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PrehistoryVarious links and pages. Not sure how I'lluse them.

ContentsArticles

Castorocauda 1Chapalmalania 4List of prehistoric mammals 5Megacerops 38Prehistoric mammal 41Pliocene 43Diprotodon 50Eocene 55Mastodon 63

ReferencesArticle Sources and Contributors 68Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 69

Article LicensesLicense 71

Castorocauda 1

Castorocauda

CastorocaudaTemporal range: Middle or Late Jurassic, 164Ma

Scientific classification

Kingdom: AnimaliaPhylum: ChordataClade: SynapsidaOrder: TherapsidaClade: CynodontiaOrder: †DocodontaFamily: †DocodontidaeGenus: †Castorocauda

Ji et al., 2006Type species

†Castorocauda lutrasimilisJi et al., 2006

Castorocauda is a genus of small, semi-aquatic mammal relatives living in the Jurassic period, around 164 millionyears ago, found in lakebed sediments of the Daohugou Beds of Inner Mongolia. It contains the single speciesCastorocauda lutrasimilis. They were highly specialized, with adaptations evolved convergently with those ofmodern semi-aquatic mammals such as beavers, otters, and the platypus.

ClassificationCastorocauda lutrasimilis is a member of the order Docodonta, which is a wholly extinct group ofMammaliaformes. It is not considered to be a mammal by the crown group definition, which takes the mammals tobe the group containing the most recent common ancestor of all living mammals (the monotremes, placentals, andmarsupials) and its descendants. Many writers, however, do not define Mammalia as a crown group;Kielan-Jaworowska et al. (2004), for example, defines Mammalia as the group originating with the last commonancestor of Sinoconodon and living mammals, a definition that includes Docodonta.An important goal of paleontologists is to track the origin and evolution of certain characteristics. Hard anatomycharacters such as teeth and bones preserve well in the fossil record and are the main source of information abouthow fossil animals are related to their modern counterparts. Soft anatomy features such as internal organs do notpreserve readily.

Castorocauda 2

A Castorocauda fossil was discovered in 2004 in the fossil-rich beds of Liaoning province, China; it was reported inthe journal Science by an international team led by Qiang Ji of Nanjing University. The fossil was so well preservedthat an important feature of its soft anatomy — hair — was preserved. Hair is present in all modern mammals and istherefore assumed, under principles of maximum parsimony, to have been present in all descendants of the lastcommon ancestor of Castorocauda and today's mammals, including crown mammals and other docodonts. The hairappears to have been a very advanced dense pelage including guard hairs and underfur.The tiny auditory ossicles of the middle ear and associated areas were also well preserved in this Castorocaudafossil. Features of these bones confirms the evolutionary position of docodonts as more closely related tocrown-group mammals than is Morganucodon. They are, however, less closely related to living mammals than isHadrocodium.Among docodonts, Castorocauda appears to have been related to Krusatodon and Simpsonodon, both Europeananimals. This may be evidence that Europe and Asia underwent a faunal interchange in the Middle Jurassic. The twocontinents would later be separated by the Turgai Strait.

Adaptation to waterThe name Castorocauda lutrasimilis is derived from the Latin castor- meaning "beaver", -"cauda" meaning "tail",lutra meaning "otter", and -similis meaning "similar to". The tail was broad with scales interspersed with hairs thatgrew less frequent toward the tip. Overall it was very similar to the tails of modern beavers and was presumably usedfor locomotion in water in a similar fashion. The caudal vertebrae were flattened dorso-ventrally and similar overallto those in a beaver or otter. Fossilized impressions of some webbing is also present between the toes.Features of the limbs suggested that it may have been adapted for digging. The forelimbs are robust, with enlargedolecranon and other processes associated with strong muscle attachment. The limbs are similar to the modernplatypus, an animal that both digs and swims. Castorocauda, Haldanodon and perhaps other docodonts werefossorial. These early specializations were also present in the crown-group mammal Fruitafossor, also from the lateJurassic.Docodonts in general have distinctive teeth, and the teeth of Castorocauda have the distinguishing features of thegroup. The teeth of Castorocauda are different in many ways from all other docodonts, presumably due to adifference in diet. Most docodonts had teeth specialized for an omnivorous diet. The teeth of Castorocauda suggestthat the animal was a piscivore, feeding on fish and small invertebrates. The first two molars had cusps in a straightrow, eliminating the grinding function suggesting that they were strictly for gripping and not for chewing. Thisfeature of three cusps in a row is similar to the ancestral condition in mammal relatives (as seen in triconodonts), butis almost certainly a derived character in Castorocauda. These first molars were also recurved in a manner designedto hold slippery prey once grasped. These teeth are very similar to the teeth seen in mesonychids, an extinct group ofsemi-aquatic carnivorous ungulates, and resemble, to a lesser degree, the teeth of seals.The complete dental formula was not recoverable, but the lower jaw contained 4 incisors, 1 canine, 5 premolars, and6 molars.The animal probably weighed about 500-800 grams (1 pound to nearly 2 pounds) and grew to at least 42.5 cm (17inches) in length. This makes it the largest mammaliaform (including true mammals) of the Jurassic. The previousrecord holder was Sinoconodon which was thought to weigh up to 500 g.

Castorocauda 3

Fossil evidenceThe fossil was from the Daohugou Beds of the Inner Mongolia region of China. Fossils of pterosaurs,lissamphibians, coelurosaurian dinosaurs, and numerous invertebrates have also been unearthed in the sameformation.It was discovered and described by Qiang Ji and Chong-Xi Yuan of the Chinese Academy of Geological Sciences inBeijing and Zhe-Xi Luo and Alan Tabrum of the Carnegie Museum of Natural History.

Importance of discoveryThe discovery of Castorocauda lutrasimilis is the first sign that a close relative of mammals adapted to water beforedinosaurs lost dominance 66 million years ago, pushing back the estimated date for mammal relatives adapted to asemi-aquatic lifestyle by 110 million years. Based on fossils known at present, the mammal line would not seeanother semi-aquatic form evolve until the Eocene. Because few fossilized remains had been found, it waspreviously thought that, until the Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary (K–T boundary), all mammals were tiny,ground-dwelling or tree-dwelling, nocturnal animals akin to shrews, hedgehogs, treeshrews, or tenrecs. This notionhas now been falsified by the armadillo-like Fruitafossor, the dinosaur-eating Repenomamus, the flying squirrel-likeVolaticotherium and now the otter-like Castorocauda.

Notes

References• Ji, Q., Z.-X. Luo, C.-X. Yuan, A. R. Tabrum. February 24, 2006. "A swimming mammaliaform from the Middle

Jurassic and ecomorphological diversification of early mammals". Science, 311:5764 pp.1123-1127.

External links• Carnegie Museum's Press release with images (http:/ / www. carnegiemnh. org/ press/ 06-jan-mar/ 022306caud.

htm)• Live Science article with artist's impression (http:/ / livescience. com/ animalworld/ 060223_aquatic_mammal.

html)• Times Online article (http:/ / www. timesonline. co. uk/ article/ 0,,25689-2055852,00. html)• CNN article (http:/ / www. cnn. com/ 2006/ TECH/ science/ 02/ 23/ jurassic. beaver. ap/ index. html)• ABC News article (http:/ / abcnews. go. com/ Technology/ story?id=1648586& page=1)• Fossil Museum: Castorocauda lutrasimilis (http:/ / www. fossilmuseum. net/ UD desktop/ UD_destop_postings/

Paleobiology/ Castorocauda. htm)

Chapalmalania 4

Chapalmalania

ChapalmalaniaTemporal range: Late Pliocene

Scientific classification

Kingdom: AnimaliaPhylum: ChordataClass: MammaliaOrder: CarnivoraFamily: ProcyonidaeGenus: †Chapalmalania

Ameghino, 1908Species

• †C. altaefrontis• †C. orthognatha

Chapalmalania is an extinct procyonid genus from the Pliocene of South America, which lived from 5.3 to 1.8million years ago.Though related to raccoons and coatis, Chapalmalania was a large creature, reaching 1.5 metres (4.9 ft) in bodylength, with a short tail. It probably resembled the giant panda. Due to its size, its remains were initially identified asthose of a bear. It evolved from the "dog-coati" Cyonasua, which probably island-hopped from Central Americaduring the late Miocene (7.5 million years ago), as perhaps the earliest southward mammalian migrants of the GreatAmerican Interchange. When the Isthmus of Panama rose from the sea to allow further invasions by other NorthAmerican species, Chapalmalania was unable to compete and its lineage went extinct, after being present in SouthAmerica for 5 million years.

References• Barry Cox, Colin Harrison, R.J.G. Savage, and Brian Gardiner. (1999): The Simon & Schuster Encyclopedia of

Dinosaurs and Prehistoric Creatures: A Visual Who's Who of Prehistoric Life. Simon & Schuster.•• David Norman. (2001): The Big Book Of Dinosaurs. page 13, Walcome books.

List of prehistoric mammals 5

List of prehistoric mammalsThis is an incomplete list of prehistoric mammals. It does not include extant mammals or recently extinctmammals. For extinct primate species, see: list of fossil primates.

Mammaliaformes

Adelobasileus

• Genus Fruitafossor• Genus Adelobasileus• Genus Tricuspes• Genus Hadrocodium• Genus Sinoconodon

Order Haramiyida• Family Haramiyidae

• Genus Haramiya

Order Morganucodontia

Megazostrodon

• Family Morganucodontidae• Genus Eozostrodon• Genus Erythrotherium

• Family Megazostrodontidae• Genus Megazostrodon

Order DocodontaMiddle to Late Jurassic• Family Docodontidae

• Genus Castorocauda

•• Castorocauda lutrasimilis

Subclass uncertain

Order Gondwanatheria• Family Sudamericidae

• Genus Dakshina• Genus Gondwanatherium• Genus Lavanify• Genus Sudamerica

List of prehistoric mammals 6

• Family Ferugliotheriidae• Genus Ferugliotherium

Subclass Prototheria

Infraclass Yinotheria• Family Shuotheriidae

•• Shuotherium•• Pseudotribos

Order Monotremata

Steropodon

Middle Cretaceous–Recent• Family Ornithorhynchidae

• Genus Monotrematum

•• Monotrematum sudamericanum•• Obdurodon•• Steropodon

• Family Kollikodontidae• Genus Kollikodon

• Family Tachyglossidae•• Kryoryctes

• Genus Zaglossus

•• Zaglossus hacketti•• Zaglossus robustus

• Genus Megalibgwilia• Family Steropodontidae

• Genus Teinolophos

Subclass Allotheria

Order MultituberculataLate Jurassic–Eocene

Suborder "Plagiaulacida"

• Family Albionbaataridae• Family Allodontidae• Family Eobaataridae• Family Hahnodontidae• Family Paulchoffatiidae• Family Pinheirodontidae• Family Plagiaulacidae• Family Zofiabaataridae

List of prehistoric mammals 7

Suborder Cimolodonta

• Superfamily Djadochtatherioidea• Superfamily Taeniolabidoidea

• Genus Lambdopsalis• Genus Prionessus• Genus Sphenopsalis• Genus Taeniolabis

• Superfamily Ptilodontoidea• Genus Neoliotomus

• Family Eucosmodontidae• Genus Eucosmodon• Genus Stygimys

• Family Microcosmodontidae• Genus Acheronodon• Genus Microcosmodon• Genus Pentacosmodon

• Family Kogaionidae• Genus Hainina

• Family Cimolomyidae• Genus Buginbaatar• Genus Cimolomys• Genus Meniscoessus

• Family Boffiidae• Genus Boffius

to be sorted

•• Anconodon•• Baiotomeus•• Cernaysia•• Kimbetohia•• Liotomus•• Mesodma•• Mesodmops•• Mimetodon•• Neoplagiaulax•• Prochetodon•• Ptilodus•• Sinobaatar•• Xanclomys•• Xyronomys

List of prehistoric mammals 8

Order Triconodonta

Jeholodens

Gobiconodon

Late Triassic–Late Cretaceous• Family Repenomamidae

• Genus Repenomamus• Family Jeholodentidae

• Genus Jeholodens• Genus Yanoconodon

• Family Gobiconodontidae• Genus Gobiconodon

Subclass Theria

Infraclass Pantotheria

Order Symmetrodonta

Late Triassic–Late Cretaceous• Superfamily Spalacotheroidea

• Genus Maotherium• Family Zhangheotheriidae

• Genus Zhangheotherium• Family Spalacotheriidae

• Genus Akidolestes• Family Kuehneotheriidae

• Genus Woutersia• Genus Kuehneotherium

Order Pantotheria (Eupantotheria)

Late Triassic–Late Jurassic

Order Dryolestida

• Family Dryolestidae• Genus Crusafontia

Infraclass MetatheriaLate Cretaceous–Recent

Order Alphadontia

• Family Alphadontidae• Genus Alphadon

List of prehistoric mammals 9

Order Dasyuromorphia

• Family Dasyuridae• Genus Glaucodon

• Family Thylacinidae• Genus Thylacinus

• Thylacine (Thylacinus cynocephalus, Australia, died 1936)

Order Deltatheroidea

• Family Deltatheridiidae• Genus Deltatheridium

Order Peramelemorphia

• Family Peramelidae• Genus Perameles

• Desert Bandicoot (Perameles eremiana)• Genus Chaeropus

• Pig-footed bandicoot (Chaeropus ecaudatus) - recently extinct• Family Thylacomyidae

• Genus Macrotis (Thalacomys)• Lesser Bilby (Macrotis leucura)

Order Diprotodontia

Diprotodon

• Family Thylacoleonidae• Genus Thylacoleo

• Marsupial Lion (Thylacoleo carnifex, Australia)

Suborder Vombatiformes

• Family Diprotodontidae• Genus Diprotodon (1.6 Ma – 50,000 BP, Australia)

•• Diprotodon australis

•• Diprotodon opatum•• Diprotodon minor•• Diprotodon loderi•• Diprotodon annextans

List of prehistoric mammals 10

Suborder Macropodiformes

• Family Potoroidae• Genus Potorous

• Broad-faced Potoroo (Potorous platyops)• Genus Caloprymnus

• Desert Rat-kangaroo (Caloprymnus campestris)• Family Macropodidae

• Genus Lagorchestes

• Eastern Hare Wallaby (Lagorchestes leporides)• Genus Onychogalea

• Crescent Nailtail Wallaby (Onychogalea lunata)• Genus Procoptodon largest leaf-eating kangaroo

• Giant Short-faced Kangaroo (Procoptodon goliah)

Order Paucituberculata

Ekaltadeta

Necrolestes

• Family Caroloameghiniidae• Genus Chulpasia

• Family Argyrolagidae• Genus Argyrolagus

to be sorted

• Genus Ekaltadeta• Genus Maastrichtidelphys• Genus Necrolestes• Genus Palorchestes• Genus Peradectes•• Pucadelphys andinus• Genus Silvabestius• Genus Simosthenurus leaf-eating (browsing) kangaroos• Genus Sinodelphys

• Sinodelphys szalayi (125 Ma, China)• Yalkaparidon coheni ("Thingodon", 20 Ma, Australia)• Genus Wakaleo• Genus Zygomaturus• Genus Sthenurus "Strong Tail"• Genus Propleopus, carnivorous kangaroo during the pliocene and

pleistocene periods (e.g. giant rat kangaroo)

Simosthenurus,

Infraclass Eutheria

• Genus Eomaia• Genus Maelestes

List of prehistoric mammals 11

Palorchestes

Order Leptictida

Leptictidium

• Genus Kennalestes• Family Gypsonictopidae

• Genus Gypsonictops

•• Gypsonictops hypoconus•• Gypsonictops illuminatus

• Family Leptictidae• Genus Prodiacodon• Genus Palaeictops• Genus Myrmecoboides• Genus Xenacodon

• Genus Leptictis• Genus Diaphyodectes?

• Family Didymoconidae• Genus Zeuctherium• Genus Archaeoryctes

• Family Pseudorhynchocyonidae• Genus Leptictidium

•• Leptictidium auderiense•• Leptictidium nasutum•• Leptictidium tobieni

Order Apatotheria

• Family Apatemyidae• Genus Jepsenella• Genus Labidolemur• Genus Unuchinia

Order Pantolesta

• Family Pentacodontidae• Genus Coriphagus• Genus Aphronorus• Genus Pentacodon• Genus Protentomodon• Genus Bisonalveus

List of prehistoric mammals 12

• Bisonalveus browni (60 Ma)• Family Pantolestidae

• Genus Propalaeosinopa• Genus Bessoecetor• Genus Palaeosinopa• Genus Paleotomus• Genus Pantomimus• Genus Pagonomus• Genus Todralestes• Genus Nosella?

Order Insectivora

Late Cretaceous–Recent

Suborder Erinaceomorpha

• Family Erinaceidae• Genus Deinogalerix

• Family Amphilemuridae• Genus Pholidocercus

• Family Dimylidae• Genus Dimylus

Suborder Soricomorpha

• Family Palaeoryctidae• Family Micropternodontidae• Family Apternodontidae• Family Nyctitheriidae

Order Dermoptera

Paleocene–Recent• Family Paromomyidae• Family Plagiomenidae

• Genus Planetetherium• Family Mixodectidae

Order Chiroptera

Eocene–Recent• Family Archaeonycteridae

• Genus Icaronycteris

•• Icaronycteris index

Order Plesiadapiformes

• Family Purgatoriidae• Genus Purgatorius

•• Purgatorius unio

List of prehistoric mammals 13

•• Purgatorius ceratops•• Purgatorius titusi•• Purgatorius janisae

• Family Palaechthonidae• Family Microsyopidae• Family Toliapinidae• Family Micromomyidae• Family Plesiadapidae

• Genus Plesiadapis• Family Saxonellidae• Family Carpolestidae• Family Picrodontidae

Order Primates

List of fossil primates

Order Anagalida

• Family Anagalidae• Genus Anagale

• Family Pseudictopidae• Family Astigalidae• Family Zalambdalestidae

• Genus Zalambdalestes

Order Lagomorpha

Eocene–Recent• Family Mimotonidae?

Order Rodentia

Paleocene–Recent

Giant Beaver

• Family Eurymylidae• Family Alagomyidae• Family Paramyidaeto be sorted

•• Alphagaulus•• Birbalomys•• Castoroides•• Ceratogaulus

•• Eocardia•• Eomaia scansoria•• Eougaulus•• Giant hutia•• Hepserogaulus•• Ischyromys•• Josephoartigasia

List of prehistoric mammals 14

•• Kubwaxerus•• Megapedetes•• Mylagaulus•• Palaeolagus•• Phoberomys•• Pterogaulus•• Steneofiber•• Telicomys•• Umbogaulus

Order Cimolesta

• Family Palaeoryctidae• Genus Palaeoryctes

• Suborder Taeniodonta• Family Stylinodontidae

• Genus Schochia• Genus Psittacotherium• Genus Stylinodon

• Suborder Didelphodonta• Family Cimolestidae

• Genus Maelestes• Genus Cimolestes

• Suborder Pantolesta• Family Paroxyclaenidae

• Genus Kopidodon• Family Pantolestidae

• Genus Bisonalveus• Suborder Apatotheria

• Family Apatemyidae• Genus Heterohyus

• Suborder Pantodonta• Family Barylambdidae

• Genus Barylambda• Family Coryphodontidae

• Genus Coryphodon• Genus Hypercoryphodon

• Family Pantolambdidae• Genus Pantolambda

• Family Titanoideidae• Genus Titanoides

• Suborder Tillodontia• Family Esthonychidae

• Genus Trogosus

List of prehistoric mammals 15

Order Condylarthra

Arctocyon

Note: The "condylarths" are considered paraphyletic, i.e. a grouping ofearly ungulate-like mammals not necessarily closely related.Paleocene–Eocene

• Family Arctocyonidae• Genus Arctocyon• Genus Chriacus

• Family Periptychidae• Genus Ectoconus• Genus Oxyacodon

• Family Hyopsodontidae• Genus Hyopsodus

• Family Mioclaenidae• Family Phenacodontidae

• Genus Meniscotherium• Genus Phenacodus

• Family Protungulatidae• Genus Protungulatum

• Family Didolodontidae• Genus Didolodus

• Family Sparnotheriodontidae?• Family incertae sedis

• Genus Abdounodus• Genus Ocepeia

Order Mesonychia

• Family Triisodontidae• Genus Andrewsarchus

•• Andrewsarchus mongoliensis• Family Hapalodectidae

• Genus Hapalodectes• Family Mesonychidae

• Genus Ankalagon• Genus Mesonyx

•• Mesonyx obtusidens• Genus Dissacus• Genus Jiangxia• Genus Pachyaena• Genus Pyrokerberus• Genus Synoplotherium• Genus Sinonyx• Genus Yangtanglestes

List of prehistoric mammals 16

Order Litopterna

Paleocene–Pleistocene• Family Protolipternidae• Superfamily Macrauchenioidea

• Family Macraucheniidae• Genus Cramauchenia• Genus Macrauchenia• Genus Macrauchenidia• Genus Paranauchenia• Genus Promacrauchenia• Genus Scalabrinitherium• Genus Theosodon• Genus Victorlemoinea• Genus Windhausenia• Genus Xenorhinotherium

• Family Notonychopidae• Family Adianthidae

• Superfamily Proterothrrioidea• Family Prototheriidae

• Genus Diadiaphorus• Genus Thoatherium

Order Notoungulata

Toxodon

Paleocene–Pleistocene

Suborder Notioprogonia

• Family Henricosborniidae• Family Notostylopidae

• Genus Notostylops

Suborder Toxodontia

• Family Isotemnidae• Genus Thomashuxleya

• Family Leontiniidae• Genus Scarrittia

• Family Notohippidae• Genus Rhynchippus

• Family Toxodontidae• Genus Adinotherium• Genus Toxodon• Genus Trigodon

List of prehistoric mammals 17

• Genus Mixotoxodon• Genus Nesodon

• Family Homalodotheriidae• Genus Chasicotherium• Genus Homalodotherium

Suborder Typotheria

• Family Oldfieldthomasiidae• Family Interatheriidae

• Genus Protypotherium• Genus Interatherium

• Family Archaeopithecidae• Family Campanorcidae

• Genus Campanorco• Family Mesotheriidae

• Subfamily Fiandraiinae• Genus Fiandraia

• Subfamily Mesotheriinae• Genus Altitypotherium• Genus Caraguatypotherium• Genus Eotypotherium• Genus Eutypotherium• Genus Hypsitherium• Genus Mesotherium• Genus Microtypotherium• Genus Plesiotypotherium• Genus Pseudotypotherium• Genus Typotheriopsis

• Subfamily Trachytheriinae• Genus Anatrachytherus• Genus Trachytherus

Suborder Hegetotheria

• Family Archaeohyracidae• Genus Eohyrax

•• Eohyrax rusticus• Family Hegetotheriidae

• Genus Hemihegetotherium

• Species Hemihegetotherium trilobus• Genus Pachyrukhos

List of prehistoric mammals 18

Order Astrapotheria

Eocene–Miocene• Family Eoastrapostylopidae• Family Trigonostylopidae

• Genus Trigonostylops• Family Astrapotheriidae

• Genus Astrapotherium

• Species Astrapotherium magnum

Order Xenungulata

Paleogene• Family Etayoidae

• Genus Etayoa

•• Etayoa bacatensis• Family Carodniidae

• Genus Carodnia

•• Carodnia feruglioi•• Carodnia vieirai

Order Pyrotheria

Eocene–Oligocene• Family Pyrotheriidae

• Genus Pyrotherium

Order Dinocerata

Eocene–Eocene• Family Uintatheriidae

• Subfamily Gobiatheriinae• Genus Gobiatherium

• Subfamily Uintatheriinae• Genus Prodinoceras• Genus Probathyopsis• Genus Dinoceras• Genus Bathyopsis• Genus Uintatherium• Genus Eobasileus• Genus Tetheopsis• Genus Ditetradon• Genus Jiaoluotherium

List of prehistoric mammals 19

Order Arctostylopida

• Family Arctostylopidae

Order Embrithopoda

Eocene-Oligocene• Family Arsinoitheriidae

• Genus Arsinoitherium• Family Phenacolophidae?

Order Creodonta

Paleocene–Late Miocene

Hyaenodon

• Family Oxyaenidae• Subfamily Abloctoninae

• Genus Ambloctonus• Genus Dipsalodon• Genus Dormaalodon• Genus Palaeonictis

• Subfamily Oxyaeninae• Genus Dipsalidictis• Genus Oxyaena• Genus Patriofelis• Genus Protopsalis• Genus Sarkastodon

• Subfamily Tytthaeninae• Genus Tytthaena

• ?Subfamily Machaeroidinae• Genus Apataelurus• Genus Machaeroides

• Family Hyaenodontidae• Genus Dissopsalis• Genus Hyaenodon

•• Hyaenodon leptorhynchus•• Hyaenodon exicuus•• Hyaenodon horridus•• Hyaenodon mustelinus•• Hyaenodon crucians•• Hyaenodon vetus•• Hyaenodon megaloides•• Hyaenodon milloquensis•• Hyaenodon bavaricus•• Hyaenodon eminus•• Hyaenodon yuanchensis•• Hyaenodon mongoliensis•• Hyaenodon incertus•• Hyaenodon chunkhtensis

List of prehistoric mammals 20

•• Hyaenodon montanus•• Hyaenodon venturae•• Hyaenodon microdon•• Hyaenodon brevirostris•• Hyaenodon raineyi•• Hyaenodon gigas•• Hyaenodon incertus•• Hyaenodon pervagus•• Hyaenodon eminus•• Hyaenodon weilini

• Genus Megistotherium

Order Carnivora

Paleocene–Recent

Suborder Caniformia (Dog-like carnivores)

Ekorus

Acrophoca

• Infraorder Arctoidea• Parvorder Mustelida

• Family Procyonidae (Raccoon family)• Genus Chapalmalania

• Family Mephitidae (Skunks)• Family Mustelidae (Weasel family)

• Genus Ekorus• Genus Plesictis• Genus Potamotherium

• Parvorder Ursida• Superfamily Amphicyonoidea

• Family Amphicyonidae (Bear-Dogs)• Genus Amphicyon• Genus Cynodictis• Genus Daphoenus

• Superfamily Phocoidea• Family Otariidae (Eared seals)• Family Odobenidae (Walruses)

• Genus Imagotaria• Family Phocidae (Earless seals)

• Genus Acrophoca• Genus Desmatophoca

• Family Enaliarctidae• Genus Enaliarctos

• Superfamily Ursoidea• Family Ursidae (Bears)

• Genus Hemicyon• Subfamily Ailuropodinae

List of prehistoric mammals 21

Dire Wolf

Amphicyon

• Genus Ailuropoda

• Dwarf Panda (Ailuropoda minor)• Subfamily Tremarctinae

• Genus Tremarctos

• Florida Cave Bear (Tremarctos floridanus)• Genus Arctodus (Short-Faced Bears)

• Giant Short-Faced Bear (Arctodus simus)• Short-Faced Bear (Arctodus pristinus)

• Genus Arctotherium

• Brazilian Short-Faced Bear (Arctotheriumbrasilense)

• Argentine Short-Faced Bear (Arctotheriumlatidens)

• Subfamily Ursinae• Genus Ursus

• Auvergne Bear (Ursus minimus)• Genus Agriotherium

• Etruscan Bear (Ursus etruscus)• European Cave Bear (Ursus spelaeus)

• Genus Ursavus• Infraorder Cynoidea

• Family Canidae (Canids)• Genus Canis (Dogs and Wolves)

• Dire Wolf (Canis dirus)• Giant fox (Vulpes gigas)

• Genus Cerdocyon• Genus Cynodesmus• Genus Leptocyon• Genus Phlaocyon

• Subfamily Hesperocyoninae• Genus Hesperocyon

• Subfamily Borophaginae• Genus Aelurodon• Genus Borophagus• Genus Epicyon• Genus Osteoborus

List of prehistoric mammals 22

• Family Miacidae• Genus Miacis

Suborder Aeluroidea (Cat-like carnivores)

Saber-toothed cat

American Lion

Ictitherium

• Family Felidae (Felids)

• Genus Pseudaelurus• Subfamily Proailurinae

• Genus Proailurus• Subfamily Machairodontinae (Sabre-toothed cats)

• Genus Paramachairodus• Genus Dinofelis

•• Dinofelis abeli•• Dinofelis barlowi•• Dinofelis diastemata•• Dinofelis paleoonca•• Dinofelis piveteaui

• Genus Homotherium

•• Homotherium serum• Genus Machairodus

•• Machairodus africanus•• Machairodus aphanistus•• Machairodus giganteus•• Machairodus oradensis•• Machairodus colorandensis

• Genus Megantereon• Genus Smilodon (Saber-Toothed Cats)

•• Smilodon californicus•• Smilodon fatalis•• Smilodon gracilis•• Smilodon populator

• Genus Xenosmilus

•• Xenosmilus hodsonae• Subfamily Acinonychinae (Cheetahs)

• Genus Acinonyx (Cheetahs)•• Acinonyx aicha•• Acinonyx intermedius•• Acinonyx pardinensis

• Subfamily Felinae (Small cats)• Subfamily Pantherinae (Big cats)

• Genus Panthera

• Lion (Panthera leo)• American Lion (Panthera leo atrox)• Cave Lion (Panthera leo spelaea)

• Family Herpestidae (Mongooses)

List of prehistoric mammals 23

• Family Hyaenidae (Hyaenas)• Genus Chasmaporthetes• Genus Crocuta

•• Crocuta spelaea•• Crocuta macrodonta•• Crocuta eximia•• Crocuta sivalensis•• Crocuta dietrichi

• Genus Protictitherium• Genus Ictitherium• Genus Chasmaporthetes• Genus Adcrocuta• Genus Pachycrocuta• Genus Percrocuta

• Family Nandiniidae• Family Viverravidae (Viverravids)• Family Viverridae (Civets)

• Genus Kanuites• Genus Viverra

•• Viverra leakeyi• Family Stenoplesictidae• Family Nimravidae (Nimravids or False sabre-toothed cats)

• Genus Nimravus• Genus Metailurus• Genus Eusmilus• Genus Hoplophoneus

to be sorted

• Genus Lokotunjailurus• Genus Enaliarctos

List of prehistoric mammals 24

Order Xenarthra (Edentata)

Paleocene–Recent

Suborder Tardigrada

Eremotherium

• Family Rathymotheriidae• Genus Rathymotherium

• Family Scelidotheriidae• Family Mylodontidae

• Genus Mylodon• Family Orophodontidae• Family Megalonychidae

• Genus Megalonyx

•• Megalonyx leptostomus•• Megalonyx wheatleyi• Ground Sloth (Megalonyx jeffersonii)

• Family Megatheriidae• Genus Megatherium• Genus Eremotherium

• Giant Ground Sloth (Eremotherium laurillardi)

Suborder Cingulata

Glyptodon

• Family Glyptodontidae• Genus Doedicurus• Genus Glyptodon

to be sorted

•• Dasypus bellae•• Eremotherium•• Glossotherium•• Glyptotherium

•• Hapalops•• Metacheiromys•• Nothrotheriops•• Nothrotherium•• Peltephilus•• Protamandua

List of prehistoric mammals 25

Order Pholidota

Eocene–Recent• Family Epoicotheriidae (extinct)• Family Escavadodontidae (extinct)• Family Metacheiromyidae(extinct)• Family Manidae (extant)

• Subfamily Eurotamandua (extinct)• Subfamily Maninae (extant)

• Genus Eomanis (extinct)• Genus Necromanis (extinct)• Genus Patriomanis (extinct)

Order Tubulidentata

Eocene?–Recent• Genus Leptorycteropus• Genus Myorycteropus• Genus Orycteropus

Order Bibymalagasia

?-1000 AD•• Plesiorycteropus

Order Proboscidea

Woolly Mammoth

Eocene–Recent• Family Moeritheriidae

• Genus Moeritherium•• (no family)

• Genus Phiomia• Family Deinotheriidae

• Genus Deinotherium• Family Mammutidae

• Genus Mammut

• American mastodon (Mammut americanum)• Borson's mastodon (Mammut borsoni)

• Family Amebelodontidae• Genus Amebelodon• Genus Platybelodon

• Family Gomphotheriidae• Genus Gomphotherium• Genus Cuvieronius• Genus Anancus

• Family Elephantidae• Genus Stegotetrabelodon

• Genus Stegodon

List of prehistoric mammals 26

Columbian Mammoth

•• Stegodon sompoensis•• Stegodon aurorae•• Stegodon ganesha•• Stegodon orientalis•• Stegodon shinshuensis•• Stegodon trigonocephalus

•• Stegodon sondaari•• Stegodon florensis

• Genus Elephas

•• Elephas antiquus•• Elephas falconeri• Subgenus Palaeoloxodon

• Genus Mammuthus

• Columbian Mammoth (Mammuthus columbi)• Pygmy Mammoth (Mammuthus exilis)• Imperial Mammoth (Mammuthus imperator)• Jeffersonian Mammoth (Mammuthus jeffersonii)• Sardinian Mammoth (Mammuthus lamarmorae)•• Mammuthus meridionalis• Woolly Mammoth (Mammuthus primigenius)•• Mammuthus trogontherii

See also:

• Dwarf elephants

List of prehistoric mammals 27

Order Hyracoidea

Oligocene–Recent• Genus Titanohyrax• Genus Kvabebihyrax

Order Desmostylia

Desmostylus

Miocene–Pliocene• Family Desmostylidae

• Genus Desmostylus• Family Paleoparadoxiidae

• Genus Paleoparadoxia

• Genus Ashoroa• Genus Behemotops

Order Sirenia

Eocene–Recent

• Family Prorastomidae• Genus Prorastomus• Genus Pezosiren

• Family Protosirenidae• Genus Protosiren

• Family Dugongidae• Genus Rytiodus• Steller's Sea Cow (Hydrodamalis gigas)

• Family Trichechidae• Genus Miosiren

to be sorted

•• Sirenotherium

Order Cetacea

Eocene–Recent

Suborder Archaeoceti

• Family Pakicetidae• Genus Pakicetus

•• Pakicetus inachus• Genus Gandakasia• Genus Nalacetus• Genus Ichthyolestes

• Family Ambulocetidae• Genus Ambulocetus• Genus Himalayacetus

• Family Remingtonocetidae

List of prehistoric mammals 28

• Genus Kutchicetus• Family Protocetidae

• Genus Rodhocetus (??? Ma)•• Rhodocetus kasrani•• Rodhocetus balochistanensis

• Genus Protocetus• Family Dorudontidae

• Genus Dorudon (40–36 Ma)•• Dorudon atrox

• Genus Zygorhiza• Family Basilosauridae

• Genus Basilosaurus (40–37 Ma)•• Basilosaurus cetoides•• Basilosaurus hussaini•• Basilosaurus isis

Suborder Mysticeti

• Family Mammalodontidae• Genus Mammalodon

• Family Cetotheriidae• Genus Cetotherium• Genus Piscobalaena

• Family Janjucetidae• Genus Janjucetus

to be sorted

• Genus Eobalaenoptera

•• Eobalaenoptera harrisoni

Suborder Odontoceti

• Family Squalodontidae• Genus Prosqualodon• Genus Squalodon Shark Tooth dolphin

• Family Eurhinodelphidae• Genus Eurhinodelphis

• Family Kentriodontidae• Genus Kentriodon

• Family Rhabdosteidae• Genus Rhabdosteus

• Family Odobenocetopsidae• Genus Odobenocetops

List of prehistoric mammals 29

Order Perissodactyla

Eocene–Recent

Suborder Hippomorpha

• Superfamily Brontotheroidea• Family Brontotheriidae

• Genus Pakotitanops• Genus Nanotitanops

• Subfamily Lambdotheriinae• Genus Lambdotherium• Genus Xenicohippus

• Subfamily Palaeosyopinae• Genus Palaeosyops• Genus Mulkrajanops

• Subfamily Dolichorhininae• Genus Metarhinus• Genus Sphenocoelus• Genus Mesatirhinus

• Subfamily Brontotheriinae• Genus Duchesneodus• Genus Brontotherium• Genus Megacerops

• Subfamily Embolotheriinae• Genus Titanodectes• Genus Embolotherium• Genus Protembolotherium

• Subfamily Brontopinae• Genus Brachydiastematherium• Genus Pachytitan• Genus Dianotitan• Genus Gnathotitan• Genus Microtitan• Genus Epimanteoceras• Genus Protitan• Genus Rhinotitan• Genus Metatitan• Genus Dolichorhinus• Genus Protitanotherium• Genus Parabrontops• Genus Oreinotherium• Genus Brontops• Genus Protitanops• Genus Pygmaetitan

• Subfamily Telmatheriinae• Genus Acrotitan

List of prehistoric mammals 30

• Genus Desmatotitan• Genus Arctotitan• Genus Hyotitan• Genus Sthenodectes• Genus Telmatherium• Genus Sivatitanops

• Subfamily Menodontinae• Genus Diplacodon• Genus Eotitanotherium• Genus Notiotitanops• Genus Menodus• Genus Ateleodon

• Superfamily Pachynolophoidea• Family Pachynolophidae

• Superfamily Equoidea• Family Palaeotheriidae

• Genus Hyracotherium• Genus Propalaeotherium• Genus Palaeotherium

• Family Equidae• Genus Miohippus• Genus Orohippus• Genus Mesohippus• Subfamily Anchitheriinae

• Genus Sinohippus• Genus Megahippus• Genus Anchitherium

• Subfamily Equinae• Genus Archaeohippus• Genus Cormohipparion• Genus Eurygnathohippus• Genus Hipparion• Genus Hippidion• Genus Hippotherium• Genus Merychippus• Genus Parahippus• Genus Pliohippus• Genus Scaphohippus

List of prehistoric mammals 31

Suborder Ceratomorpha

• Superfamily Rhinocerotoidea• Family Amynodontidae (Hippo-rhinos)

• Subfamily Amynodontinae• Subfamily Metamynodontinae

• Genus Metamynodon• Family Hyracodontidae (Giant rhinos)

• Subfamily Indricotheriinae• Genus Forstercooperia• Genus Juxia• Genus Benaratherium?• Genus Urtinotherium• Genus Indricotherium

• Baluchitherium (Indricotherium transouralicum)• Genus Paraceratherium

•• Paraceratherium bugtiense• Subfamily Allaceropinae• Subfamily Hyracodontinae

• Genus Hyracodon• Family Rhinocerotidae (Rhinos)

• Genus Teleoceras• Genus Trigonias• Subfamily Rhinocerotinae

• Genus Coelodonta

• Woolly Rhinoceros (Coelodonta antiquitatis)• Genus Dicerorhinus (Sumatran Rhinoceros)

•• Dicerorhinus leakeyi• Subfamily Elasmotheriinae

• Genus Sinotherium• Genus Iranotherium• Genus Menoceras• Genus Elasmotherium

•• Elasmotherium caucasicum• Giant Rhinoceros (Elasmotherium sibiricum)

• Superfamily Tapiroidea• Genus Hyrachyus• Family Helaletidae

• Genus Lophiodon• Family Tapiridae

•• Miotapirus• Superfamily Chalicotheroidea

• Family Lophiodontidae• Genus Lophiodon

List of prehistoric mammals 32

• Genus Lophiaspis• Family Chalicotheriidae

• Subfamily Chalicotheriinae• Genus Chalicotherium• Genus Anisodon• Genus Nestoritherium

• Subfamily Schizotheriinae• Genus Ancylotherium• Genus Borissiakia• Genus Chemositia• Genus Kalimantsia• Genus Limognitherium• Genus Moropus• Genus Tylocephalonyx

Order Artiodactyla

Eocene–Recent

Suborder Suina

• Family Dichobunidae• Genus Messelobunodon• Genus Diacodexis

• Family Entelodontidae (Entelodonts)• Genus Archaeotherium• Genus Brachyhyops• Genus Paraentelodon• Genus Cypretherium• Genus Daeodon• Genus Eoentelodon• Genus Entelodon• Genus Dinohyus

• Family Suidae (Pigs)• Genus Metridiochoerus• Genus Kubanochoerus• Genus Kolpochoerus• Genus Nyanzachoerus• Genus Notochoerus

• Family Tayassuidae (Peccaries)• Genus Platygonus• Genus Mylohyus

• Family Oreodontidae (Oreodonts)• Genus Promerycochoerus• Genus Merycoidodon• Genus Brachycrus• Genus Leptauchenia• Genus Sespia

List of prehistoric mammals 33

• Genus Mesoreodon• Genus Miniochoerus• Genus Eporeodon

• Family Cainotheriidae• Genus Cainotherium

• Family Raoellidae• Genus Indohyus

• Family Hippopotamidae (Hippopotamii)• Genus Archaeopotamus• Genus Hippopotamus

•• Hippopotamus gorgops• European Hippopotamus (Hippopotamus antiquus)• Madagascan Hippo (Hippopotamus madagascariensis)• Madagascan Dwarf Hippo (Hippopotamus lemerlei)• Cretan Dwarf Hippopotamus (Hippopotamus creutzburgi)• Maltese Hippopotamus (Hippopotamus melitensis)• Sicilian Hippopotamus (Hippopotamus pentlandi)

• Genus Hexaprotodon

•• Hexaprotodon harvardi• Madagascan Pygmy Hippo (Hexaprotodon madagascariensis)

• Genus Phanourios

• Cyprus Dwarf Hippopotamus (Phanourios minutus)• Genus Kenyapotamus

• Family Anthracotheriidae• Genus Elomeryx• Genus Bothriogenys• Genus Bothriodon• Genus Anthracotherium• Genus Libycosaurus• Genus Merycopotamus

Suborder Tylopoda

Oxydactylus

• Family Camelidae (Camels)• Genus Aepycamelus (Miocene)• Genus Camelops (Pliocene – Pleistocene)• Genus Camelus

•• Camelus gigas•• Camelus hesternus•• Camelus moreli•• Camelus sivalensis

• Genus Oxydactylus• Genus Poebrotherium• Genus Procamelus (Miocene)• Genus Stenomylus• Genus Titanotylopus (Miocene – Pleistocene)

List of prehistoric mammals 34

• Family Oromerycidae• Genus Protylopus

Suborder Ruminantia

• Family Protoceratidae• Genus Protoceras• Genus Syndyoceras• Genus Synthetoceras• Genus Kyptoceras• Genus Pseudoprotoceras

• Family Climacoceratidae• Genus Climacoceras• Genus Prolibytherium

• Prolibytherium magnieri (Miocene)• Genus Orangemeryx

• Family Tragulidae (Chevrotains)• Genus Dorcatherium• Genus Dorcabune• Genus Siamotragulus• Genus Yunnanotherium

• Family Giraffidae (Giraffes)• Genus Eumeryx (Oligocene)• Genus Palaeotragus

• Palaeotragus primaevus (Miocene)• Palaeotragus germaini (Miocene)

• Genus Amotherium

• Amotherium africanum (Miocene)• Genus Samotherium (Miocene–Pliocene)

• Samotherium boissieri (Pliocene)• Genus Sivatherium

• Sivatherium giganteum (Pleistocene)• Sivatherium maurusium (Pleistocene)

• Genus Bohlinia (Miocene)• Bohlinia attica (synonym: Giraffa attica)

• Genus Bramatherium• Genus Giraffokeryx• Genus Helladotherium• Genus Honanotherium• Genus Libytherium• Genus Mitilanotherium• Genus Shansitherium• Genus Okapia (Okapis)

• Okapia stillei (Pleistocene)• Genus Giraffa (Giraffes)

• Giraffa punjabiensis (Pliocene)

List of prehistoric mammals 35

• Giraffa priscilla (Pliocene)• Giraffa jumae (Pleistocene)• Giraffa gracilis (Pleistocene)• Giraffa sivalensis (Pleistocene)

• Family Leptomericidae• Genus Leptomeryx

• Family Archaeomerycidae• Genus Archaeomeryx

• Family Palaeomerycidae• Genus Ampelomeryx• Genus Cranioceras• Genus Pediomeryx• Genus Triceromeryx

• Family Hoplitomerycidae• Genus Hoplitomeryx

• Family Moschidae (Musk deers)• Genus Blastomeryx• Genus Longirostromeryx

• Family Cervidae (Deer)• Subfamily Muntiacinae (Muntjacs)

• Genus Dicrocerus• Genus Heteroprox

• Subfamily Cervinae• Genus Candiacervus

•• Candiacervus ropalophorus•• Candiacervus major•• Candiacervus pygadiensìs•• Candiacervus cretensis

• Genus Megaloceros

• Irish Elk (Megaloceros giganteus) (died ~5700 BC)• Genus Eucladoceros• Genus Sinomegaceros

• Subfamily Capreolinae• Genus Navahoceros

• American Mountain Deer Navahoceros fricki• Genus Libralces• Genus Odocoileus

•• Odocoileus lucasi• Genus Cervalces

• Stag-moose Cervalces scotti• Family Antilocapridae (Pronghorns)

• Genus Capromeryx

•• Capromeryx minor• Genus Hayoceros

List of prehistoric mammals 36

• Genus Ilingoceros• Genus Cosoryx• Genus Meryceros• Genus Merycodus• Genus Paracosoryx• Genus Ramoceros• Genus Submeryceros• Genus Proantilocapra• Genus Osbornoceros• Genus Ottoceros• Genus Plioceros• Genus Sphenophalos• Genus Ceratomeryx• Genus Hexameryx• Genus Hexobelomeryx• Genus Stockoceros• Genus Tetrameryx• Genus Texoceros• Genus Antilocapra

•• Antilocapra maquinensis• Family Bovidae (Bovids)

• Subfamily Bovinae• Genus Bos

•• Bos acutifrons•• Bos planifrons• Aurochs (Bos primigenius) (died 1627)

• Genus Bison

• Ancient Bison (Bison antiquus)• Steppe Wisent (Bison priscus) (died Late Pleistocene)• Giant Bison (Bison latifrons)•• Bison occidentalis

• Genus Bubalus

•• Bubalus cebuensis• Genus Pelorovis• Genus Eotragus• Genus Kipsigicerus• Genus Leptobos

• Subfamily Alcelaphinae• Genus Megalotragus• Genus Parmularius

• Subfamily Antilopinae• Genus Gazella

•• Gazella psolea•• Gazella borbonica•• Gazella deperdita

List of prehistoric mammals 37

•• Gazella gaudryi•• Gazella triquetrucornis

• Subfamily Caprinae• Genus Myotragus

• Cave goat Myotragus balearicus• Genus Bootherium

• Harlan's muskox Bootherium bombifrons• Genus Euceratherium

• Shrub-ox Euceratherium collinum• Genus Oioceros

References• Cox, Barry; Savage, R.J.G.; Gardiner, Brian; Dixon, Dougal (1988). Macmillan Illustrated Encyclopedia of

Dinosaurs and Prehistoric Animals. Macmillan London Limited. ISBN 0-333-48699-4.• "Ordinal Classification of Mammals" [1]. Retrieved November 7, 2005.• "Mikko's Phylogeny Archive" [2]. Retrieved November 7, 2005.• "Paleocene mammals of the world" [3]. Retrieved November 7, 2005.

External links• Mammals [4] at Mikko's Phylogeny Archive

References[1] http:/ / ib. berkeley. edu/ courses/ ib173/ lectures/ lecture1/ 173_lecture1. html[2] http:/ / www. fmnh. helsinki. fi/ users/ haaramo/[3] http:/ / www. paleocene-mammals. de/ index. htm[4] http:/ / www. helsinki. fi/ ~mhaaramo/ metazoa/ deuterostoma/ chordata/ synapsida/ mammalian_orders. html

Megacerops 38

Megacerops

MegaceropsTemporal range: Late Eocene 38–33.9Ma

Mounted skeleton, AMNH

Scientific classification

Kingdom: AnimaliaPhylum: ChordataClass: MammaliaOrder: PerissodactylaFamily: †BrontotheriidaeGenus: †Megacerops

Leidy, 1870Species

• †M. coloradensis (type species)[1]

• †M. curtus• †M. hatcheri• †M. kuwagatarhinus• †M. osborni• †M. platyceras

Synonyms

•• Titanotherium ramosum•• Menodus peltoceras•• Brontotherium•• Brontops•• Ateleodon•• Oreinotherium

Megacerops ('large-horned face', from méga- ‘large’ + kéras ‘horn’ + ōps ‘face’) is an extinct genus of the prehistoricodd-toed ungulate (hoofed mammal) family Brontotheriidae, an extinct group of rhinoceros-like browsers related tohorses. It was endemic to North America during the Late Eocene epoch (38–33.9 mya), existing for approximately4.1 [2] million years.[3]

Megacerops 39

Description

Restoration of M. coloradensis

All of the species had a pair of blunt horns on their snout (the sizevarying between species), with the horns of males being much largerthan those of the females. This could indicate that they were socialanimals which butted heads for breeding privileges.

Despite resembling a rhinoceros, it was larger than any livingrhinoceros: the living animal easily approached the size of the AfricanForest Elephant, the third largest land animal today. It stood about2.5 m (8.2 ft)Wikipedia:Identifying reliable sources tall at theshoulders and the body, including the head, could measure 5 m (16 ft)

in length.Wikipedia:Identifying reliable sources It resembled a large rhinoceros, possessing a Y-shaped horn-likeprotrusion on its nose, with blunt ends. One specimen is estimated to have weighed 3.3 t (3.6 short tons) by GregoryS. Paul

The dorsal vertebrae above the shoulders had extra long spines to support the huge neck muscles needed to carry theheavy skull. Possibly, it had fleshy lips and a long tongue, perfect for carefully selecting food. The shape of its teethsuggests that it preferred food such as soft stems and leaves, rather than tough vegetation.

Paleobiology

Restoration of battling males

The skeleton of an adult male was found with partially healed ribfractures, which supports the theory that males used their 'horns' tofight each other. No creature living in Megacerops' time and areaexcept another Megacerops could have inflicted such an injury. Thebreathing movements prevented the fractures from completely healing.The adults may have also used their horns to defend themselves andtheir calves from predators, such as creodonts or nimravids.

Discovery

Skeleton of Brontotherium

Fossils were uncovered in the northern plains states. Life-sized modelsof Megacerops families (a male, female, and juvenile) are displayed atthe James E. Martin Paleontological Research Laboratory, SouthDakota School of Mines & Technology [4], and a different set at theCanadian Museum of Nature.

Many remains have been found in South Dakota and Nebraska. In thepast, specimens exposed by severe rainstorms were found by NativeAmericans of the Sioux tribe. The Sioux believed these creaturesproduced thunderstorms when running over the clouds, and calledthem 'thunder horses'. Many of the skeletons found by the Sioux

belonged to herds which were killed by volcanic eruptions of the Rocky Mountains, which were volcanically activeat the time.

Megacerops 40

Skeleton of Menodus in Field Museum of NaturalHistory

Taxonomy

Skull in Zurich

Megacerops was named by Leidy (1870). Its type species isMegacerops coloradensis. It was synonymized subjectively withMenodus by Clark and Beerbower (1967). It was assigned toBrontotheriidae by Leidy (1870), Carroll (1988), Mader (1989), andMader (1998).[5][6]

According to Mihlbachler and others, Megacerops includes the speciesof the genera Menodus, Brontotherium, Brontops, Menops, Ateleodon,and Oreinotherium.

References[1] Megacerops (http:/ / museumu03. museumwww. naturkundemuseum-berlin. de/

cgi-bin/ bridge. pl?a=basicTaxonInfo& taxon_no=43043), Paleobiology Database[2] http:/ / tools. wmflabs. org/ timescale/ ?Ma=38-33. 9[3] PaleoBiology Database: Megacerops, basic info (http:/ / paleodb. org/ cgi-bin/ bridge. pl?action=checkTaxonInfo& taxon_no=43043&

is_real_user=1)[4] http:/ / news. sdsmt. edu/ press/ 143902/[5][5] J. Clark and J. R. Beerbower. 1967. Geology, paleoecology, and paleoclimatology of the Chadron Formation. Fieldiana[6][6] R. L. Carroll. 1988. Vertebrate Paleontology and Evolution. W. H. Freeman and Company, New York 1-698.

Prehistoric mammal 41

Prehistoric mammal

An early drawing depicting prehistoric mammals

Prehistoric mammals are groups of mammals that became extinctbefore humans developed writing. 164 million years ago, in theJurassic period, Castorocauda lutrasimilis, a mammaliaform(mammal-shaped) animal weighing about 500 grams (1.1 lb), had a fullmammalian pelt, with guard hairs and underfur, webbed feet, andscales on the tail like a modern beaver, as well as teeth specialized forcatching fish.

Later, about 130 million years ago in the Cretaceous, there existedlarger mammals; a fossil of Repenomamus giganticus indicates that theanimal was about 1 meter (3¼ ft) long. In the stomach of a smallercousin, Repenomamus robustus at 52 cm (20½ in), the remains of ajuvenile dinosaur have been preserved.

The lineages of many varieties continued through the Cenozoic era where some reached very large sizes. Most of thevery large mammals became extinct in the last ice age, but have smaller descendants.

List of prehistoric mammalsPrehistoric mammals include:

•• Aepycamelus • Mammoths

•• Columbian Mammoth•• Woolly Mammoth•• Pygmy Mammoth•• Imperial Mammoth•• African Mammoth

•• African Wolf •• Marsupial Lion•• Amebelodon • Mastodons

•• American Mastodon•• Palaeomastodon•• Sinomastodon

•• American Cheetah •• Megaloceros

•• American Camel •• Megalocnus

•• American Lion •• Megatherium

•• American Zebra •• Meninatherium

•• Anancus •• Menodus

•• Ancient Bison •• Mesonyx

•• Andrewsarchus •• Metamynodon

•• Archaeobelodon •• Moeritherium

•• Arsinoitherium •• Morganucodon

•• Aztlan Rabbit •• North American Camel•• Barylambda •• North American Llama•• Barytherium •• Raccoon Panda•• Basilosaurus •• Pakicetus

•• Beringian cave lion •• Paratetralophodon

•• Bone-crushing Dog •• Phenacodus

•• Brontotherium •• Phiomia

•• Castorocauda lutrasimilis •• Planetetherium

Prehistoric mammal 42

•• Camelus moreli •• Plesiadapis

•• Cave Bear •• Platybelodon

•• Cave Lion •• Primelephas

•• Chalicothere •• Propalaeotherium

•• Chalicotherium •• Purgatorius

•• Coryphodon •• Pygmy Giant Panda•• Deinotherium •• Powerful Killer Whale•• Diminutive Pronghorn • Repenomamus giganticus and r.robustus[1]•• Diprotodon •• Rhynchotherium

•• Dire Wolf •• Rinston's Bottlenose Dolphin•• Doedicurus • Saber-toothed cats

•• Smilodon

•• Dorudon •• Samotherium

•• Dwarf elephant •• Sivatherium

•• Dwarf Thylacine •• Shark-toothed Dolphin•• Dwarf killer whale •• Stegodon

•• Elasmotherium •• Stubby-Tusked Narwhal•• Embolotherium •• Synthetoceras

•• Entelodont •• Teleoceras

•• Eobasileus •• Tetrabelodon

•• European Jaguar •• Tetralophodon

•• European Hippopotamus •• Thylacosmilus

•• Godinotia •• Toxodon

•• Four-Tusked Elephant •• Trilophodon

•• Giant Orangutan •• Uintatherium

•• Giant Koala •• Walrus Whale•• Giant Swimming Sloth •• Wilmington's Ground Sloth•• Giant Meerkat •• Woolly Rhinoceros•• Giant Long-horned Buffalo •• Zygolophodon

•• Giant Vampire Bat•• Giant Beaver•• Giant Killer Whale•• Giant Warthog•• Giraffe Camel•• Glyptodon

•• Gomphotherium

•• High Arctic Camel•• Hypselephas•• Hyracotherium

•• Indricotherium/Baluchitherium/Paraceratherium

•• Irish Elk•• Kennalestes

•• Japanese Dwarf Elephant•• Harrison's Whale•• Hyaenodon

•• Juxia

•• Macrauchenia

Prehistoric mammal 43

References[1] http:/ / www. newscientist. com/ channel/ life/ mg18825315. 800. html;jsessionid=IPLHBBKJNEMG

Pliocene

System Series Stage Age (Ma)

Quaternary Pleistocene Gelasian younger

Neogene Pliocene Piacenzian 2.588–3.600

Zanclean 3.600–5.332

Miocene Messinian 5.332–7.246

Tortonian 7.246–11.608

Serravallian 11.608–13.65

Langhian 13.65–15.97

Burdigalian 15.97–20.43

Aquitanian 20.43–23.03

Paleogene Oligocene Chattian older

Subdivision of the Neogene Periodaccording to the IUGS, as of July 2009.

The Pliocene (/ˈplaɪəsiːn/; also Pleiocene) Epoch (symbol PO) is the period in the geologic timescale that extendsfrom 5.332 million to 2.588[1] million years before present. It is the second and youngest epoch of the NeogenePeriod in the Cenozoic Era. The Pliocene follows the Miocene Epoch and is followed by the Pleistocene Epoch.Prior to the 2009 revision of the geologic time scale, which placed the 4 most recent major glaciations entirely withinthe Pleistocene, the Pliocene also included the Gelasian stage, which lasted from 2.588 to 1.806 million years ago,and is now included in the Pleistocene.As with other older geologic periods, the geological strata that define the start and end are well identified but theexact dates of the start and end of the epoch are slightly uncertain. The boundaries defining the Pliocene are not setat an easily identified worldwide event but rather at regional boundaries between the warmer Miocene and therelatively cooler Pleistocene. The upper boundary was set at the start of the Pleistocene glaciations.

EtymologyThe Pliocene was named by Sir Charles Lyell. The name comes from the Greek words πλεῖον (pleion, "more") andκαινός (kainos, "new") and means roughly "continuation of the recent", referring to the essentially modern marinemollusc faunas. H.W. Fowler called the term (along with other examples such as pleistocene and miocene) a"regrettable barbarism" and an indication that even "a good classical scholar" such as Lyell should have requested aphilologist's help when coining words.

Pliocene 44

SubdivisionsIn the official timescale of the ICS, the Pliocene is subdivided into two stages. From youngest to oldest they are:• Piacenzian (3.600–2.588 Ma)• Zanclean (5.332–3.600 Ma)The Piacenzian is sometimes referred to as the Late Pliocene, whereas the Zanclean is referred to as the EarlyPliocene.In the system of• North American Land Mammal Ages (NALMA) include Hemphillian (9–4.75 Ma), and Blancan (4.75–1.806

Ma). The Blancan extends forward into the Pleistocene.• South American Land Mammal Ages (SALMA) include Montehermosan (6.8–4.0 Ma), Chapadmalalan (4.0–3.0

Ma) and Uquian (3.0–1.2 Ma).In the Paratethys area (central Europe and parts of western Asia) the Pliocene contains the Dacian (roughly equal tothe Zanclean) and Romanian (roughly equal to the Piacenzian and Gelasian together) stages. As usual instratigraphy, there are many other regional and local subdivisions in use.In Britain the Pliocene is divided into the following stages (old to young): Gedgravian, Waltonian, Pre-Ludhamian,Ludhamian, Thurnian, Bramertonian or Antian, Pre-Pastonian or Baventian, Pastonian and Beestonian. In theNetherlands the Pliocene is divided into these stages (old to young): Brunssumian C, Reuverian A, Reuverian B,Reuverian C, Praetiglian, Tiglian A, Tiglian B, Tiglian C1-4b, Tiglian C4c, Tiglian C5, Tiglian C6 and Eburonian.The exact correlations between these local stages and the ICS stages is still a matter of detail.

Climate

Mid-Pliocene reconstructed annual sea surfacetemperature anomaly

The global average temperature in the mid-Pliocene (3.3–3 mya) was2–3 °C higher than today,[2] global sea level 25 m higher[3] and theNorthern hemisphere ice sheet was ephemeral before the onset ofextensive glaciation over Greenland that occurred in the late Pliocenearound 3 Ma.[4] The formation of an Arctic ice cap is signaled by anabrupt shift in oxygen isotope ratios and ice-rafted cobbles in the NorthAtlantic and North Pacific ocean beds.[5] Mid-latitude glaciation wasprobably underway before the end of the epoch. The global coolingthat occurred during the Pliocene may have spurred on the

disappearance of forests and the spread of grasslands and savannas.

Pliocene 45

Paleogeography

Examples of migrant species in theAmericas after the formation of the

Isthmus of Panama. Olive greensilhouettes denote North American

species with South Americanancestors; blue silhouettes denoteSouth American species of North

American origin.

Continents continued to drift, moving from positions possibly as far as 250 kmfrom their present locations to positions only 70 km from their current locations.South America became linked to North America through the Isthmus of Panamaduring the Pliocene, making possible the Great American Interchange andbringing a nearly complete end to South America's distinctive large marsupialpredator and native ungulate faunas. The formation of the Isthmus had majorconsequences on global temperatures, since warm equatorial ocean currents werecut off and an Atlantic cooling cycle began, with cold Arctic and Antarcticwaters dropping temperatures in the now-isolated Atlantic Ocean.

Africa's collision with Europe formed the Mediterranean Sea, cutting off theremnants of the Tethys Ocean. The border between the Miocene and the Plioceneis also the time of the Messinian salinity crisis.

Sea level changes exposed the land-bridge between Alaska and Asia.Pliocene marine rocks are well exposed in the Mediterranean, India, and China.Elsewhere, they are exposed largely near shores.

FloraThe change to a cooler, dry, seasonal climate had considerable impacts on Pliocene vegetation, reducing tropicalspecies worldwide. Deciduous forests proliferated, coniferous forests and tundra covered much of the north, andgrasslands spread on all continents (except Antarctica). Tropical forests were limited to a tight band around theequator, and in addition to dry savannahs, deserts appeared in Asia and Africa.

FaunaBoth marine and continental faunas were essentially modern, although continental faunas were a bit more primitivethan today. The first recognizable hominins, the australopithecines, appeared in the Pliocene.The land mass collisions meant great migration and mixing of previously isolated species, such as in the GreatAmerican Interchange. Herbivores got bigger, as did specialized predators.

The gastropod Oliva sayana,from the Pliocene of Florida.

The coral Cladocora from thePliocene of Cyprus.

A gastropod and attachedserpulid wormtube from the

Pliocene of Cyprus.

The gastropod Turritellacarinata from the Pliocene of

Cyprus.

Pliocene 46

The thorny oyster Spondylusright and left valve interiors from

the Pliocene of Cyprus.

Articulated Spondylus fromthe Pliocene of Cyprus.

The limpet Diodora italica fromthe Pliocene of Cyprus.

The scaphopod Dentaliumfrom the Pliocene of Cyprus.

The gastropodAporrhais from the

Pliocene ofCyprus.

The arcid bivalve Anadara fromthe Pliocene of Cyprus.

The pectenid bivalveAmmusium cristatumfrom the Pliocene of

Cyprus.

Tube of a serpulidworm attached to abranch of the coral

Cladocora fromthe Pliocene of

Cyprus.

MammalsIn North America, rodents, large mastodons and gomphotheres, and opossums continued successfully, while hoofedanimals (ungulates) declined, with camel, deer and horse all seeing populations recede. Rhinos, three toed horses(Nannippus), oreodonts, protoceratids, and chalicotheres went extinct. Borophagine dogs and Agriotherium wentextinct, but other carnivores including the weasel family diversified, and dogs and fast-running hunting bears didwell. Ground sloths, huge glyptodonts, and armadillos came north with the formation of the Isthmus of Panama.In Eurasia rodents did well, while primate distribution declined. Elephants, gomphotheres and stegodonts weresuccessful in Asia, and hyraxes migrated north from Africa. Horse diversity declined, while tapirs and rhinos didfairly well. Cows and antelopes were successful, and some camel species crossed into Asia from North America.Hyenas and early saber-toothed cats appeared, joining other predators including dogs, bears and weasels.

Human evolution during the Pliocene

Pliocene 47

Pliocene mammals of North America

Africa was dominated by hoofed animals, and primates continued their evolution,with australopithecines (some of the first hominids) appearing in the latePliocene. Rodents were successful, and elephant populations increased. Cowsand antelopes continued diversification and overtaking pigs in numbers ofspecies. Early giraffes appeared, and camels migrated via Asia from NorthAmerica. Horses and modern rhinos came onto the scene. Bears, dogs andweasels (originally from North America) joined cats, hyenas and civets as theAfrican predators, forcing hyenas to adapt as specialized scavengers.

South America was invaded by North American species for the first time sincethe Cretaceous, with North American rodents and primates mixing with southernforms. Litopterns and the notoungulates, South American natives, were mostlywiped out, except for the macrauchenids and toxodonts, which managed to

survive. Small weasel-like carnivorous mustelids, coatis and short faced bears migrated from the north. Grazingglyptodonts, browsing giant ground sloths and smaller caviomorph rodents, pampatheres, and armadillos did theopposite, migrating to the north and thriving there.

The marsupials remained the dominant Australian mammals, with herbivore forms including wombats andkangaroos, and the huge diprotodon. Carnivorous marsupials continued hunting in the Pliocene, including dasyurids,the dog-like thylacine and cat-like Thylacoleo. The first rodents arrived in Australia. The modern platypus, amonotreme, appeared.

Birds

Titanis.

The predatory South American phorusrhacids were rare in this time; among the last wasTitanis, a large phorusrhacid that migrated to North America and rivaled mammals as toppredator. Other birds probably evolved at this time, some modern, some now extinct.

Reptiles and amphibians

Alligators and crocodiles died out in Europe as the climate cooled. Venomous snakegenera continued to increase as more rodents and birds evolved. Rattlesnakes firstappeared in the Pliocene. The modern species Alligator mississippiensis, having evolvedin the Miocene, continued into the Pliocene, except with a more northern range;specimens have been found in very late Miocene deposits of Tennessee. Giant tortoisesstill thrived in North America, with genera like Hesperotestudo. Madtsoid snakes werestill present in Australia. The amphibian order Allocaudata went extinct.

Pliocene 48

OceansOceans continued to be relatively warm during the Pliocene, though they continued cooling. The Arctic ice capformed, drying the climate and increasing cool shallow currents in the North Atlantic. Deep cold currents flowedfrom the Antarctic.The formation of the Isthmus of Panama about 3.5 million years ago cut off the final remnant of what was onceessentially a circum-equatorial current that had existed since the Cretaceous and the early Cenozoic. This may havecontributed to further cooling of the oceans worldwide.The Pliocene seas were alive with sea cows, seals and sea lions.

SupernovaeIn 2002, Narciso Benítez et al. calculated that roughly 2 million years ago, around the end of the Pliocene epoch, agroup of bright O and B stars called the Scorpius-Centaurus OB association passed within 130 light-years of Earthand that one or more supernova explosions gave rise to a feature known as the Local Bubble. Such a close explosioncould have damaged the Earth's ozone layer and caused the extinction of some ocean life (at its peak, a supernova ofthis size could have the same absolute magnitude as an entire galaxy of 200 billion stars).[6]

References[1] See the 2009 version of the ICS geologic time scale (http:/ / www. quaternary. stratigraphy. org. uk/ correlation/ GSAchron09. jpg)[2] Robinson, M., H.J. Dowsett, and M.A. Chandler, 2008: Pliocene role in assessing future climate impacts. Eos Trans. Amer. Geophys. U., 89,

501–502. (http:/ / pubs. giss. nasa. gov/ docs/ 2008/ 2008_Robinson_etal. pdf)[3] Dwyer, G.S., and M.A. Chandler, 2009: Mid-Pliocene sea level and continental ice volume based on coupled benthic Mg/Ca

palaeotemperatures and oxygen isotopes. Phil. Trans. Royal Soc. A, 367, 157–168, . (http:/ / pubs. giss. nasa. gov/ docs/ 2009/2009_Dwyer_Chandler. pdf)

[4][4] Bartoli, G. et al. Final closure of Panama and the onset of northern hemisphere glaciation. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 237, 3344 (2005).[5][5] Van Andel (1994), p. 226.[6] Comins & Kaufmann (2005), p. 359.

Further reading• Comins, Niel F.; William J. Kaufmann III (2005). Discovering the Universe (7th ed.). New York, NY: Susan

Finnemore Brennan. ISBN 0-7167-7584-0.• Gradstein, F.M.; Ogg, J.G. & Smith, A.G.; 2004: A Geologic Time Scale 2004, Cambridge University Press.• Ogg, Jim (June 2004). "Overview of Global Boundary Stratotype Sections and Points (GSSP's)" (http:/ / www.

stratigraphy. org/ gssp. htm). Retrieved 2006-04-30.• Van Andel, Tjeerd H. (1994). New Views on an Old Planet: a History of Global Change (2nd ed.). Cambridge:

Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-44243-5.

External links• Mid-Pliocene Global Warming: NASA/GISS Climate Modeling (http:/ / www. giss. nasa. gov/ research/ features/

pliocene/ )• Palaeos Pliocene (http:/ / www. palaeos. com/ Cenozoic/ Pliocene/ Pliocene. htm)• PBS Change: Deep Time: Pliocene (http:/ / www. pbs. org/ wgbh/ evolution/ change/ deeptime/ pliocene. html)• Possible Pliocene supernova (http:/ / gsa. confex. com/ gsa/ 2007AM/ finalprogram/ abstract_129643. htm)• "Supernova dealt deaths on Earth? Stellar blasts may have killed ancient marine life" Science News Online (http:/

/ www. sciencenews. org/ articles/ 20020202/ fob5. asp) retrieved February 2, 2002• UCMP Berkeley Pliocene Epoch Page (http:/ / www. ucmp. berkeley. edu/ tertiary/ pli. html)

Pliocene 49

• Pliocene Microfossils: 100+ images of Pliocene Foraminifera (http:/ / www. foraminifera. eu/ querydb.php?age=Pliocene& aktion=suche)

Neogene Period

Miocene Pliocene

Aquitanian|BurdigalianLanghian |

SerravallianTortonian |Messinian

Zanclean |Piacenzian

Quaternary

Pleistocene Holocene

Early | Middle |Late

Preboreal | Boreal |Atlantic | Subboreal |

Subatlantic

Diprotodon 50

Diprotodon

DiprotodonTemporal range: Pleistocene

Mounted skeleton

Scientific classification

Kingdom: AnimaliaPhylum: ChordataClass: MammaliaInfraclass: MarsupialiaOrder: DiprotodontiaSuborder: VombatiformesFamily: †DiprotodontidaeGenus: †Diprotodon

Owen, 1838Species: †D. optatum

Binomial name

Diprotodon optatum

Diprotodon, meaning "two forward teeth", sometimes known as the giant wombat or the hippopotamus wombat,is the largest known marsupial ever to have lived. Along with many other members of a group of unusual speciescollectively called the "Australian megafauna", it existed from approximately 1.6 million years ago until extinctionsome 46,000 years ago (through most of the Pleistocene epoch).Diprotodon species fossils have been found in sites across mainland Australia, including complete skulls andskeletons, as well as hair and foot impressions. Female skeletons have been found with babies located where themother's pouch would have been. The largest specimens were hippopotamus-sized: about 3 metres (10 ft) from noseto tail, standing 2 metres (6.6 ft) tall at the shoulder and weighing up to 2,800 kilograms (6,200 lb).[1][2] Aboriginalrock art images in Quinkan traditional country (Queensland, Australia) have been claimed to depict diprotodonts.They inhabited open forest, woodlands, and grasslands, possibly staying close to water, and eating leaves, shrubs,and some grasses.The closest surviving relatives of Diprotodon are the wombats and the koala. It is suggested that diprotodonts mayhave been an inspiration for the legends of the bunyip, as some Aboriginal tribes identify Diprotodon bones as thoseof "bunyips".

Diprotodon 51

DiscoveryThe first recorded Diprotodon remains were discovered in a cave near Wellington in New South Wales in the early1830s by Major Thomas Mitchell who sent them to England for study by Sir Richard Owen. In the 1840s LudwigLeichhardt discovered many Diprotodon bones eroding from the banks of creeks in the Darling Downs ofQueensland and when reporting the find to Owen commented that the remains were so well preserved he expected tofind living examples in the then unexplored central regions of Australia.The majority of fossil finds are of demographic groups indicative of diprotodonts dying in drought conditions. Forexample, hundreds of individuals were found in Lake Callabonna with well-preserved lower bodies but crushed anddistorted heads. It is theorised several family groups sank in mud while crossing the drying lake bed. Other findsconsist of age groupings of young or old animals which are first to die during a drought.In 2012, a significant group of about 40 was found at Eulo, South-West Queensland.[3]

TaxonomyDiprotodon was named by Owen (1838). It was assigned to Diprotodontidae by McKenna and Bell (1997). Thehistorical classification of Diprotodon consisted of eight species (Diprotodon optatum Owen, 1838; Diprotodonaustralis Owen, 1844; D. annextans McCoy, 1861; D. minor Huxley, 1862; D. longiceps McCoy 1865; D. loderiKrefft, 1873a; D. bennettii Krefft, 1873b (nec D. bennettii Owen, 1877); and D. bennettii Owen, 1877 (nec D.bennettii Krefft, 1873b); based on size or slight morphological differences of single specimens collected fromisolated geographic regions. Bimodal dental sizes, rather than a continuum of tooth sizes, and identical male andfemale dental morphology, indicate sexual dimorphism instead of separate species, thus providing strong evidencethat the eight species are synonyms for D. optatum.

Description

Diprotodon compared to a human

Diprotodon superficially resembled a rhinoceros without a horn. Itsfeet turned inwards like a wombat’s, giving it a pigeon-toedappearance. It had strong claws on the front feet and its pouch openingfaced backwards. Footprints of its feet have been found showing acovering of hair which indicates it had a coat similar to a modernwombat.

Until recently it was unknown how many species of Diprotodon hadexisted. Eight species are described although many researchers

believed these actually represented only three at most while some estimated there could be around twenty in total.

Paleobiology

Restoration

Recent research compared the variation between all of the describedDiprotodon species with the variation in one of Australia’s largestliving marsupials the Eastern Grey Kangaroo and found the range wascomparable, with a near continent-wide distribution. This left only twopossible Diprotodon species differing only in size with the smallerbeing around half the size of the larger. According to Gause’s"competitive exclusion principle" no two species with identicalecological requirements can coexist in a stable environment. However,

Diprotodon 52

both the small and large diprotodonts coexisted throughout the Pleistocene and the size difference is similar to othersexually dimorphic living marsupials. Further evidence is the battle damage common in competing males found onthe larger specimens but absent from the smaller. Dental morphology also supports sexual dimorphism, with highlysexually dimorphic marsupials, such as the grey kangaroo, having different tooth sizes between males and females,but both sexes having the same dental morphology. An identical dental morphology occurs in the large and smallDiprotodon. The taxonomic implication is that Owen’s original Diprotodon optatum is the only valid species.A single sexually dimorphic species allows behavioural interpretations. All sexually dimorphic species of over 5kilograms (11 lb) exhibit a polygynous breeding strategy. A modern example of this is the gender segregation ofelephants where females and the young form family groups while lone males fight for the right to mate with all thefemales of the group. This behaviour is consistent with fossil finds where adult/juvenile fossil assemblages usuallycontain only female adult remains.[4][5]

ExtinctionMost modern researchers including Richard Roberts and Tim Flannery argue that diprotodonts, along with a widerange of other Australian megafauna, became extinct shortly after humans arrived in Australia about 50,000 yearsago.Some older researchers including Richard Wright argue on the contrary that diprotodont remains from several sites,such as Tambar Springs and Trinkey and Lime Springs suggest that Diprotodon survived much longer, into theHolocene. Other more recent researchers, including Lesley Head and Judith Field, favour an extinction date of28,000 - 30,000 years ago, which would mean that humans coexisted with Diprotodon for some 20,000 years.[6]

However, opponents of "late extinction" theories have interpreted such late dates based on indirect dating methods asartifacts resulting from redeposition of skeletal material into more recent strata, and recent direct dating resultsobtained with new technologies have tended to confirm this interpretation.Three theories have been advanced to explain the mass extinction.

Climate change

Diprotodon skull, clearly showing the large frontteeth for which the genus is named and the

dentition adapted for browsing

Australia has undergone a very long process of gradual aridificationsince it split off from Gondwanaland about 40 million years ago. Fromtime to time the process reversed for a period, but overall the trend hasbeen strongly toward lower rainfall. The recent ice ages produced nosignificant glaciation in mainland Australia but long periods of coldand very dry weather. This dry weather during the last ice age mayhave killed off all the large diprotodonts.

Critics point out a number of problems with this theory. First, largediprotodonts had already survived a long series of similar ice ages, andthere does not seem to be any particular reason the most recent oneshould have achieved what all the previous ice ages had failed to do.Also, climate change apparently peaked 25,000 years after the extinctions. Finally, even during climatic extremes,some parts of the continent always remain relatively exempt: for example, the tropical north stays fairly warm andwet in all climatic circumstances; alpine valleys are less affected by drought, and so on.

Diprotodon 53

Human huntingThe "blitzkrieg theory" is that human hunters killed and ate the diprotodonts, causing their extinction. Theextinctions appear to have coincided with the arrival of humans on the continent, and in broad terms, Diprotodonwas the largest and least well-defended species that died out. Also, similar hunting-out happened with the megafaunaof New Zealand, Madagascar and many smaller islands around the world (such as New Caledonia, Cyprus, Crete andWrangel Island), and at least in part, in the Americas—probably within a thousand years or so. Recent finds ofDiprotodon bones which appear to display butchering marks lend support to this theory. Critics of this theory regardit as simplistic, arguing that (unlike New Zealand and America) there is little direct evidence of hunting, and that thedates on which the theory rests are too uncertain to be relied on. However, the high-resolution chronology of thechanges supports the hypothesis that human hunting alone eliminated the megafauna.

Human land management

Diprotodon optatum

The third theory says that humans indirectly caused the extinction ofdiprotodonts, by destroying the ecosystem on which they depended. Inparticular, early Aborigines are thought to have been fire-stick farmersusing fire regularly and persistently to drive game, open up densethickets of vegetation, and create fresh green regrowth for both humansand game animals to eat. Evidence for the fire hypothesis is the suddenincrease in widespread ash deposits at the time that people arrived inAustralia, as well as land-management and hunting practices ofmodern Aboriginal people as recorded by the earliest European settlersbefore Aboriginal society was devastated by European contact anddisease. Evidence against the hypothesis is the fact that humans appearto have eliminated the megafauna of Tasmania without using fire to modify the environment there.

Multiple causesThe above hypotheses are not necessarily mutually exclusive. Each of proposed mechanisms can potentially supportthe other two. For example, while burning an area of fairly thick forest and thus turning it into a more open, grassyenvironment might reduce the viability of a large browser (an animal that eats leaves and shoots rather than grasses),the reverse could also be true: removing the browsing animals (by eating them, or by any other means) within a fewyears produces a very thick undergrowth which, when a fire eventually starts through natural causes (as fires tend todo every few hundred years), burns with greater than usual ferocity. The burnt-out area is then repopulated with agreater proportion of fire-loving plant species (notably eucalypts, some acacias, and most of the native grasses)which are unsuitable habitat for most browsing animals. Either way, the trend is toward the modern Australianenvironment of highly flammable open sclerophyllous forests, woodlands and grasslands, none of which are suitablefor large, slow-moving browsing animals—and either way, the changed microclimate produces substantially lessrainfall.An examination of swamp sediment cores spanning the last 130,000 years from Lynch's Crater in Queensland suggests that hunting may have been the primary cause of the extinction. Analysis of Sporormiella fungal spores (which derive mainly from the dung of megaherbivores) in the cores shows that the megafauna of that region virtually disappeared about 41,000 years ago, at a time when climate changes were minimal; the change was accompanied by an increase in charcoal, and was followed by a transition from rainforest to fire-tolerant sclerophyll vegetation. The high-resolution chronology of the changes indicates that fire increased about a century after the disappearance of browsing megafauna, probably due to accumulation of fuel. Grass increased over the next several centuries; sclerophyll vegetation increased following a lag of another century, and a sclerophyll forest developed about a thousand years later. Earlier increases in sclerophyll vegetation during shifts to cooler, drier conditions about

Diprotodon 54

120,000 and 75,000 years ago did not have any obvious impact on megafaunal abundance.

References[1] Ice Age Marsupial Topped Three Tons, Scientists Say (http:/ / news. nationalgeographic. com/ news/ 2003/ 10/ 1016_031017_giantmarsupial.

html). Retrieved 17 September 2003.[2][2] 2,786 kg is the estimation for the specimen displayed in the Australian Museum which is considered to be of average size. According to latest

research the average male weight is estimated to lie between 2,272 kg and 3,417 kg.[3] Giant marsupials' graveyard unearthed in Queensland (http:/ / www. abc. net. au/ news/ 2012-06-21/

giant-marsupial-fossils-found-in-queensland/ 4083158) By Chrissy Arthur - Australian Broadcasting Corporation - Retrieved 21 July 2012.[4] Sex secrets of a prehistoric marsupial (http:/ / www. cosmosmagazine. com/ news/ 2042/ sex-secrets-prehistoric-marsupial-uncovered)

Cosmos Magazine 11 June 2008[5] Australian Science Magazine June 2008 Pleistocene Goliath; Gilbert Price[6] http:/ / www. abc. net. au/ science/ future/ theses/ theses1. htm

•• Danielle Clode (2009) Prehistoric giants: the megafauna of Australia. Museum Victoria.• Barry Cox, Colin Harrison, R.J.G. Savage, and Brian Gardiner. (1999): The Simon & Schuster Encyclopedia of

Dinosaurs and Prehistoric Creatures: A Visual Who's Who of Prehistoric Life. Simon & Schuster.• Jayne Parsons.(2001): Dinosaur Encyclopedia. Dorling Kindersley.• David Norman. (2001): The Big Book Of Dinosaurs. Welcome Books.• Gilbert Price. (2005): Article in Memoirs of the Queensland Museum. Queensland Museum.• http:/ / www. eaudrey. com/ myth/ bunyip. htm on bunyip theories

External links• Australia's lost kingdom on Diprotodon optatum (http:/ / australianmuseum. net. au/ Australias-extinct-animals)• BBC science and nature on Diprotodon optatum (http:/ / www. bbc. co. uk/ nature/ wildfacts/ factfiles/ 3040.

shtml)• Regional Council of Goyder page on the genera (http:/ / www. goyder. sa. gov. au/ site/ page. cfm?u=301)• Museum Victoria on the Diprotodontids (http:/ / museumvictoria. com. au/ prehistoric/ mammals/ diprotodontids.

html)• Museum Victoria view of a Diprotodon skull (http:/ / museumvictoria. com. au/ treasures/ colldetails.

aspx?pid=66)• South Australian Museum information (http:/ / www. samuseum. sa. gov. au/ lop/ diprotodon. pdf)• Description of Price's research (http:/ / www. abc. net. au/ news/ newsitems/ 200505/ s1379450. htm)

Eocene 55

Eocene

System Series Stage Age (Ma)

Neogene Miocene Aquitanian younger

Paleogene Oligocene Chattian 23.03–28.1

Rupelian 28.1–33.9

Eocene Priabonian 33.9–38.0

Bartonian 38.0–41.3

Lutetian 41.3–47.8

Ypresian 47.8–56.0

Paleocene Thanetian 56.0–59.2

Selandian 59.2–61.6

Danian 61.6–66.0

Cretaceous Late Maastrichtian older

Subdivision of the Paleogene Periodaccording to the ICS, as of January 2013.

The Eocene /ˈiːəsiːn/ (symbol Eo ) epoch, lasting from 56 to 33.9 [1] million years ago, is a major division of thegeologic timescale and the second epoch of the Paleogene Period in the Cenozoic Era. The Eocene spans the timefrom the end of the Palaeocene Epoch to the beginning of the Oligocene Epoch. The start of the Eocene is marked bya brief period in which the concentration of the carbon isotope 13C in the atmosphere was exceptionally low incomparison with the more common isotope 12C. The end is set at a major extinction event called the GrandeCoupure (the "Great Break" in continuity) or the Eocene–Oligocene extinction event, which may be related to theimpact of one or more large bolides in Siberia and in what is now Chesapeake Bay. As with other geologic periods,the strata that define the start and end of the epoch are well identified,[2] though their exact dates are slightlyuncertain.The name Eocene comes from the Greek ἠώς (eos, dawn) and καινός (kainos, new) and refers to the "dawn" ofmodern ('new') fauna that appeared during the epoch.

SubdivisionsThe Eocene epoch is usually broken into Early and Late, or—more usually—Early, Middle, and Late subdivisions.The corresponding rocks are referred to as Lower, Middle, and Upper Eocene. Of the stages shown above, theYpresian and occasionally the Lutetian constitute the Early, the Priabonian and sometimes the Bartonian the Latestate; alternatively, the Lutetian and Bartonian are united as the Middle Eocene.

ClimateThe Eocene Epoch contained a wide variety of different climate conditions that includes the warmest climate in the Cenozoic Era and ends in an icehouse climate. The evolution of the Eocene climate began with warming after the end of the Palaeocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum (PETM) at 56 million years ago to a maximum during the Eocene Optimum at around 49 million years ago. During this period of time, little to no ice was present on Earth with a smaller difference in temperature from the equator to the poles. Following the maximum was a descent into an icehouse climate from the Eocene Optimum to the Eocene-Oligocene transition at 34 million years ago. During this decrease ice began to reappear at the poles, and the Eocene-Oligocene transition is the period of time where the

Eocene 56

Antarctic ice sheet began to rapidly expand.

Atmospheric greenhouse gas evolutionGreenhouse gases, in particular carbon dioxide and methane, played a significant role during the Eocene incontrolling the surface temperature. The end of the PETM was met with a very large sequestration of carbon dioxidein the form of methane clathrate, coal, and crude oil at the bottom of the Arctic Ocean, that reduced the atmosphericcarbon dioxide. This event was similar in magnitude to the massive release of greenhouse gasses at the beginning ofthe PETM, and it is hypothesized that the sequestration was mainly due to organic carbon burial and weathering ofsilicates. For the early Eocene there is much discussion on how much carbon dioxide is in the atmosphere. This isdue to numerous proxies representing different atmospheric carbon dioxide content. For example, diversegeochemical and paleontological proxies indicate that at the maximum of global warmth the atmospheric carbondioxide values were at 700 – 900 ppm while other proxies such as pedogenic (soil building) carbonate and marineboron isotopes indicate large changes of carbon dioxide of over 2,000 ppm over periods of time of less than 1 millionyears. Sources for this large influx of carbon dioxide could be attributed to volcanic out-gassing due to NorthAtlantic rifting or oxidation of methane stored in large reservoirs deposited from the PETM event in the sea floor orwetland environments. For contrast, today the carbon dioxide levels are at 400 ppm or .04%.During the early Eocene, methane was another greenhouse gas that had a drastic effect on the climate. In comparisonto carbon dioxide, methane has much higher consequences with regards to temperature as methane has ~23 timesmore effect per molecule than carbon dioxide on a 100-year scale (it has a higher global warming potential). Themajority of the methane released to the atmosphere during this period of time would have been from wetlands,swamps, and forests. The atmospheric methane concentration today is 0.000179% or 1.79 ppmv. Due to the warmerclimate and sea level rise associated with the early Eocene, more wetlands, more forests, and more coal depositswould be available for methane release. Comparing the early Eocene production of methane to current levels ofatmospheric methane, the early Eocene would be able to produce triple the amount of current methane production.The warm temperatures during the early Eocene could have increased methane production rates, and methane that isreleased into the atmosphere would in turn warm the troposphere, cool the stratosphere, and produce water vapor andcarbon dioxide through oxidation. Biogenic production of methane produces carbon dioxide and water vapor alongwith the methane, as well as yielding infrared radiation. The breakdown of methane in an oxygen atmosphereproduces carbon monoxide, water vapor and infrared radiation. The carbon monoxide is not stable so it eventuallybecomes carbon dioxide and in doing so releases yet more infrared radiation. Water vapor, traps more infrared thandoes carbon dioxide.The middle to late Eocene marks not only the switch from warming to cooling, but also the change in carbon dioxide from increasing to decreasing. At the end of the Eocene Optimum, carbon dioxide began decreasing due to increased siliceous plankton productivity and marine carbon burial. At the beginning of the middle Eocene an event that may have triggered or helped with the draw down of carbon dioxide was the Azolla event at around 49 million years ago. With the equable climate during the early Eocene, warm temperatures in the arctic allowed for the growth of azolla, which is a floating aquatic fern, on the Arctic Ocean. Compared to current carbon dioxide levels, these azolla grew rapidly in the enhanced carbon dioxide levels found in the early Eocene. As these azolla sank into the Arctic Ocean, they became buried and sequestered their carbon into the seabed. This event could have led to a draw down of atmospheric carbon dioxide of up to 470 ppm. Assuming the carbon dioxide concentrations were at 900 ppmv prior to the Azolla Event they would have dropped to 430 ppmv, or 40 ppmv more than they are today, after the Azolla Event. Another event during the middle Eocene that was a sudden and temporary reversal of the cooling conditions was the Middle Eocene Climatic Optimum. At around 41.5 million years ago, stable isotopic analysis of samples from Southern Ocean drilling sites indicated a warming event for 600 thousand years. A sharp increase in atmospheric carbon dioxide was observed with a maximum of 4000 ppm: the highest amount of atmospheric carbon dioxide detected during the Eocene. The main hypothesis for such a radical transition was due to the continental drift and collision of the India continent with the Asia continent and the resulting formation of the Himalayas. Another

Eocene 57

hypothesis involves extensive sea floor rifting and metamorphic decarbonation reactions releasing considerableamounts of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere.At the end of the Middle Eocene Climatic Optimum, cooling and the carbon dioxide drawdown continued throughthe late Eocene and into the Eocene-Oligocene transition around 34 million years ago. Multiple proxies, such asoxygen isotopes and alkenones, indicate that at the Eocene-Oligocene transition, the atmospheric carbon dioxideconcentration had decreased to around 750-800 ppm, approximately twice that of present levels.

Early Eocene and the equable climate problemOne of the unique features of the Eocene’s climate as mentioned before was the equable and homogeneous climatethat existed in the early parts of the Eocene. A multitude of proxies support the presence of a warmer equable climatebeing present during this period of time. A few of these proxies include the presence of fossils native to warmclimates, such as crocodiles, located in the higher latitudes, the presence in the high-latitudes of frost-intolerant florasuch as palm trees which cannot survive during sustained freezes, and fossils of snakes found in the tropics thatwould require much higher average temperatures to sustain them. Using isotope proxies to determine oceantemperatures indicate sea surface temperatures in the tropics as high as 35 °C (95 °F) and bottom water temperaturesthat are 10 °C (18 °F) higher than present day values. With these bottom water temperatures, temperatures in areaswhere deep-water forms near the poles are unable to be much cooler than the bottom water temperatures.An issue arises, however, when trying to model the Eocene and reproduce the results that are found with the proxydata. Using all different ranges of greenhouse gasses that occurred during the early Eocene, models were unable toproduce the warming that was found at the poles and the reduced seasonality that occurs with winters at the polesbeing substantially warmer. The models, while accurately predicting the tropics, tend to produce significantly coolertemperatures of up to 20 °C (36 °F) underneath the actual determined temperature at the poles. This error has beenclassified as the “equable climate problem”. To solve this problem, the solution would involve finding a process towarm the poles without warming the tropics. Some hypotheses and tests which attempt to find the process are listedbelow.

Large lakes

Due to the nature of water as opposed to land, less temperature variability would be present if a large body of wateris also present. In an attempt to try to mitigate the cooling polar temperatures, large lakes were proposed to mitigateseasonal climate changes. To replicate this case, a lake was inserted into North America and a climate model was runusing varying carbon dioxide levels. The model runs concluded that while the lake did reduce the seasonality of theregion greater than just an increase in carbon dioxide, the addition of a large lake was unable to reduce theseasonality to the levels shown by the floral and faunal data.

Ocean heat transport

The transport of heat from the tropics to the poles, much like how ocean heat transport functions in modern times,was considered a possibility for the increased temperature and reduced seasonality for the poles. With the increasedsea surface temperatures and the increased temperature of the deep ocean water during the early Eocene, onecommon hypothesis was that due to these increases there would be a greater transport of heat from the tropics to thepoles. Simulating these differences, the models produced lower heat transport due to the lower temperature gradientsand were unsuccessful in producing an equable climate from only ocean heat transport.

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Orbital parameters

While typically seen as a control on ice growth and seasonality, the orbital parameters were theorized as a possiblecontrol on continental temperatures and seasonality. Simulating the Eocene by using an ice free planet, eccentricity,obliquity, and precession were modified in different model runs to determine all the possible different scenarios thatcould occur and their effects on temperature. One particular case led to warmer winters and cooler summer by up to30% in the North American continent, and it reduced the seasonal variation of temperature by up to 75%. Whileorbital parameters did not produce the warming at the poles, the parameters did show a great effect on seasonalityand needed to be considered.

Polar stratospheric clouds

Another method considered for producing the warm polar temperatures were polar stratospheric clouds. Polarstratospheric clouds are clouds that occur in the lower stratosphere at very low temperatures. Polar stratosphericclouds have a great impact on radiative forcing. Due to their minimal albedo properties and their optical thickness,polar stratospheric clouds act similar to a greenhouse gas and traps outgoing longwave radiation. Different types ofpolar stratospheric clouds occur in the atmosphere: polar stratospheric clouds that are created due to interactions withnitric or sulfuric acid and water (Type I) or polar stratospheric clouds that are created with only water ice (Type II).Methane is an important factor in the creation of the primary Type II polar stratospheric clouds that were created inthe early Eocene. Since water vapor is the only supporting substance used in Type II polar stratospheric clouds, thepresence of water vapor in the lower stratosphere is necessary where in most situations the presence of water vaporin the lower stratosphere is rare. When methane is oxidized, a significant amount of water vapor is released. Anotherrequirement for polar stratospheric clouds is cold temperatures to ensure condensation and cloud production. Polarstratospheric cloud production, since it requires the cold temperatures, is usually limited to nighttime and winterconditions. With this combination of wetter and colder conditions in the lower stratosphere, polar stratosphericclouds could have formed over wide areas in Polar Regions.To test the polar stratospheric clouds effects on the Eocene climate, models were run comparing the effects of polarstratospheric clouds at the poles to an increase in atmospheric carbon dioxide. The polar stratospheric clouds had awarming effect on the poles, increasing temperatures by up to 20 °C in the winter months. A multitude of feedbacksalso occurred in the models due to the polar stratospheric clouds’ presence. Any ice growth was slowed immenselyand would lead to any present ice melting. Only the poles were affected with the change in temperature and thetropics were unaffected, which with an increase in atmospheric carbon dioxide would also cause the tropics toincrease in temperature. Due to the warming of the troposphere from the increased greenhouse effect of the polarstratospheric clouds, the stratosphere would cool and would potentially increase the amount of polar stratosphericclouds.While the polar stratospheric clouds could explain the reduction of the equator to pole temperature gradient and theincreased temperatures at the poles during the early Eocene, there are a few drawbacks to maintaining polarstratospheric clouds for an extended period of time. Separate model runs were used to determine the sustainability ofthe polar stratospheric clouds. Methane would need to be continually released and sustained to maintain the lowerstratospheric water vapor. Increasing amounts of ice and condensation nuclei would be need to be high for the polarstratospheric cloud to sustain itself and eventually expand.

Hyperthermals through the Early EoceneDuring the warming in the Early Eocene between 52 and 55 million years ago, there were a series of short-term changes of carbon isotope composition in the ocean. These isotope changes occurred due to the release of carbon from the ocean into the atmosphere that led to a temperature increase of 4-8 °C (7.2-14.4 °F) at the surface of the ocean. These hyperthermals led to increased perturbations in planktonic and benthic foraminifera, with a higher rate of sedimentation as a consequence of the warmer temperatures. Recent analysis of and research into these

Eocene 59

hyperthermals in the early Eocene has led to hypotheses that the hyperthermals are based on orbital parameters, inparticular eccentricity and obliquity. The hyperthermals in the early Eocene, notably the Palaeocene-Eocene ThermalMaximum (PETM), the Eocene Thermal Maximum 2 (ETM2), and the Eocene Thermal Maximum 3 (ETM3), wereanalyzed and found that orbital control may have had a role in triggering the ETM2 and ETM3.

Greenhouse to icehouse climateThe Eocene is not only known for containing the warmest period during the Cenozoic, but it also marked the declineinto an icehouse climate and the rapid expansion of the Antarctic ice sheet. The transition from a warming climateinto a cooling climate began at ~49 million years ago. Isotopes of carbon and oxygen indicate a shift to a globalcooling climate. The cause of the cooling has been attributed to a significant decrease of >2000 ppm in atmosphericcarbon dioxide concentrations. One proposed cause of the reduction in carbon dioxide during the warming to coolingtransition was the Azolla event. The increased warmth at the poles, the isolated Arctic basin during the early Eocene,and the significantly high amounts of carbon dioxide possibly led to azolla blooms across the Arctic Ocean. Theisolation of the Arctic Ocean led to stagnant waters and as the azolla sank to the sea floor, they became part of thesediments and effectively sequestered the carbon. The ability for the azolla to sequester carbon is exceptional, andthe enhanced burial of azolla could have had a significant effect on the world atmospheric carbon content and mayhave been the event to begin the transition into an ice house climate. Cooling after this event continued due tocontinual decrease in atmospheric carbon dioxide from organic productivity and weathering from mountain building.Global cooling continued until there was a major reversal from cooling to warming indicated in the Southern Oceanat around 42-41 million years ago. Oxygen isotope analysis showed a large negative change in the proportion ofheavier oxygen isotopes to lighter oxygen isotopes, which indicates an increase in global temperatures. Thiswarming event is known as the Middle Eocene Climatic Optimum. The cause of the warming is considered toprimarily be due to carbon dioxide increases, since carbon isotope signatures rule out major methane release duringthis short term warming. The increase in atmospheric carbon dioxide is considered to be due to increased seafloorspreading rates between Australia and Antarctica and increased amounts of volcanism in the region. Anotherpossible atmospheric carbon dioxide increase could be during a sudden increase with metamorphic release during theHimalayan orogeny, however data on the exact timing of metamorphic release of atmospheric carbon dioxide is notwell resolved in the data. Recent studies have mentioned, however, that the removal of the ocean between Asia andIndia could release significant amounts of carbon dioxide. This warming is short lived, as benthic oxygen isotoperecords indicate a return to cooling at ~40 million years ago.Cooling continued throughout the rest of the Late Eocene into the Eocene-Oligocene transition. During the coolingperiod, benthic oxygen isotopes show the possibility of ice creation and ice increase during this later cooling. Theend of the Eocene and beginning of the Oligocene is marked with the massive expansion of area of the Antarctic icesheet that was a major step into the icehouse climate. Along with the decrease of atmospheric carbon dioxidereducing the global temperature, orbital factors in ice creation can be seen with 100,000 year and 400,000 yearfluctuations in benthic oxygen isotope records. Another major contribution to the expansion of the ice sheet was thecreation of the Antarctic circumpolar current. The creation of the Antarctic circumpolar current would isolate thecold water around the Antarctic, which would reduce heat transport to the Antarctic along with create ocean gyresthat result in the upwelling of colder bottom waters. The issue with this hypothesis of the consideration of this beinga factor for the Eocene-Oligocene transition is the timing of the creation of the circulation is uncertain. For DrakePassage, sediments indicate the opening occurred ~41 million years ago while tectonics indicate that this occurred~32 million years ago.

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PalaeogeographyDuring the Eocene, the continents continued to drift toward their present positions.At the beginning of the period, Australia and Antarctica remained connected, and warm equatorial currents mixedwith colder Antarctic waters, distributing the heat around the planet and keeping global temperatures high, but whenAustralia split from the southern continent around 45 Ma, the warm equatorial currents were routed away fromAntarctica. An isolated cold water channel developed between the two continents. The Antarctic region cooleddown, and the ocean surrounding Antarctica began to freeze, sending cold water and icefloes north, reinforcing thecooling.The northern supercontinent of Laurasia began to break up, as Europe, Greenland and North America drifted apart.In western North America, mountain building started in the Eocene, and huge lakes formed in the high flat basinsamong uplifts, resulting in the deposition of the Green River Formation lagerstätte.At about 35 Ma, an asteroid impact on the eastern coast of North America formed the Chesapeake Bay impact crater.In Europe, the Tethys Sea finally vanished, while the uplift of the Alps isolated its final remnant, the Mediterranean,and created another shallow sea with island archipelagos to the north. Though the North Atlantic was opening, a landconnection appears to have remained between North America and Europe since the faunas of the two regions arevery similar.India continued its journey away from Africa and began its collision with Asia, folding the Himalayas into existence.It is hypothesized that the Eocene hothouse world was caused by runaway global warming from released methaneclathrates deep in the oceans. The clathrates were buried beneath mud that was disturbed as the oceans warmed.Methane (CH4) has ten to twenty times the greenhouse gas effect of carbon dioxide (CO2).

FloraAt the beginning of the Eocene, the high temperatures and warm oceans created a moist, balmy environment, withforests spreading throughout the Earth from pole to pole. Apart from the driest deserts, Earth must have been entirelycovered in forests.Polar forests were quite extensive. Fossils and even preserved remains of trees such as swamp cypress and dawnredwood from the Eocene have been found on Ellesmere Island in the Arctic. Even at that time, Ellesmere Island wasonly a few degrees in latitude further south than it is today. Fossils of subtropical and even tropical trees and plantsfrom the Eocene have also been found in Greenland and Alaska. Tropical rainforests grew as far north as northernNorth America and Europe.Palm trees were growing as far north as Alaska and northern Europe during the early Eocene, although they becameless abundant as the climate cooled. Dawn redwoods were far more extensive as well.Cooling began mid-period, and by the end of the Eocene continental interiors had begun to dry out, with foreststhinning out considerably in some areas. The newly evolved grasses were still confined to river banks and lakeshores, and had not yet expanded into plains and savannas.The cooling also brought seasonal changes. Deciduous trees, better able to cope with large temperature changes,began to overtake evergreen tropical species. By the end of the period, deciduous forests covered large parts of thenorthern continents, including North America, Eurasia and the Arctic, and rainforests held on only in equatorialSouth America, Africa, India and Australia.Antarctica, which began the Eocene fringed with a warm temperate to sub-tropical rainforest, became much colder asthe period progressed; the heat-loving tropical flora was wiped out, and by the beginning of the Oligocene, thecontinent hosted deciduous forests and vast stretches of tundra.

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Fauna

Eocene fauna of North America

Crassostrea gigantissima (Finch, 1824), a giantoyster from the Eocene of Texas.

Fossil nummulitid foraminiferans showingmicrospheric and megalospheric individuals;Eocene of the United Arab Emirates; scale in

mm.

The oldest known fossils of most of the modern mammal orders appearwithin a brief period during the early Eocene. At the beginning of theEocene, several new mammal groups arrived in North America. Thesemodern mammals, like artiodactyls, perissodactyls and primates, hadfeatures like long, thin legs, feet and hands capable of grasping, as wellas differentiated teeth adapted for chewing. Dwarf forms reigned. Allthe members of the new mammal orders were small, under 10 kg;based on comparisons of tooth size, Eocene mammals were only 60%of the size of the primitive Palaeocene mammals that preceded them.They were also smaller than the mammals that followed them. It isassumed that the hot Eocene temperatures favored smaller animals thatwere better able to manage the heat.

Both groups of modern ungulates (hoofed animals) became prevalentbecause of a major radiation between Europe and North America,along with carnivorous ungulates like Mesonyx. Early forms of manyother modern mammalian orders appeared, including bats,proboscidians (elephants), primates, rodents and marsupials. Olderprimitive forms of mammals declined in variety and importance.Important Eocene land fauna fossil remains have been found inwestern North America, Europe, Patagonia, Egypt and southeast Asia.Marine fauna are best known from South Asia and the southeast UnitedStates.

Reptile fossils from this time, such as fossils of pythons and turtles, areabundant. The remains of Titanoboa, a snake the length of a schoolbus, was discovered in South America along with other large reptilianmegafauna. During the Eocene, plants and marine faunas became quitemodern. Many modern bird orders first appeared in the Eocene.

Several rich fossil insect faunas are known from the Eocene, notablythe Baltic amber found mainly along the south coast of the Baltic Sea,amber from the Paris Basin, France, the Fur Formation, Denmark andthe Bembridge Marls from the Isle of Wight, England. Insects found inEocene deposits are mostly assignable to modern genera, thoughfrequently these genera do not occur in the area at present. For instancethe bibionid genus Plecia is common in fossil faunas from presentlytemperate areas, but only lives in the tropics and subtropics today.

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Oceans

Basilosaurus

Prorastomus, an early sirenian

The Eocene oceans were warm and teeming with fish and other sea life. Thefirst carcharinid sharks evolved, as did early marine mammals, includingBasilosaurus, an early species of whale that is thought to be descended fromland animals that existed earlier in the Eocene, the hoofed predators calledmesonychids, of which Mesonyx was a member. The first sirenians, relativesof the elephants, also evolved at this time.

Eocene–Oligocene extinction

The end of the Eocene was marked by the Eocene–Oligocene extinctionevent, also known as the Grande Coupure.

References[1] http:/ / tools. wmflabs. org/ timescale/ ?Ma=56–33. 9[2] The extinction of the Hantkeninidae, a planktonic family of foraminifera became generally

accepted as marking the Eocene-Oligocene boundary; in 1998 Massignano in Umbria, central Italy, was designated the Global BoundaryStratotype Section and Point (GSSP).

Further reading• Ogg, Jim; June, 2004, Overview of Global Boundary Stratotype Sections and Points (GSSP's) http:/ / www.

stratigraphy. org/ gssp. htm Accessed April 30, 2006.• Stanley, Steven M. Earth System History. New York: W.H. Freeman and Company, 1999. ISBN 0-7167-2882-6

External links• PaleoMap Project (http:/ / www. scotese. com/ )• Paleos Eocene page (http:/ / www. palaeos. com/ Cenozoic/ Eocene/ Eocene. htm)• PBS Deep Time: Eocene (http:/ / www. pbs. org/ wgbh/ evolution/ change/ deeptime/ eocene. html)• Eocene and Oligocene Fossils (http:/ / www. dmap. co. uk/ fossils/ )• The UPenn Fossil Forest Project, focusing on the Eocene polar forests in Ellesmere Island, Canada (http:/ / www.

sas. upenn. edu/ earth/ arctic/ )• Basilosaurus Primitive Eocene Whales (http:/ / members. cox. net/ pyrophyllite/ Basilosaurus1. html)• Basilosaurus - The plesiosaur that wasn't.... (http:/ / www. oceansofkansas. com/ Harlan1834b. html)• Detailed maps of Tertiary Western North America (http:/ / jan. ucc. nau. edu/ ~rcb7/ terpaleo. html)• Map of Eocene Earth (http:/ / www. scotese. com/ newpage9. htm)• Eocene Microfossils: 60+ images of Foraminifera (http:/ / www. foraminifera. eu/ querydb. php?age=Eocene&

aktion=suche)• Eocene Epoch. (2011). In Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved from http:/ / www. britannica. com/ EBchecked/

topic/ 189322/ Eocene-Epoch

Mastodon 63

Mastodon

MastodonTemporal range: Late Miocene - Late Pleistocene, 5.3–0.011Ma

Mounted M. americanum skeleton, AMNH

Scientific classification

Kingdom: AnimaliaPhylum: ChordataClass: MammaliaOrder: ProboscideaFamily: †MammutidaeGenus: †Mammut

Blumenbach, 1799Type species

†Elephas americanusKerr, 1792

Species

• M. americanum (Kerr, 1792)• M. matthewi Osborn, 1921• M. raki Frick, 1933• M. cosoensis Schultz, 1937

Synonyms

• Mastodon Cuvier, 1817• Tetracaulodon Godman, 1830• Missourium Koch, 1840• Leviathan Koch, 1841 (Emend. Koch, 1843)• Pliomastodon Osborn, 1926

Mastodons (Greek: μαστός "breast" and ὀδούς, "tooth") are an extinct group of mammal species related toelephants, that inhabited North and Central America during the late Miocene or late Pliocene up to their extinction atthe end of the Pleistocene 10,000 to 11,000 years ago. Their genus name is Mammut, and they are members of theorder Proboscidea. They lived in herds and were predominantly forest dwelling animals that fed on a mixed diet ofbrowsing and grazing with a seasonal preference for browsing, in contrast to living elephants that are mostly grazinganimals.The American mastodon is the most recent and best-known species of the genus. They disappeared from North America as part of a mass extinction of most of the Pleistocene megafauna, widely presumed to have been a result of

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rapid climate change in North America, as well as the sophistication of stone tool weaponry used by the Clovishunters which may have caused a gradual attrition of the mastodon population.

Etymology

American mastodon molars at the State Museumof Pennsylvania

The name Mastodon (or mastodont) means nipple tooth (Greek:μαστός "nipple" and ὀδούς, "tooth"),[1][2] and was assigned by theFrench anatomist George Cuvier, derived from the cone-shaped cuspsof their tooth which resembles the shape of nipples. Mastodon as agenus name is obsolete; the valid name is Mammut, a name thatpreceded Cuvier's description, making Mastodon a junior synonym.The change was met with resistance, and authors sometimes applied"Mastodon" as an informal name so it became the common term formembers of the genus.

DescriptionMastodons were similar in appearance to elephants and mammoths, though not closely related. Compared tomammoths, mastodons had shorter legs, a longer body and were more heavily muscled, a build similar to that of thecurrent Asian elephants. The average body size of the species M. americanum was around 2.3 m (7 ft 7 in) in heightat the shoulders, corresponding to a large female or a small male, but large males could grow up to 2.8 m (9 ft 2 in)in height and weigh as much as 4.5 tonnes (5 short tons). Like modern elephants, the females were smaller than themales. They had a low and long skull with long curved tusks, with those of the males being more massive and morestrongly curved. Mastodons had cusp-shaped teeth, different from mammoth and elephant teeth (which have a seriesof enamel plates), well-suited for chewing leaves and branches of trees and shrubs.

DiscoveryThe first remnant of Mammut was discovered in the village of Claverack, New York in 1705 by French soldiers, whocarried it to the Mississippi River, from which it was transported to the National Museum of Natural History in Paris.A tooth some 2.2 kilograms (5 lb) in weight, it became known as the “incognitum”. Some time later, similar remainswere found in South Carolina, which according to the slaves, looked remarkably similar to those of Africanelephants, soon followed discoveries of complete bones and tusks in Ohio, and people started referring to the"incognitum" as a mammoth, like the ones that were being dug out in Siberia. Anatomists noted that the teeth ofmammoth and elephants were different from those of incognitum, which possessed rows of large conical cusps,indicating that they were dealing with a distinct species.

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Classification and species

Comparison of Woolly mammoth (L) and American mastodon (R)

Mammut is a genus of the extinctfamily Mammutidae, related to theproboscidean family Elephantidae(mammoths and elephants) from whichit originally diverged approximately 27million years ago. The followingcladogram shows the placement of theAmerican mastodon among otherproboscideans, based on hyoidcharacteristics:

Mammut americanum (American mastodon)

Gomphotherium sp.

Stegodon zdanskyi

Loxodonta africana (African elephant)

Elephas maximus (Asian elephant)

Mammuthus columbi (Columbian mammoth)

Over the years, several fossils from localities in North America, Africa and Asia have been attributed to Mammut,but only the North American remains have been named and described, one of them being M. furlongi, named fromremains found in the Juntura Formation of Oregon, dating from the late Miocene. However, it is no longerconsidered valid, leaving only 4 valid species left.M. matthewi: Found in the Snake Creek Formation of Nebraska, dating from the late Hemphillian. Some authorsconsider it practically undistinguishable from M. americanum.M. raki: Its remains were found in the Palomas Formation, nearby Truth or Consequences, New Mexico, dating fromthe early-middle Pliocene, between 4.5-3.6 Ma. It coexisted with Equus simplicidens and Gigantocamelus and differsfrom M. americanum in having a relatively longer and narrower third molar, similar to the description of the defunctgenus Pliomastodon which supports its arrangement as an early species of Mammut. However, like M. matthewi,some authors don't consider it sufficiently distinct from M. americaum to warrant its own species.M. cosoensis: Found in the Coso Formation of California, dating from the late Pliocene, originally a species ofPliomastodon it was later assigned to Mammut.M. americanum: The American mastodon, the most known and the last species of Mammut, its earliest occurrences date from the early-middle Pliocene (early Blancan stage). It had a continent wide distribution, specially during the Pleistocene epoch, known from fossil sites ranging from present-day Alaska and New England in the north, to Florida, southern California, and as far south as Honduras. The American mastodon resembled a woolly mammoth in appearance, with a thick coat of shaggy hair. It had tusks that sometimes exceeded five meters in length; they curved

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upwards, but less dramatically than those of the woolly mammoth. Its main habitat was cold spruce woodlands, andit is believed to have browsed in herds. It became extinct at the end of the Pleistocene approximately 11,000 yearsago.\A complete mtDNA sequence has been obtained from the tooth of an M. americanum skeleton found in permafrostin northern Alaska. The remains are thought to be 50,000 to 130,000 old. This sequence has been used as anoutgroup to refine divergence dates in the evolution of the Elephantidae. The rate of mtDNA sequence change inproboscideans was found to be significantly lower than in primates.

Paleobiology

Social behavior

Female and calf American mastodon at theGeorge Page Museum.

Based on the characteristics of mastodon bonesites we can infer that,like in modern proboscideans, the Mastodon social group consisted ofadult females and young, living in bounded groups called mixed herds.The males abandoned the mixed herds once reaching sexual maturityand lived either alone or in male bond groupings. Unlike modernelephants, the evidence suggest that there probably was no seasonalsynchrony of mating activity, with both males and females seeking outeach other for mating when sexually active.

Range and habitat

Restoration of a herd by Charles R. Knight

The range of most species of Mammut is unknown as their occurrencesare restricted to few localities, the exception being the Americanmastodon (M. americanum), which is one of the most widelydistributed Pleistocene proboscideans in North America, ranging in agefrom the faunal stages of Blancan to Rancholabrean and with fossilsites from as north as Alaska, as east as Florida and as south as thestate of Puebla in central Mexico, however there is an isolated recordfrom Honduras, probably reflecting the results of the maximumexpansion achieved by the American mastodon during the LatePleistocene. There is strong evidence to support that the members of Mammut were forest dwelling proboscideans,predominating in woodlands and forests, feeding in sylvan vegetation. They apparently did not disperse southward toSouth America, it is speculated this was because of a dietary specialization on a particular type of vegetation.

DietMastodons have been characterized as predominantly browsing animals, most accounts of gut contents haveidentified coniferous twigs as the dominant element in their diet, in other accounts (Burning tree mastodon) havefound no coniferous content and suggest selective feeding on low, herbaceous vegetation, implying a mixedbrowsing and grazing diet, evidence supported by studies of isotopic bone chemistry but displaying a seasonalpreference for browsing.

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ExtinctionThey are generally reported as having disappeared from North America about 10,500 years ago as part of a massextinction of most of the Pleistocene megafauna, widely presumed to have been as a result of human huntingpressure. The latest Paleo-Indians entered the American continent and expanded to relatively large numbers 13,000years ago, and their hunting may have caused a gradual attrition of the mastodon population. Analysis of tusks ofmastodons from the American Great Lakes region over a span of several thousand years prior to their extinction inthe area shows a trend of declining age at maturation; this is contrary to what one would expect if they wereexperiencing stresses from an unfavorable environment, but is consistent with a reduction in intraspecificcompetition that would result from a population being reduced by human hunting.

References[1] mastodon (http:/ / www. etymonline. com/ index. php?term=mastodon) Online Etymology Dictionary Retrieved 10 November 2012[2] mastodon (http:/ / www. merriam-webster. com/ dictionary/ mastodon) Merriam-Webster Retrieved 30 June 2012

External links• The Rochester Museum of Science - Expedition Earth Glaciers & Giants (http:/ / www. rmsc. org/

MuseumAndScienceCenter/ exhibits/ GlaciersAndGiants/ )• Illinois State Museum - Mastodon (http:/ / www. museum. state. il. us/ exhibits/ larson/ mammut. html)• Calvin College Mastodon Page (http:/ / www. calvin. edu/ academic/ geology/ mastodon/ calvin_c. htm)• American Museum of Natural History - Warren Mastodon (http:/ / www. amnh. org/ exhibitions/ expeditions/

treasure_fossil/ Treasures/ Warren_Mastodon/ warren. html?acts)• BBC Science and Nature:Animals - American mastodon Mammut americanum (http:/ / www. bbc. co. uk/ nature/

wildfacts/ factfiles/ 3004. shtml)• BBC News - Greek mastodon find 'spectacular' (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 1/ hi/ world/ europe/ 6913366. stm)• Paleontological Research Institute - The Mastodon Project (http:/ / www. priweb. org/ mastodon/

mastodon_home. html)• Missouri State Parks and Histroric Sites - Mastodon State Historic Site (http:/ / www. mostateparks. com/

mastodon. htm)• Saint Louis Front Page - Mastodon State Historic Site (http:/ / www. slfp. com/ Mastodon. htm)• The Florida Museum of Natural History Virtual Exhibit - The Aucilla River Prehistory Project:When The First

Floridians Met The Last Mastodons (http:/ / www. flmnh. ufl. edu/ natsci/ vertpaleo/ aucilla/ arpp01. htm)• Worlds longest tusks (http:/ / thexodirectory. com/ 2007/ 11/ worlds-longest-tusks. html)• Western Center for Archaeology & Paleontology, home of the largest mastodon ever found in the Western United

States (http:/ / westerncentermuseum. org)• Smithsonian Magazine Features Mammoths and Mastodons (http:/ / www. smithsonianmag. com/ science-nature/

Mammoths-and-Mastodons-All-American-Monsters. html)• 360 View of Mastodon Skull from Indiana State Museum (http:/ / www. photospherix. com/ examples/ 240. aspx)

Article Sources and Contributors 68

Article Sources and ContributorsCastorocauda  Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=586138065  Contributors: 545lljkr, Adrian J. Hunter, Animalparty, Aranae, Bcasterline, Bobblewik, Casliber, DaMatriX,Dante Alighieri, Dinoguy2, Doc Taxon, Dora Nichov, Earendil56, Gruekiller, Hanay, JQF, Kazvorpal, Lambiam, Leptictidium, Liriodendron, MWAK, Macdonald-ross, MisfitToys, Miwasatoshi,Murzabov, Mxn, NatureA16, Nicolás10, Obli, Paul H., Peter M. Brown, Petter Bøckman, SuperCroc, Tekken50, UtherSRG, Wetman, WikHead, 16 anonymous edits

Chapalmalania  Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=605068794  Contributors: Abyssal, Anaxial, Apokryltaros, Dmitri Lytov, Dvdgmz, First Light, Flavio.brandani, GCarty,Glevum, Hey jude, don't let me down, Jerkov, Leptictidium, Mojo Hand, NatureA16, Od Mishehu, Rlendog, Tigerbreath13, Ucucha, WolfmanSF, 20 anonymous edits

List of prehistoric mammals  Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=604103008  Contributors: Abyssal, Ahoerstemeier, Animalparty, Apokryltaros, Astropithicus, Bahudhara, BenSkála, BigrTex, Boomeropski, CommonsDelinker, DabMachine, Deanmo19, Debresser, Delldot, Dusti, Dysmorodrepanis, Enlil Ninlil, ErikHaugen, Erimus, Eris11, Fama Clamosa, Fedor,Fornadan, GCarty, Gaius Cornelius, HMSSolent, Hartebeest, Helioseus, Hmains, JMK, Jackhynes, Jackvon, JayHenry, Jerkov, Jyril, Kadenh, Kappa, Kevmin, Lavateraguy, Materialscientist,Megan1967, Mojo Hand, Muriel Gottrop, NatureA16, Nihilrat, Pearle, Peter M. Brown, Rich Farmbrough, Scottandrewhutchins, Scottfisher, TexasAndroid, That Guy, From That Show!,UtherSRG, Valerius Tygart, Vasconicus, Voxii, Voxparadox, 189 anonymous edits

Megacerops  Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=602786272  Contributors: Anaxial, Apokryltaros, ArthurWeasley, Bellhalla, Capitaneteja, Darwin's Bulldog, Dger, Dolfrog,Eumys, FunkMonk, Helioseus, Hmains, Jerkov, Jyril, Menchi, Mgiganteus1, Mike.BRZ, NatureA16, Noles1984, Od Mishehu, Od Mishehu AWB, PageRob, Rivertorch, Rjwilmsi, SamX, Skwirl,Ucucha, UtherSRG, Webclient101, WolfmanSF, Zoeperkoe, 18 anonymous edits

Prehistoric mammal  Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=586627017  Contributors: Alataristarion, Astropithicus, Bobo192, CambridgeBayWeather, CameronPG, CesarB,Dancxjo, DanielCD, DarkFantasy, Dracontes, Dragon Helm, DuncanHill, Dy2007, EncycloPetey, Eriksiers, Fornadan, Greatgavini, J. Spencer, James truong, Jerkov, Jpdinoman3, Jyril, Kcatena,Kevjenzak, Khanhvukk, Kinghistory15, Liverpoolpaddy, NatureA16, Peter M. Brown, Phlebas, Piano non troppo, Poetaris, Pol098, PolarYukon, RANDREWF7777, Rtkat3, Tjmoel, Ucucha,UtherSRG, Wavelength, Welsh, Wikid77, Wilson44691, Yurei-eggtart, 111 anonymous edits

Pliocene  Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=602085455  Contributors: 1ForTheMoney, 216.192.75.xxx, 7, AMK152, Aboctok, Abyssal, Aesopos, Ahoerstemeier, AidanElliott-McCrea, AlexR, Andre Engels, Andy M. Wang, Anomalocaris, Antandrus, Attilios, Autodidactyl, Awickert, Baad, Bejnar, Bender235, Bob luvs monkeys, Bomac, BrendanRyan,Brighterorange, Brim, Bryan Derksen, Camerong, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Carlwoz, Casito, Chermundy, Chrisdab, Civil Engineer III, Conversion script, D99figge, Da nuke,DangerousPanda, Danilot, David Newton, Davidiad, Dbachmann, Deflective, Denisarona, Deville, Discospinster, Don Kenney, Download, Durova, Dysmorodrepanis, E104421, El C,Emeraldcityserendipity, Emperorbma, Epastore, EuroCarGT, Fama Clamosa, Fang 23, FlieGerFaUstMe262, Fluffernutter, Franco3450, FunkMonk, Gaurav1146, Gdo01, Gene Nygaard,Geologyguy, Giorgiogp2, Glenn, Graham87, GregorB, Götz, Hagedis, Halvermac, Homo stannous, IanOsgood, Iblardi, Igiffin, Invertzoo, IvanLanin, JHMM13, JMK, Janet1983, John.D.Ward,Johnbod, Joy, Jsonitsac, Jyril, Kamakura, Kwamikagami, Laudak, Loren.wilton, Luna Santin, Mackinaw, Markjoseph125, Mattis, Megan1967, Metalraptor, MethaneIzKandy, Mexcellent, Mhese,Micheletb, Mikenorton, Misza13, Moverton, Mr pand, Mrfebruary, Mrt3366, Mwidunn, Nanten, NatureA16, Niceguyedc, Noles1984, NorthernFire, Ojigiri, Omnipaedista, P.Geol,Papyrus-winged ninja Akil, Pathfinder, Pauli133, Peregrine981, Phe, Phlebas, Pijeth, Pinethicket, Rich Farmbrough, Rjwilmsi, RockMagnetist, Rockhopper10r, Ruy Pugliesi, SarekOfVulcan,Siim, Skizzik, Smack, Sorsanmetsastaja, Spitfire, Spotty11222, Steven Weston, Szilas, Targaryen, Teecrosser, Thanatos666, The Anonymouse, Think outside the box, Tnxman307, Tobias1984,Tom Radulovich, Tomruen, Ucucha, UtherSRG, Vicki Rosenzweig, Vsmith, Walking.eagle, Waso99, Wayiran, WeijiBaikeBianji, Wetman, Wikipelli, Wilson44691, Wimt, WolfmanSF,Woohookitty, Woudloper, Xezbeth, Zenibus, Zundark, 201 anonymous edits

Diprotodon  Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=603081743  Contributors: 80.255, A3RO, AdjustShift, Aidan Elliott-McCrea, Alphasinus, Amblypygi, AndrewHowse,Andy120290, Anthony Appleyard, Apokryltaros, Aranae, Aremisasling, Arria Belli, ArthurWeasley, Atethnekos, Attilios, Auntof6, BCtl, Bcasterline, BoundaryRider, Bsharitt, C96ghia,CCRider345, Cablehorn, CanisRufus, Cashie, Cast, Ch'marr, Chazwazla, Chickenflicker, Clarkk, CommonsDelinker, Conversion script, Crackpot23, Cuchullain, Dante Alighieri, Darth Ag.Ent,Dbenbenn, Diucón, DustFormsWords, Dysmorodrepanis, ESkog, Ekr145, Enlil Ninlil, Erich gasboy, ErikTheRed13, Figaro, First Light, Flyingidiot, Francisco Valverde, FritoKAL, FunkMonk,GCarty, Ghelae, Gogo Dodo, Hartebeest, Hobartimus, Iblardi, Imc, Imdiprotodon, Jannox, JeLuF, Jeremyswest, Jerkov, Jimp, Jjron, Johnny542, Jonpaulusa, JorisvS, Jrdioko, Kadenh, Kbdank71,Kesuari, Khcf6971, Klavierspieler, Klemen Kocjancic, L-Bit, LadyofHats, Leptictidium, Llywrch, Longbowman, Melly42, Mikenorton, Mimihitam, Mstroeck, Myrtleblesing, NCartmell, Naddy,NatureA16, Nepomuk 3, Ost316, PDH, Pcb21, Pengo, Pgan002, Photnart, Piano non troppo, PierreAbbat, Pinguinus, Pollinator, Postdlf, Postglock, Praemonitus, Pthalo, Quuxplusone, Rcbutcher,Rich Farmbrough, Rjwilmsi, Rlendog, SeanMack, Secret (renamed), Secret Squïrrel, Sexysantagangnamstylewubmaster, Spotty11222, Stho002, T34, Tannin, Tawker, Tekken50, Templatenamespace initialisation script, Tez, The Epopt, The Singing Badger, Theo Pardilla, Timwi, Toytoy, Ucucha, UtherSRG, Varwen, Vidioman, Vrkunkel, WLRoss, Walker000, Wilhelm Klave,Wnissen, WolfmanSF, Zac&eden, 163 anonymous edits

Eocene  Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=606021441  Contributors: 216.192.86.xxx, 37ophiuchi, A. Parrot, AMK152, AManWithNoPlan, Alan Liefting, Altenmann, Anaxial,Andrewjlockley, Ap, Apollonius 1236, Aranae, Arthena, Autodidactyl, Awickert, Axeman89, BD2412, Baldhur, Bejnar, Bender235, Bento00, BlaiseFEgan, Bobrayner, Brothernight, BryanDerksen, Butko, Cadiomals, Calaschysm, Casito, Charles Matthews, Ched, Chermundy, Chris the speller, Civil Engineer III, CommonsDelinker, Conversion script, Crocadog, Css, DanielCD,Dante Alighieri, Davidiad, Deanos, Deflective, Detect, Deville, Djma12, Dlloyd, Don Kenney, Donarreiskoffer, Dysmorodrepanis, Edward, Elisevil, Emperorbma, Eocenecoal, Epolk, Ericamick,ErikHaugen, Erimus, Eu-151, Ewlyahoocom, Explicit, Ezod, Fafnir1, Fama Clamosa, Fanatix, Fang 23, Fedginator, Finbarr Saunders, Fotaun, FunkMonk, GVP Webmaster, Gaius Cornelius,GeoGreg, Geologyguy, Gil Gamesh, Glenn, Gnostic804, Gob Lofa, Gug01, Hut 8.5, I dream of horses, Iblardi, Invertzoo, IronGargoyle, IvanLanin, JD7788, JLaTondre, Jamesinderbyshire,Janet1983, Jdawg123454123, Jerryrd, Jillswin, John Troodon, JohnSka, Jojhutton, Joseph Solis in Australia, Joy, Jsonitsac, Jyril, Karath88, Karshan, Keith Edkins, Kevmin, Kits1952, Korovioff,Kosigrim, Kristaga, Kurykh, Kwamikagami, Kyzul, Leptictidium, Leszek Jańczuk, Livajo, Logan, Mackinaw, Maias, MangoWong, Materialscientist, Mav, Mejor Los Indios, Mhese, Mikenorton,Morbas, Muddybootz, MusikAnimal, Nakon, Nathan Johnson, NatureA16, Necessary Evil, Niceguyedc, Noformation, Noobeditor, NorthernFire, Ojigiri, Orangemarlin, P.Geol, Paul H., Peter M.Brown, Petrb, Phe, Pmokeefe, Pterre, Ran, Reach Out to the Truth, RedWolf, Rene Sylvestersen, Rich Farmbrough, Richard Keatinge, Rob Hooft, Rock4arolla, RockMagnetist, Rudolf Pohl,Rursus, Rwflammang, Ryan Vesey, SeventyThree, Shyangs, Siim, SkyLined, Smack, Smith609, Stealth cat, Stephen MUFC, Storkk, TACO INSURANCE, Thanatos666, Uhai, UtherSRG,Vsmith, Walking.eagle, Wayne Hardman, Wayne Miller, Websterwebfoot, Wenkbrauwalbatros, WereSpielChequers, Wetman, Whoop whoop pull up, William M. Connolley, Wilson44691,WolfmanSF, Wsanders, Xook1kai Choa6aur, Zamphuor, Zootsuits, 177 ,דקי anonymous edits

Mastodon  Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=603653261  Contributors: 80.255, A. di M., A.Ou, Abby, Abyssal, Academic Challenger, Achowat, Adrian J. Hunter, Affenbart,Alansohn, Alecsdaniel, Alison22, Alphathon, Amblypygi, Anaxial, Angr, Anselmocisneros, Apokryltaros, Apostrophe, Aranae, Aremisasling, Arjayay, Ark25, ArthurWeasley, Aschiff, Ashwinr,AstarothCY, Audaciter, Axeman89, Aymankamelwiki, Bacteria, Badagnani, Bamyers99, Battlekow, Bkonrad, Blah yap dribble, Bongwarrior, BookGuru, Bootboy41, Bruce1ee, Bruinfan12,BryanG, Bselig, Bsharitt, Buaidh, BubbinsZass, CWY2190, CambridgeBayWeather, Camyoung54, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Carampaima, Casliber, CharlesC, Chris857, ChrisCork,ChrisGualtieri, Chuckiesdad, Civil Engineer 3, Civitano de la tero, Clconway, Cmdrjameson, Cntras, ColbertCanuck, Colonies Chris, Coredesat, Craig Butz, Cygnis insignis, DBaba, DVdm,DanielBeaver, DanielCD, DanielCristofani, Danny Sprinkle, Dantheman9758, Delpino, Dentren, Derumi, Dia^, Dinoguy2, Dirkbb, Discospinster, DocWatson42, Doctorkismet, Doswald99,Download, DoxTxob, Dragon Helm, Dthomsen8, Dyolf, Earthlyreason, Einbierbitte, Ekm02001, Elliskev, Epolk, Eras-mus, Eric TF Bat, ErikHaugen, Erimus, Esperant, Eugene-elgato, Evmore,Fama Clamosa, First Light, FisherQueen, Florentino floro, Fonzy, Fornost, Francisco Valverde, Frietjes, FunkMonk, GCarty, Gabriel Kielland, Gaterion, Gene Nygaard, Gibby78, Goustien,Gruzd, Gtstricky, Haab2178, HaeB, Hai ren, Hairy Dude, Hajenso, Haroldbethwelsh, Hephaestos, Heron, Hetar, Hibernian, Hmains, HornColumbia, Hunnjazal, Husond, Hydrargyrum, I dream ofhorses, IRP, J. Spencer, J.delanoy, J.reed, Jack Greenmaven, Jandebreet, Jaranda, Jjtimbrell, JoanneB, John, Josh Grosse, Jrockley, Jstuby, Jtierney89, K123456, KathrynLybarger, Kbh3rd, Kbir1,Keith Edkins, Kendall-K1, Kevmin, Kgrad, Killiondude, Kjoonlee, Komowkwa, Kurtle, LOL, Leftwing Pinko, Leonard G., Leperflesh, Leptictidium, LilHelpa, Linkzach, Liné1, LnkZ10,LoneWolf1992, MONGO, Mandarax, Mangwanani, Manjiki, Marius, Mark Arsten, MarkBuckles, Materialscientist, Mctoomer, Mdnavman, Mgiganteus1, Mialcxe3, Mike.BRZ, Minasbeede,Mira Gambolputty, Monado, Muriel Gottrop, NIN1337, NPrice, Natalie Erin, Natashavcxz, NatureA16, NawlinWiki, Neofelis Nebulosa, Neutrality, NewEnglandYankee, Nihiltres,Noadminsallowed, Noles1984, Nurg, Oldcrookedjaw, Oleg Alexandrov, Omicronpersei8, Omnipaedista, OwenX, Panyé El Skat-e-board-ér, Papyrus-winged ninja Akil, Pentrant, Peter G Werner,Philipandrew, Pinethicket, Pinkypedia, Plasticup, Pmaas, Pol098, Portillo, Postdlf, ProfJayJay, Pyrrhon8, RAMRODTHEDESTROYER, Reid,iain james, Reliableforever,RenamedUser01302013, Res2216firestar, Rextron, Rich Farmbrough, Rjd0060, Rjwilmsi, Rob.bastholm, Robert K S, Robwingfield, RockMagnetist, Ronhjones, Rotational, SJP, SLATE,Saforrest, Sdornan, Shadowjams, Shanes, Sharan tagore, Shatterzer0, Shinerunner, Shore3, Shredosaurus, Sirex98, Skinnymarys2, Smith609, Smohammed2, Snow Blizzard, Soaringbear,Soczyczi, Sophus Bie, Stho002, Stylteralmaldo, Syp, TGC55, Termininja, The High Fin Sperm Whale, The Singing Badger, The Thing That Should Not Be, Theinfamousfinatic, Tide rolls,TidusBlade, Tiggerjay, Tim Ross, Timc, Titanbanger, Tognopop, Tom12384, Tombomp, Toothsom, Trinite, TrippingTroubadour, Trlovejoy, Túrelio, Ucucha, UnicornTapestry, UtherSRG,Vanished user 9i39j3, Vector Potential, Vick411, Vicki Rosenzweig, WaldoJ, Wallace63, Wavelength, Werdan7, Wiki alf, WikiLaurent, WikiSeamus, WikipedianMarlith, Williamb,Wilson44691, WolfmanSF, Wordbuilder, Wtfisthat, Wüstenfuchs, Xaje, Xyzzyplugh, Yamla, Yeolwhitepanther, Ykvach, ZackaryWIKI, Ziusudra, Zondor, 2009 عبقري, 反 殷 芳, 姫 宮 玲 子,458 anonymous edits

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 69

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributorsfile:Castorocauda BW.jpg  Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Castorocauda_BW.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0  Contributors: Nobu Tamura(http://spinops.blogspot.com)File:Red Pencil Icon.png  Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Red_Pencil_Icon.png  License: Creative Commons Zero  Contributors: User:Peter coxheadfile:Chapalmalania.jpg  Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Chapalmalania.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: User:MonkeysdrawerImage:Adelobasileus BW.jpg  Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Adelobasileus_BW.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0  Contributors: Nobu Tamura(http://spinops.blogspot.com)Image:Megazostrodon.jpg  Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Megazostrodon.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0  Contributors: NordelchImage:Steropodon BW.jpg  Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Steropodon_BW.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0  Contributors: Nobu TamuraImage:Jeholodens BW.jpg  Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Jeholodens_BW.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0  Contributors: Nobu Tamura(http://spinops.blogspot.com)]Image:Gobiconodon.jpg  Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Gobiconodon.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Pavel Riha = user Pavel.Riha.CB( e-mail)Image:Diprotodon.jpg  Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Diprotodon.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Bukk, FunkMonk, G.dallorto, Haplochromis, KerstiNebelsiek, Zscout370Image:Ekaltadeta BW.jpg  Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ekaltadeta_BW.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0  Contributors: Nobu Tamura(http://spinops.blogspot.com)Image:Necrolestes patagonensis.jpg  Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Necrolestes_patagonensis.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors:User:ApokryltarosImage:Palorchestes BW.jpg  Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Palorchestes_BW.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0  Contributors: Nobu TamuraImage:Leptictidium auderiense skeleton.JPG  Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Leptictidium_auderiense_skeleton.JPG  License: Public Domain  Contributors:LadyofHatsImage:Giant-beaver-fieldmuseum.jpg  Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Giant-beaver-fieldmuseum.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors:User:Southpaw, User:StevenjImage:Arctocyon DB.jpg  Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Arctocyon_DB.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0  Contributors: Conty,DiBgd, Haplochromis, Kevmin, Nicolás10, Putnik, 1 anonymous editsImage:Toxodon skeleton in BA.JPG  Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Toxodon_skeleton_in_BA.JPG  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: WereSpielChequersFile:Hyaenodon Heinrich Harder.jpeg  Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hyaenodon_Heinrich_Harder.jpeg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Heinrich HarderImage:Ekorus viverra.JPG  Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ekorus_viverra.JPG  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.5  Contributors: Original uploader wasApokryltaros at en.wikipediaImage:Acrophoca BW.jpg  Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Acrophoca_BW.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0  Contributors: Nobu Tamura(http://spinops.blogspot.com)Image:Canis dirus.jpg  Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Canis_dirus.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Charles R. KnightImage:Amphicyon ingens.JPG  Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Amphicyon_ingens.JPG  License: Public Domain  Contributors: GhedoghedoImage:Smilodon populator rec.jpg  Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Smilodon_populator_rec.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported Contributors: Rom-dizImage:PantheraLeoAtrox1.jpg  Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:PantheraLeoAtrox1.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Original uploaderwas Dantheman9758 at en.wikipediaImage:Ictitherium viverrinum.JPG  Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ictitherium_viverrinum.JPG  License: Public Domain  Contributors: GhedoghedoFile:Eremotherium.jpg  Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Eremotherium.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: PostdlfImage:Glyptodon-1.jpg  Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Glyptodon-1.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Albasmalko, DaB., Haplochromis,Hunadam, Jdsteakley, Kevmin, Kilom691, LadyofHats, Nah90, TolanorImage:Mammoth mg 2791.jpg  Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Mammoth_mg_2791.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0  Contributors:User:RamaImage:ColumbianMammoth CollegeOfEasternUtah.jpg  Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:ColumbianMammoth_CollegeOfEasternUtah.jpg  License: Public Domain Contributors: Photo copyright and credit: 2001 S.W. Clyde.File:Desmostylus2DB.jpg  Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Desmostylus2DB.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0  Contributors: DiBgd, Haplochromis,Kevmin, Putnik, 1 anonymous editsImage:Large scott oxydactylus.jpg  Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Large_scott_oxydactylus.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Peterson.file:Brontotherium.jpg  Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Brontotherium.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Osborn.File:Megacerops 10.jpg  Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Megacerops_10.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0  Contributors: Creator:Dmitry BogdanovFile:Titanotherium.jpg  Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Titanotherium.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Robert Bruce HorsfallFile:Brontotherium hatcheri.jpg  Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Brontotherium_hatcheri.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: PostdlfFile:Menodus sp.jpg  Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Menodus_sp.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: SmokeybjbFile:Brontotherium skull IMG 4441.jpg  Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Brontotherium_skull_IMG_4441.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0 Contributors: RamaFile:Cenozoic cosmo 1894 beard 1913.gif  Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Cenozoic_cosmo_1894_beard_1913.gif  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Esv,TomCatX, 1 anonymous editsFile:Pliocene sst anomaly.png  Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Pliocene_sst_anomaly.png  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors:Giorgiogp2Image:Great American Biotic Interchange examples.svg  Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Great_American_Biotic_Interchange_examples.svg  License: CreativeCommons Attribution-ShareAlike 1.0 Generic  Contributors: WoudloperImage:Oliva sayana.jpg  Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Oliva_sayana.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported  Contributors: AlbertoSalguero, Liné1, 1 anonymous editsImage:Cladocora.jpg  Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Cladocora.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Original uploader was Wilson44691 at en.wikipediaImage:CyprusPlioceneGastropod.JPG  Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:CyprusPlioceneGastropod.JPG  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Original uploader wasWilson44691 at en.wikipediaImage:Turritellatricarinata.jpg  Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Turritellatricarinata.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Wilson44691Image:SpondylusPliocene.jpg  Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:SpondylusPliocene.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Wilson44691Image:SpondylusArticulated.jpg  Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:SpondylusArticulated.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Wilson44691Image:Diodoraitalica.jpg  Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Diodoraitalica.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Wilson44691Image:DentaliumPliocene.jpg  Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:DentaliumPliocene.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Wilson44691File:Aporrhais from Pliocene.jpg  Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Aporrhais_from_Pliocene.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Wilson44691

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 70

Image:AnadaraPliocene.jpg  Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:AnadaraPliocene.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Wilson44691Image:Ammusiumcristatum.jpg  Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ammusiumcristatum.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: -Image:SerpulidCyprusPliocene01.jpg  Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:SerpulidCyprusPliocene01.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Wilson44691File:Pliocene .jpg  Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Pliocene_.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Jay MatternesImage:Titanis07DB.jpg  Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Titanis07DB.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0  Contributors:Amphicoelias, DiBgd, FunkMonk, Haplochromis, Kevmin, Nicolás10, Putnikfile:Diprotodon australis skeleton 1.JPG  Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Diprotodon_australis_skeleton_1.JPG  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: User:GhedoghedoImage:Diprotodon-Human Size comparison.svg  Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Diprotodon-Human_Size_comparison.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors:User.File:Diprotodon11122.jpg  Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Diprotodon11122.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0  Contributors: Creator:Dmitry BogdanovFile:Diprotodon skull, jjron, 29.11.2010.jpg  Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Diprotodon_skull,_jjron,_29.11.2010.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: jjronFile:Diprotodon BW2.jpg  Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Diprotodon_BW2.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0  Contributors: Nobu Tamura(http://spinops.blogspot.com)Image:Eocene.jpg  Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Eocene.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Jay MatternesImage:Crassostrea gigantissima (Finch, 1824).JPG  Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Crassostrea_gigantissima_(Finch,_1824).JPG  License: Creative CommonsAttribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: User:Wilson44691Image:Nummulitids.jpg  Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Nummulitids.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Wilson44691Image:Basilosaurus BW.jpg  Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Basilosaurus_BW.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0  Contributors: Nobu TamuraImage:Prorastomus BW.jpg  Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Prorastomus_BW.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0  Contributors: Nobu Tamurafile:Mammut americanum.jpg  Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Mammut_americanum.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0  Contributors: RyanSommaFile:Mastodon teeth.jpg  Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Mastodon_teeth.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Original uploader was Jstuby at en.wikipediaFile:MammothVsMastodon.jpg  Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:MammothVsMastodon.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Originaluploader was Dantheman9758 at en.wikipedia. "I created this image myself with Adobe Photoshop. I simply ask that you do not drastically alter this image. There are no other available links tothis image."File:La Brea Mastodons.jpg  Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:La_Brea_Mastodons.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0  Contributors:daryl_mitchell from Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, CanadaFile:Knight Mastodon.jpg  Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Knight_Mastodon.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Charles R. Knight

License 71

LicenseCreative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0//creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/