. For example,

masters view slaves as lazy, irresponsible, lacking ambition-as having those traits that justify

slavery. Once these inequalities exist, prejudice helps justify the economic and social

superiority of those who have wealth and power.

The self fulfilling prophecy

This is also known as the Pygmalion effect. Negative beliefs predict negative

behavior, if a person thinks we are claver or stupid or whatever, they will treat us that way. If

we are treated as if we are claver, stupid or whatever, we will act, and even become, this way.

The person has had their prophecy about us fulfilled.

Stereotype Threat

1. a self-conforming apprehension that one will be evaluated based on a negative

stereotype

2. refers to being at risk of confirming, as self-characteristic, a negative stereotype about

one's group (Steele & Aronson, 1995)

UnequalStatus

SocialIdentity




3. Black college freshmen and sophomores performed more poorly on standardized tests

than White students when their race was emphasized.

4. When race was not emphasized, however, Black students performed better and

equivalently with White students.

5. The results showed that performance in academic contexts can be harmed by the

awareness that one's behavior might be viewed through the lens of racial stereotypes.

Social identity

Self concept -our sense of who we are-contains not just personal identity but also

social identity. For example, a person may identify his self a man, a Pakistani, a psychology

student, a chess player

Ingroup bias

The group definition of who you are--your race, religion, gender, academic major--

implies a definition of who you are not. The circle that includes ―us‖ (the in-group) excludes

―them‖ (the out-group). Thus, a mere experience of being formed into groups may promote

in-group bias.

Conformity

If prejudice is socially accepted, many people will follow the path of least resistance

and conform to fashion. They will act not so much out of a need to hate as out of a need to be

liked and accepted.

Emotional Sources of Prejudice




Personality dynamic:

The need for status, self-regard and belonging, to perceive ourselves as having status,

we need people below us. Psychological benefit of status is superiority.

Authoritarian personality:

Andorno identified the authoritarian personality type as having these

characteristics:

The authoritarian personality does not want to give orders; their personality type

wants to take orders. People with this type of personality seek conformity, security,

and stability. They become anxious and insecure when events or circumstances upset

their previously existing world view. They are very intolerant of any divergence from

what they consider to be the normal (which is usually conceptualized in terms of their

religion, race, history, nationality, culture, language, etc.)

Frustration & Aggression:

1. Pain and frustration (a blocking of a goal) often evoke hostility.

2. When the cause of our frustration is intimidating or unknown, we often redirect

our hostility (displaced aggression)

Cognitive Sources of Prejudice:

Categorization

One way we simplify our environment is to categorize- to organize the world by

clustering objects into groups (Macrae & Bodenhausen, 2000). It perceived similarities and

differences.

Distinctiveness:

Distinctive people and vivid or extreme occurrences often draw attention and distort

judgment. We define people by their most distinctive traits and behaviors.




lesbian or bisexual. Since heterosexuality is considered superior to homosexuality,

stereotypes about homosexuals persist.

Ableism:

Ableism is discrimination against or mistreatment of people with mental,

emotional or physical disabilities. The disabilities include physical or mental

conditions that limit a person's everyday activities. People with these prejudices

believe that they are superior to people with disabilities.

Types of Discrimination

Personal / Individual Discrimination

Farley contends that individual discrimination can refer to any act that leads to

the unequal treatment because of race or ethnicity that is directed at a specific

individual.

Examples:

1. A home owner refusing to sell to a Jew

2. A taxi driver refusing to pick up African American fares

3. An employer paying Chicano workers a lower wage than white workers.

Legal:

Robertson contended that legal discrimination is "unequal treatment, on the

grounds of group membership, that is upheld by law."

Racial Discrimination:

Deliberate racial discrimination in virtually every form has been illegal for

years. None-the-less discrimination is still prevalent in our society. Discrimination

can occur within institutions in society.

Institutional Discrimination:




Institutional discrimination on the other hand, is much more insidious and,

therefore, more difficult to rectify. Institutional discrimination resides within the

fabric of society. Harrington (1984) poetically called institutional discrimination

"structures of misery." Institutional discrimination explains much inequality in gender

(and race and ethnicity) found in the workplace. Institutional discrimination is

unequal treatment that is entrenched in basic social institutions. It refers to those

practices in social institutions that favor one group over another.

Age Discrimination:

Age discrimination is discrimination against a person or group on the grounds

of age.

Gender Discrimination:

In Western societies while women are often discriminated against in the

workplace, men are often discriminated against in the home and family

environments. For instance after a divorce women receive primary custody of the

children far more often than men. Women on average earn less pay than men for

doing the same job

Legal Discrimination:

Legal discrimination is, after all, illegal. Presumably, if one can document

legal discrimination, one can remove such discrimination through the courts or

legislatures.

Historical Approaches:

The first psychological research conducted on prejudice occurred in the 1920s. This

research was done to attempt to prove white supremacy. One article from 1925 reviewing 73

studies on race concluded that the ―studies take all together seem to indicate the mental

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychological_research

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_supremacy

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_supremacy

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychological_research




superiority of the white race‖. This research among others led many psychologists to view

prejudice as a natural response to inferior races.

In the 1930s and 1940s, this perspective began to change due to the increasing

concern about anti-Semitism. Theorists of this time viewed prejudice as pathological and

looked for personality syndromes linked with racism. Theorist Theodor Adorno believed

prejudice stemmed from an authoritarian personality. Adorno described authoritarians as

―rigid thinkers who obeyed authority, saw the world as black and white, and enforced strict

adherence to social rules and hierarchies‖. Adorno believed people with authoritarian

personalities were the most likely to be prejudiced against groups of lower status.

In 1954, Gordon Allport linked prejudice and categorical thinking. Allport claims

prejudice is in part a normal process for humans. According to him, "The human mind must

think with the aid of categories.Once formed, categories are the basis for normal

prejudgment. We cannot possibly avoid this process. Orderly living depends upon it.

In the 1970s, research began to show that much of prejudice is based not on negative

feelings towards other groups but favoritism towards one’s own groups. According to

Marilyn Brewer, prejudice "may develop not because out groups are hated, but because

positive emotions such as admiration, sympathy, and trust are reserved for the in group."

Factors That Contribute To Prejudice

Social scientists have also identified some common social factors that may contribute to

the presence of prejudice and discrimination:

1. Socialization: Many prejudices seem to be passed along from parents to children. The

media — including television, movies, and advertising — also perpetuate demeaning

images and stereotypes about assorted groups, such as ethnic minorities, women,

gays and lesbians, the disabled, and the elderly.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-Semitism

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodor_Adorno

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gordon_Allport

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marilyn_Brewer

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marilyn_Brewer

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gordon_Allport

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodor_Adorno

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-Semitism




2. Conforming behaviors: Prejudices may bring support from significant others, so

rejecting prejudices may lead to losing social support. The pressures to conform to

the views of families, friends, and associates can be formidable.

3. Economic Benefits: Social studies have confirmed that prejudice especially rises

when groups are in direct competition for jobs. This may help to explain why

prejudice increases dramatically during times of economic and social stress.

4. Authoritarian personality: In response to early socialization, some people are

especially prone to stereotypical thinking and projection based on unconscious fears.

People with an authoritarian personality rigidly conform, submit without question

to their superiors, reject those they consider to be inferiors, and express intolerant

sexual and religious opinions. The authoritarian personality may have its roots in

parents who are unloving and aloof disciplinarians. The child then learns to control

his or her anxieties via rigid attitudes.

5. Ethnocentrism: Ethnocentrism is the tendency to evaluate others' cultures by one's

own cultural norms and values. It also includes a suspicion of outsiders. Most

cultures have their ethnocentric tendencies, which usually involve stereotypical

thinking.

6. Group closure: Group closure is the process whereby groups keep clear boundaries

between themselves and others. Refusing to marry outside an ethnic group is an

example of how group closure is accomplished.

7. Conflict theory: Under conflict theory, in order to hold onto their distinctive social

status, power, and possessions, privileged groups are invested in seeing that no

competition for resources arises from minority groups. The powerful may even be

ready to resort to extreme acts of violence against others to protect their interests. As




a result, members of underprivileged groups may retaliate with violence in an

attempt to improve their circumstances.

Functions

Prejudice is a destructive phenomenon, and it is pervasive because it serves many

psychological, social, and economic functions:

1. Prejudice allows people to avoid doubt and fear.

Example: Rachel’s parents came from a working-class background but are now

wealthy business owners. Rachel might develop a dislike of the working class because

she does not want to be identified with working-class people. She believes such an

association would damage her claim to upper-class social status.

2. Prejudice gives people scapegoats to blame in times of trouble.

Example: Glen blames his unemployment on foreign nationals whom he believes are

incompetent but willing to work for low wages.

3. Prejudice can boost self-esteem.

Example: A poor white farmer in the nineteenth-century South could feel better about

his own meager existence by insisting on his superiority to African-American slaves.

4. Evolutionary psychologists suggest that prejudice allows people to bond with their

own group by contrasting their own groups to outsider groups.

Example: Most religious and ethnic groups maintain some prejudices against other

groups, which help to make their own group seem more special.

5. Prejudice legitimizes discrimination because it apparently justifies one group’s

dominance over another.

Example: Pseudoscientific arguments about the mental inferiority of African

Americans allowed whites to feel justified in owning slaves.




Theories of Prejudice:

Normative Theory:

This perspective on prejudice formation identifies core socialization experiences as

Primarily responsible for the creation and reinforcement of prejudices. In this view the

Family, one is circle of friends, one is community, and the mass media all systematically

teach attitudes---some of which are prejudices.

Scapegoat Theory:

This perspective on prejudice formation identifies the human need to displace blame

for personal shortcomings and misfortunes onto some relatively powerless target group. This

group typically will serve to bear the brunt of blame for a whole host of wrongs perceived by

the individual. In this view, prejudice is rooted in human nature and therefore can never be

fully eradicated.

Justification-Suppression Model:

The justification-suppression model of prejudice was created by Christian Crandall

and Amy Eshleman. This model explains that people face a conflict between the desire to

express prejudice and the desire to maintain a positive self-concept. This conflict causes

people to search for justification for disliking an out-group, and to use that justification to

avoid negative feelings (cognitive dissonance) about themselves when they act on their

dislike of the out-group.

Exploitation Theory

This perspective on prejudice formation identifies conflicting economic interests as

the root source of prejudice. In this view, when people are in competition for jobs and

Business clients, there is a tendency to subscribe to various prejudices that might help them to

justify actions and policies that would discriminate against racial and ethnic

groups different from one’s own and with whom one is in competition.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-concept

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_dissonance

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_dissonance

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-concept




Authoritarian Personality Theory:

This perspective on prejudice formation identifies a particular type of personality as

the root source of a tendency to look upon the world in dichotomous terms of good and evil,

right and wrong. This personality type is allegedly created by a harsh, punitive childhood

upbringing. Persons with such a personality type are allegedly disposed to adopt prejudicial

attitudes about all sorts of things.

Realistic Conflict Theory:

The realistic conflict theory states that competition between limited resources leads to

increased negative prejudices and discrimination. This can be seen even when the resource is

insignificant. In the Robber’s Cave experiment, negative prejudice and hostility was created

between two summer camps after sports competitions for small prizes. The hostility was

lessened after the two competing camps were forced to cooperate on tasks to achieve a

common goal.

Integrated Threat Theory (ITT):

Integrated Threat Theory (ITT) developed by Walter G Stephan. It draws from and builds

upon several other psychological explanations of prejudice and in group/out group behavior,

such as Realistic Group Conflict Threat and symbolic racism. It also uses the Social Identity

Theory perspective as the basis for its validity, that is, it assumes that individuals operate in a

group-based context where group memberships form a part of individual identity. ITT posits

that out group prejudice and discrimination is caused when individuals perceive an out group

to be threatening in some way. ITT defines four threats:

1. Realistic threats

2. Symbolic threats

3. Intergroup anxiety

4. Negative stereotypes

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Realistic_conflict_theory

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symbolic_racism

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symbolic_racism

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Realistic_conflict_theory




Realistic threats are tangible, such as competition for a natural resource or a threat to

income. Symbolic threats arise from a perceived difference in cultural values between

groups or a perceived imbalance of power — for example, an in group perceiving an out

group’s religion as incompatible with theirs. Intergroup anxiety is a feeling of uneasiness

experienced in the presence of an out group or out group member, which constitutes a threat

because interactions with other groups cause negative feelings (e.g., a threat to comfortable

interactions). Negative stereotypes are similarly threats, in that individuals anticipate

negative behavior from out group members in line with the perceived stereotype, for

example, that the out group is violent. Often these stereotypes are associated with emotions

such as fear and anger. ITT differs from other threat theories by including intergroup anxiety

and negative stereotypes as threat types.

Social Dominance Theory:

Social Dominance Theory states that society can be viewed as group-based

hierarchies. In competition for scarce resources such as housing or employment, dominant

groups create prejudiced "legitimizing myths" to provide moral and intellectual justification

for their dominant position over other groups and validate their claim over the limited

resources. Legitimizing myths, such as discriminatory hiring practices or biased merit norms,

work to maintain these prejudiced hierarchies.

Prejudice can be a central contributing factor to depression. This can occur in

someone who is a prejudice victim, being the target of someone's else's prejudice, or when

people have prejudice against themselves that causes their own depression.

Culture Theory:

This theory says that extreme prejudice may be characteristic of certain people, but

some prejudice is found in everyone because it is embedded in culture. Think of a child

growing up and their parents telling them they should marry from the same ethnic group.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_Dominance_Theory







Conflict Theory:

Part of this theory is when powerful people use prejudice to justify oppression

others. Another great example is when minorities claim that they are victims and therefore

are entitled to special consideration based on their race.

Impression Management Theory:

Rosenfield (1981) argues that much attitude change is seen as an attempt to avoid

social anxiety and embarrassment, or to protect the positive view of one's own identity.

Devine (1989) found that even when a person considers himself/herself to be low in

prejudice, when put into contact with a member of a stereotyped group, the person will

immediately react according to the cultural norms.

Biological Theory:

When white and black participants were given brief subliminal glimpses of faces of

individuals from other ethnic groups, both showed increased activity in the amygdale, the

part of the brain that is responsible for processing emotional responses to stimuli even though

the participants reported that they had no noticeable change in their emotional state during the

study. (Hart, 2000)

Attribution-Value Model

The attribution-value model is a framework for understanding individual differences

in prejudice, developed by Chris Crandall and colleagues. It states that not only do minorities

possess undesirable characteristics incongruent with the majority, but also that minorities are

also responsible for them. For example, overweight individuals are viewed as ―lazy‖ and

unable to control themselves. This belief that targeted groups should be held accountable for

their status arouses negative emotional reactions towards them.

Intersection Theory:

Feminist sociologist Patricia Hill Collins (1990) developed intersection theory, which




suggests we cannot separate the effects of race, class, gender, sexual orientation, and other

attributes. When we examine race and how it can bring us both advantages and

disadvantages, it is important to acknowledge that the way we experience race is shaped, for

example, by our gender and class. Multiple layers of disadvantage intersect to create the way

we experience race. For example, if we want to understand prejudice, we must understand

that the prejudice focused on a white woman because of her gender is very different from the

layered prejudice focused on a poor Asian woman, who is affected by stereotypes related to

being poor, being a woman, and her ethnic status.

Contact Hypothesis:

Allport (1956) "It has sometimes been held that merely by assembling people without

regard for race, color, religion, or national origin, we can thereby destroy stereotypes and

develop friendly attitudes." Amir (2000) prejudice is strengthened or increased if contract

between two group produces competition and is unpleasant.

Measuring Prejudice

Researchers find it difficult to measure prejudice. One reason for this is that people

differ in the type and extent of prejudice they harbor. For example, a person who makes

demeaning comments about a particular ethnic group may be bigoted or just ignorant. Also,

people often do not admit to being prejudiced.

People may often have implicit unconscious prejudices even when they do not have explicit

prejudices. Researchers assess implicit prejudice in three ways:

1. Some researchers assess attitudes that suggest prejudice, such as a strong emotional

objection to affirmative action.

2. Some researchers observe behavior rather than assess attitudes. People’s behavior in

stressful situations may be particularly useful at revealing implicit prejudice.




3. Some researchers assess the unconscious associations people have about particular

groups.

In-groups and Out groups

People’s social identities depend on the groups they belong to. From a person’s

perspective, any group he belongs to is an in group, and any group he doesn’t belong to is an

out group. People generally have a lower opinion of out group members and a higher

opinion of members of their own group. People who identify strongly with a particular group

are more likely to be prejudiced against people in competing out groups.

People tend to think that their own groups are composed of different sorts of people.

At the same time, they often think that everyone in an out group is the same. According to the

contact hypothesis, prejudice declines when people in an in group become more familiar

with the customs, norms, food, music, and attitudes of people in an out group. Contact with

the out group helps people to see the diversity among its members.

Competition and Cooperation

Hostility between an in group and an out group increases when groups compete.

Researchers have found that hostility between groups decreases when those groups have to

cooperate in order to reach a shared goal. In such a situation, people in the two groups tend to

feel that they belong to one larger group rather than two separate groups.

Ways to Reduce Prejudice

Reducing prejudices needs to be more than an organizational goal; it needs to be a

personal goal for each of us. The following list contains things we can do as individuals to

help reduce prejudices within ourselves and in those around us

1. Acknowledge that you have learned prejudicial information about other

people. Without this acknowledgment nothing can change. Only through an

acknowledgment of the prejudicial learning’s can the misinformation be openly




discussed and dealt with in a way which is likely to bring about change. It is clear that

if we can’t talk about it, we surely can’t change it.

2. Confront without guilt or blame the stereotypes that you have learned.

Guilt for having learned information is not really appropriate. It would have been

difficult or nearly impossible to avoid learning this information. You probably learned

it before you were able to think about the information critically.

3. Enter a supportive group or a supportive relationship for making the needed

changes.

We tend to change our interpersonal behaviors and beliefs most effectively in an

interpersonal context. Another person or other people can help us to test new

learnings, gain new information, hold us to our insights and our commitments. They

can do all this while providing us with support as we try new ideas, behaviors and

beliefs.

4. Make a commitment to change and make a commitment to a process of

change.

The commitment made to others is a stronger commitment than the one made alone or

to oneself. The commitment should be to working on a change process. Simply

making a commitment to change is not as likely to result in the modification of

behavior as a commitment to change that includes a commitment to a process. It is

most effective to make an agreement to meet regularly with someone to discuss how

you are both changing. Mutual commitments are both powerful and healthy.

5. Become aware of your own "self-talk" about other groups of people.

Becoming aware of one's own "self-talk" is critical in the process of changing the

early stereotyped beliefs that one has learned. Talk about where those messages came

from and the messages' limiting effect with a person who will be accepting and non-




judgmental. Knowing what those messages are is critical to changing them and

replacing them with positive messages.

6. Challenge the irrationality of the prejudicial thoughts or "self-talk"

statements.

Get information to disprove each prejudicial thought. Most general statements about a

population of people are untrue. One only needs to look more closely to see that

almost any statement about "them" will fall apart under examination. Take the time to

examine and challenge the thoughts that limit or devalue other people.

7. Increase your exposure to or contact with those who belong to the group(s)

toward

which you have learned some prejudicial stereotypes.

Misconceptions remain effective only when you avoid contact with those about whom

you have misconceptions. It is always helpful to increase your exposure to people that

belong to the group about which you have stereotyped thoughts. When you are doing

this, besure that you are not making contact in a way which will only affirm your

stereotypedbeliefs. In finding people who are representative of this group, you might

ask yourself, "Is this the method I would want someone to use who wanted to learn

about people of my nationality, race, age, religious belief, or culture?" As you enter

this process, keep in mind the tremendous diversity within any group.

8. Thought-stopping is a valuable process for changing one's "self-talk" about

others.

It is often helpful to have a pleasant image to focus upon to use as an abrupt

interruption to your thoughts whenever you discover that you have started to think

stereotypical thoughts about a member of another group.




9. Make use of the Premack Principle, a small rule that has power for change.

Making something one does often or something one likes to do contingent upon doing

one's positive practice is one of the most effective ways of ensuring it gets done

10. Learn how other groups see your own identity group.

Learn from those in other groups how your own group is seen. This may take time

because one needs to develop a trusting relationship.

11. Feeling good about ourselves is important in being able to accept people who

are different from us.

We need to develop a strong sense of security. People need to feel secure enough to

be self-critical and to accept and learn from critical feedback by others. Those who

are unable to accept critical feedback often project blame onto those who are different

from themselves.

12. Accepting indecision is an important learning style.

We need to develop an acceptance within ourselves for indecision. To be undecided is

not only acceptable, but often desirable over having fast answers before all the needed

information is available. To be in a position of not knowing and not reaching a

conclusion is a valid position.

13. Developing empathy skills is an effective way of increasing our acceptance of

others.

The ability to empathize with others is a teachable skill and is highly related to

tolerance. There is no other skill that has been so clearly shown as being related to

acceptance of others. 14. Develop listening skills so that we can really hear other

people.

We need to develop listening skills and an appreciation for listening to other people.

15. Develop an appreciation for the complexities of the universe.




Knowing that one truth does not preclude another is an important concept. We need to

develop and nurture our own appreciation for the complexities of the universe. Our

ability to accept contradictory truths is related to our tolerance for others

16. Developing our own ability to experience caring about other people

Is not only important for them, but allows us to be touch with our own connectedness

and adds meaning to our lives. We need to show caring, even for those people who

are unable to return the caring at this time.

17. Learning about other groups is an important way to develop understanding.

We need to learn about those groups we might feel prejudice toward. It is helpful to

read about these groups in books the members of the groups have written, and it's also

helpful to go out of our way to visit with members of these groups.

18. Valuing diversity in human appearance and in nature is important.

Diversity is the reality of nature and the strength of a species. We need to think and

behave in ways which value and learn from diversity. This is not only in the area of

racial diversity, but also in diverse ways of thinking, problem-solving and the many

other ways in which people differ that affect human interactions.

19. Seeking self-understanding increases the ability to accept one and others.

We need to personally value and seek self-understanding. Those who are self-aware

and self-critical are less likely to blame others. They know their own shortcomings

and capabilities and have the self-esteem to accept responsibility for their behaviors.

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