PRE COLONIAL ARCHITECTURE OF SRI LANKA Professor Dilanthi Amaratunga

August 2010

FROM TAMRAPARNI TO TAPROBANE AND FROM CEYLON TO SRI LANKA…..

DISCLAIMER… I’ve a very strong conviction that it is impossible to

explain architecture in words… I have always enjoyed seeing buildings and reading explanations

about them… architecture cannot be totally explained but must be experienced…!

“This presentation does not pretend to go beyond the historical framework of Sri Lankan historical

studies in general: rather it is an attempt to compensate for the bias towards textual and

linguistic martial by an archaeological approach to the architectural remains of the early periods, i.e.

by providing a critical and interpretative analysis of the surviving monuments….”

“Nor this is a comprehensive survey of early Sri Lankan architecture…!

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PHASES….

Anuradhapura Sigiriya Polonnaruwa Other short lived kingdoms Decline and dispersal The Arabs and the Chinese The Portuguese The Dutch The British Post independence

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OUTLINE

Sri Lanka – an island of architecture Early settlements Phases of pre colonial architecture Anuradhapura Sigiriya Polonnaruwa Reflection

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“The Temples of their Gods are so many that I cannot number them. many of them are of rare

and Exquisite work, built of Hewn Stone, engraven with Images and Figures…”

Robert Knox (1681). A Historical Relation of Robert Knox (1681). A Historical Relation of CeylonCeylon

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Centre for Disaster Resilience

Professor Dilanthi Amaratunga

Dr Richard Haigh

Chamber of Construction

Dakshitha Thalgodapitiya

Sri Lanka – an extraordinary sense of history

• Assorted of names which reflect the complexities of its history and the diversity of its contacts with the rest of the world

• Throughout the history, it has been influenced by its proximity to India and its position between Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal

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Centre for Disaster Resilience

Professor Dilanthi Amaratunga

Dr Richard Haigh

Chamber of Construction

Dakshitha Thalgodapitiya

LANDMARKS IN HISTORY Tradition places the arrival of the Aryans

under Vijaya in the same year as the death of the Buddha, but scholars wish to keep an open mind with regard to the exact date

The island had been the meeting ground for several religious beliefs which developed in the Indo-Gangetic basins of North India

Yet, Buddhism right from its advent, became the dominant religion

Buddhism gave Sri Lankans a serene philosophy of life which served as an ensuring source of inspiration for their creativity in art, architecture and literature.

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THE FIRST SETTLEMENTS

The early settlers lived in a loose network of separate clans

Extant evidence of their engineering skill and architectural achievements of the Sinhalese includes remains of vast irrigation projects, many ruined cities, notably the ancient capital Anuradhapura, and numerous ruined shrines including dagobas.

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ANURADHAPURA - THE CONCEPT OF SINHALESE TRADITION

Anuradhapura is closely associated with a golden period of Sri Lankan history from 3rd Century BC to the 10th century AD.

Being the main centre of Sri Lanka’s culture and civilisation throughout the first 1300 years of the country’s history, we can assert with confidence that the successive development of Sri Lankan monastic architecture are to be found here

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ANURADHAPURA - THE CONCEPT OF SINHALESE TRADITION

The whole site is studded with vast expanses of monastic sites. The tallest brick built sputas and several monasteries including the stone Buddha images

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BASIC PRINCIPLES OF EARLY ARCHITECTURE The architects of the classical period based their designs

on systems of mathematics and proportion developed from ideas about the cosmos.

Their larger public buildings and layouts for towns were based on rectangular grids, usually aligned to the points of the compass.

More complex buildings were often axial in plan and incorporated subtle of hierarchies of main and subsidiary axes . While such compositions often proceeded from a symmetrical parti, deliberate asymmetries were introduced to add surprise and interest.

They also demonstrated a unique approach towards topology and water and developed a geomorphic approach that celebrated naturalistic composition of buildings, winding staircases caves and narrow passageways.

In the same way, they sought to incorporate water both in naturally occurring pools and streams as formally planned ponds and channels.

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THUPARAMA – THE FIRST STUPA OF SRI LANKA At the request of Mahinda thero, King

Devanampiyatissa built Thuparamaya

It is considered to be the first dagoba built in Sri Lanka following the introduction of Buddhism. The name Thuparamaya comes from "stupa" and "aramaya" which is a residential complex for monks.

This chetiya was built in the shape of a heap of paddy.

This dagoba was destroyed from time to time. During the reign of King Agbo II it was completely destroyed and the King restored it. What we have today is the construction of the dagoba, done in 1862 AD.

As it is today, after several renovations, in the course of the centuries, the monument has a diameter of 59 ft, at the base. The compound is paved with granite and there are 2 rows of stone pillars round the dagoba. During the early period vatadage was built round the dagoba.

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ABHAYAGIRI MONASTERY – AN EXEMPLARY FOUNDATION

Abhayagiri monastery founded during the 1st century BC by King Valagamba, covered at its peak an area of 200 hectares and housed up to 5000 monks

The main dagoba was built in the 2nd century AD, rose to a 110 m

Its influence can be traced to other parts of the world as Abhayagiri developed as a great institution in the ancient Sri Lankan capital 13

ABHAYAGIRI MONASTERY Abhayagiri had all the components required by doctrines of a Buddhist temple: the image house, stupa, Bo tree . Recent archaeological excavations have also revealed other features such as roadways, assembly halls and temple buildings

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ABHARAGIRI STUPA

This is the second tallest brick edifice of the ancient world

A road access system anticipating modern concepts of town planning has also been uncovered with a highway from the city to the running through the monastery 15

JETHAVANA – THE TALLEST STUPA IN THE WORLD

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Jethavana was built by King Mahasena (276-303). It is believed that this monument was built upon the enclosure where Mahinda Thero was cremated

Jethavana Stupa is the largest stupa in Sri Lanka. It was originally 400 feet in height . At the time of the collapse of the Roman empire in the 4th century AD., this was the third tallest monument in the world. Even today as a brick monument, Jethavana remains the tallest of its kind ever completed in the world.

It contains 93,300,000 baked bricks! It has withstood the ravages of time and the elements

for 1600 years , as a great witness to the engineering and architectural expertise and the sound knowledge of geometry and physics of our ancient inhabitants.

Technical and architectural achievements of this extraordinary masterpiece are of international appeal and a study fascinating to man.

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PLAN – JETHAVANA STUPA

1 – entrance 2 – outer sand court 3 – stone terrace 4 – flower alters 5 – stupa

The stupa is 100% accurately set out on a north-south, east-west axis, has an outer retaining wall and four gateways.

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Excavation to the north, south and east of the base of the Jetavana stupa firmly establish the fact that the 6 m deep foundation stands on bed rock.

The dome is indeed a very special design. Its shape has evolved to a perfect mathematical equation.

The strong concrete plaster of the surface f the dome protected the mass of bricks from direct erosion of the outside by the water run off.

JETHAVANA STUPA

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ARCHITECTURAL DECORATION Architectural elements of the

buildings excavated at Abhayagiri Vihara clearly reflect the social beliefs and religious practices prevalent at the time

Although Buddhism was the main religion followed by majority of population, influence of other local beliefs such as Hinduism was considerable and is expressed in the architecture of the period.

Most common is the Nagraja as part of a guard stone and illustrates the degree of perfection.

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Sandakada pahana (moonstone)

The first sandakada pahanas were created during the latter stage of the ancient Anuradhapura Kingdom.

They were only placed at entrances to Buddhist temples during this period

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SANDAKADA PAHANA

The elaborate mooonstone is in itself a distinctive element of ancient sculpture in the island. These semi-circular slabs of granite acquired increasingly complex bands of decorations over the years.

The carvings of the semi circular stone slab were the same in every sandakada pahana. A half lotus was carved in the centre, which was enclosed by several concentric bands.

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SANDAKADA PAHANA According to historians, the sandakada pahana

symbolises the cycle of Saṃsāra in Buddhism. To some, the moon-stone is symbolic of

transcending worldly temptations and achieving nibbane.

At the heart of many moonstones is a lotus petal. Buddhists regard the lotus as a sacred flower, a symbol of the male and female creative forces that prevails throughout Sri Lankan art, architecture, sculpture and literature.

It figures in the legend attached to the birth of the Buddha, when seven lotuses sprang into bloom at his feet as he took the first seven steps of his life. The lotus bloomed again in profusion at the moment he reached the state of Enlightenment.

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The first band from the half lotus is decorated with a procession of swans (symbolising the distinction between good and bad)

Followed by a band with an intricate foliage design known as liyavel. The liyavel (foliage design) symbolise worldly desires (Taṇhā)

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The third band has carvings of the elephant, a symbol of birth, the bull indicative of decay ; the lion, resent in disease. and the geese, a symbol of death.

The fourth and outermost band contains a carving of flames.

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THE SMADHI BUDDHA

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THE SAMADHI BUDDHA The Samadhi Buddha

Statue, which probably dates from the 4th century AD, is a magnificent image of the Buddha in Samadhi, a Buddhist term for deep meditation, or more literally, concentration.

It is said that this is one of the best pieces of sculpture in the world.

This remarkable image has an expression depicting ‘extinction of feeling and compassion, 27

THE SAMADHI BUDDHA Crafted from limestone, it

was originally one of four seated at the cardinal points around a long-deceased bo-tree.

Probably the eyes were originally studded with gems, and a path of paint found under the right shoulder is evidence that the entire figure may have bee painted

Javaharlal Nehru wrote that he found solace during his imprisonment by the British by looking at a photograph of this statue

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THE LOVERS 6th Century Gupta style carving.

The woman, seated on the man's lap, lifts a warning finger, probably as a manifestation of her coyness; but the man carries on regardless. The carving itself, popularly known as "the Lovers" dates back to the 6th century, and the style is of Indian origin

The figures may represent Dutugemunu's son Saliya and the law caste (Sadol Kula) maiden Asokamala whom he loved. It's known that he gave up the throne for her.

Many poets and song writers have taken inspiration from this carving to write their masterpieces

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ANCIENT WATER MANAGEMENT

Among the most significant artistic achievements in the field of hydraulic engineering and architecture are the Twin Ponds or “Kuttam Pokuna”

These are considered one of the outstanding architectural and artistic creations of the ancient Sinhalese.

The embankments were perhaps made to enable the monks to bathe using pots of other utensils

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"KUTTAM POKUNA" (TWIN PONDS/POOLS).

Water to the pools were transferred through underground ducts and filtered before flowing to the pool and in a similar fashion the water was emptied.

An opening for an outlet allowing water to be drained away has been discovered at the bottom of each pond, during recent excavations

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NAGA SYMBOL

This symbol is generally associated with water and is often found at water inlets or outlets.

This present example is from Anuradhapura Twin pond complex

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RAN MASU UYANA - ANCIENT ROYAL PLEASURE GARDEN

Before Buddhism was introduced to Sri Lanka in the mid 3rd century BC, parks were a definite feature of city planning.

But with the arrival of Mahinda Thero in 250 BC, all these parks were donated to Sanga Community by King Devanam Piyathissa (250-210 BC).

The originator of this garden is lost in the history but “Ranmasu Uyana” was probably established as a alternate to all the parks donated to the maha sanga.

This park covers an are of approx. 40 acres and is a fine example of Sri Lankan garden architecture. The water to the park was supplied by Tissa wawa and then released to rice fields around Isurumuni Vihara.

There was even a changing chamber for the royal family.

The ponds within the park are designed with precision irrigation techniques so that the water form Tissa wewa passed through all the ponds and tanks in the garden before releasing them for irrigation work.33

TANKS Basawakkulma tank

Tissa wewa

Tissa wewa

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KALA WEWA

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CONSTRUCTION METHODS – THE UNDERLYING UNITY OF ANURADHAPURA ARCHITECTURE

The prominent and dominant form of the superstructure are only lasting and historically meaningful as long as they retain their connection with the organic “base”

Nothing makes it more clearer than the construction methods employed during Anuradhapura period.

A careful analysis of the structural methods employed in the monastic architecture reveals that they are, in essence, only a development of the basic principles of rural buildings. 36

CONSTRUCTION METHODS – THE UNDERLYING UNITY OF ANURADHAPURA ARCHITECTURE

Classic Sinhalese architecture is essentially a mixed brick and timber tradition

The lost superstructures of Anuradhapura monuments, including the roof and the upper walls were almost certainly of timber.

The sub structure consisted of a basic platform of compressed earth with brick and masonry

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SIRIGIYA – CITY, PALACE AND ROYAL GARDENS Sigiriya represents a unique

concentration of 5th century urban planning, architecture, gardening, engineering, hydraulic technology and art.

Sigiriya comes dramatically, if tragically, into the political history of Sri Lanka during the end of 5th Century during King Datusena 1, who ruled from Anuradhapura

After killing Datunsena, his sun Kasyapa established a new capital in Sigiriya

The great tapestry of paintings at Sigiriya, the palace on the summit and the lion staircase are all part of a complex “sign-language” expressing royal power and ritual status. 38

A grand view of the Sigiriya rock, which was transformed into a magnificent palace by Kind

Kasyapa of the 5th century AC

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URBAN FORM One of the most important

aspects of Sigiriya is that it is one of the best preserved and most elaborate surviving urban sites in the world from the first millennium AD.

The palace stands about 360 m above sea level, and among the most remarkable aspects of the urban form at Sigiriya are its planning mathematics and total design concept.

In its total conception, Sigiriya represents a brilliant combination of concepts of symmetry and asymmetry in a deliberate interlocking of geometrical plan and natural form

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THE APSARA PAINTINGS

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This is one of the the most famous features of Sigiriya

They are fragmentary survivals of an immense backdrop of paintings that once extended in a wide bank across the western face of the rock

It coveted an area nearly 140 m long, and at its widest, about 40 m high. The whole face of the hill appears to have been a gigantic picture gallery, the longest rock painting in the world

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MEANING AND STYLE

An important and largely unanswerable question is how the present figures related to the entire composition of the painted band extended across the rock face.

Their fragmentary nature and unusual location have led to painting being interpreted in a number of ways: They portray the ladies of Kasyapa’s court in a devotional

procession to a shrine in a purely imaginative reconstruction and hence has no precedent in the artistic and social traditions of the region or the period (Bell)

They represent lightening Princesses which is an interpretation at once more literacy and sociological (Paranavithan)

Sigiriya women are “apsaras” in keeping with well established South Asian traditions and is not only the simplest but almost logical and acceptable interpretation (Coomaraswamy)

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STYLE AND AUTHORSHIP OF PAINTINGS

This has been as controversial a question as that of their identity

Bell and Coomaraswamy saw them as extensions of the Central Indian School of Ajantha

Some argue this classification – and say Sigiriya paintings represent the earliest surviving examples of a Sri Lankan school of classical realism, already fully evolved when we first encounter them in the 5th century.

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MIRROR WALL The mirror wall dates from the

5th century and has been substantially preserved in its original form

Built up from the base of the rock itself with brick masonry, the wall has a highly polished plaster name hence it gets its name

Greatly inspired by the paintings, visitors might have composed poems addressed mostly to the ladies

The poems which express the thoughts and emotions of ancient visitors to Sigiriya, provide not only revealing comments on the paintings themselves but also an insight into the cultivated sensibilities of the time and its appreciation of art and beauty

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MIRROR WALL 47

THE LION STAIRCASE

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THE LION STAIRCASE One of Sigiriya’s most

dramatic features is its great Lion staircase, now preserved only in two colossal paws

The surviving masses of brick masonry and the original limestone risers give us a clear idea of the form, scale and materials used in the construction of thyme lion

The lion staircase house has stood to a height of 14 m

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The palace was the centre of the royal city.

The earliest surviving palace in Sri Lanka, with its layout and basic ground plan still clearly visible, it provides important comparative data for the study of Asian palace forms THE PALACE 50

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WATER GARDENS

The water gardens of sigiriya facing west display the great skills of the landscape architects of classical times. The area was replete with four symmetrically constructed ponds decked with natural water fountains 52

WATER GARDENS

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POLONNARUWA Polonnaruva succeeded Anuradhapura as capital at the end of the

10th century The Indian Chola Dynasty ruled the island at that moment, but they

were driven out and Polonnaruva remained the capital. The city had its cultural heyday under the leadership of King Parakramabahu I in the 12th century: the buildings, parks and the large tank date from this period

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ANURADHAPURA VS POLONNARUWA

Anuradhapura the central repository of the Sinhalese tradition in a geo-political sense, but it is also a focal point in historical and evolutionary terms.

Polonnaruwa was more lavish and better preserved but very much a continuation of the Anuradhapura tradition

Comparing both cities, Polonnaruwa had more external influences towards its architectural thinking

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ANURADHAPURA VS POLONNARUWA

Through its relatively short lived brilliance, Polonnaruwa doesn’t provide us with a distinctive and definitive picture of the essential character and development of Sinhalese monastic architecture.

Polonnaruwa doesn’t have several layers of construction activity over many centuries which have had the effect in Anuradhapura

Thus the character of Anuradhapura architecture is determined by a historical continuity which preserve a certain purity of the tradition 58

ANURADHAPURA VS POLONNARUWA The index to the greater

freedom at Polonnaruwa is that its architecture reflects a curious mixture of continuity and innovation.

While Polonnaruwa has retained its royal and secular buildings as well as a number of magnificent monastic remains in a far better state of preservation than those at Anuradhapura, this very advantage has resulted in archaeologists directing their efforts at more prominent monuments to the neglect of more modest structures. 59

SANDAKADA PAHANA – (POLONNARUWA VATADAGE)

In moonstones, ancient sculptures appear to have displayed their skills to transform this simple stone to

convey a Buddhist philosophical meaning concerned with the transmigration of the human beings.

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The design of the sandakada pahana of the Polonnaruwa period differs largely from that of the Anuradhapura period.

An invasion by Rajendra I in 1017 AD brought a large part of the country under the control of the Chola empire. The country was under Chola rule until 1055 AD and the Sri Lankan culture was heavily influenced by South Indian customs and traditions, including the Hindu religion.

The single band that was used to depict the four animals was removed, and processions of the elephant, lion and horse were depicted in separate bands. The most significant change is the removal of the bull from the sandakada pahana.

Historians believe that the reason for the removal of the bull from the sandakada pahana was because of its connection with Hinduism.

The Anuradhapura tradition of placing sandakada pahanas only at entrances to Buddhist temples also changed, and they are found at the entrances of other buildings belonging to the Polonnaruwa period as well.

The lion has also been omitted from some sandakada pahanas

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KING OR SAGE? The 11 feet 2 inches high statue

near the Potgul Vehera in Polonnaruwa is a stone sculpture. The statue was built presumably in the 12th century, during the reign of Parakramabahu I.

Its identity is uncertain, although the widely accepted theory is that it is a statue of Parakramabahu I. However, it has also been suggested as the statue of a sage.

Carved on a large rock, the statue depicts a majestic figure with a grave expression, holding a book or yoke in his hands.

This is one of the best stone sculptures belonging to the Polonnaruwa period.

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The statue's face carries a grave expression, with half-closed eyes, a high forehead, a long beard and a moustache. According to archaeologist Senarath Paranavitana, this statue is "the very embodiment of strength, majesty and dignity".

Historian Mendis Rohanadeera has suggested that the statue shows a man belonging to the Lambakanna clan, due to the fact that a hare—a symbol of this clan—is depicted above the left shoulder of the statue. This supports the theory that it is a statue of Parakramabahu I, who was of the Lambakanna clan.

However, another theory is that it is the statue of a sage. The object held in the hands of the statue may be an ola (cured palm leaves) book. This, and the fact that it is located close to the Potgul Vehera, which was a library in ancient times, supports this theory.

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THE PALACE OF KING PARAKRAMABAHU 1

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The palace of King Parakramabahu 1 provides an insight into the royal palace architecture of ancient Sri Lanka

The palace is said to have 7 stories, 1000 rooms, with hundreds of pillars of varying shapes, a dancing hall and banqueting hall

The brick masonry extended to the third floor. The wooden superstructure of upper floors has disappeared long ago, but fragments of a stone staircase can still be seen to the south. 65

VATADAGE

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VATADAGE

Theories vary among archaeologists and historians regarding who built the Polonnaruwa Vatadage, and when. One such theory suggests that it was built by Parakramabahu I during his reign in the 12th century.

A unique feature of ancient Buddhist architecture, vatadages were built for the protection of small stupas that had an important relic enshrined in them or were built on hallowed ground.

It is said that he built a circular stone shrine to hold the tooth relic of the Buddha.

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If the Polonnaruwa Vatadage is the shrine built by Parakramabahu I, the tooth relic of the Buddha would have been enshrined within it.Another possibility is that the alms bowl used by the Buddha may have been enshrined here.Both these relics were important objects in ancient Sri Lankan culture, and would have made the Polonnaruwa Vatadage one of the most significant and venerated buildings in the country.

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Several ancient sources contradict the idea that King Parakaramabahu 1 built this which mention that it was built by Nissanka Malla.

A nearby stone inscription set by Nissanka Malla lists the Vatadage among his constructions. In this, he claims that it was built by one of his generals under his own direction

However, according to some other studies, Nissanka Malla only renovated an already existing building and made some additions such as the entrance and outer porch.

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VATADAGE ARCHITECTURE AND CONSTRUCTION Employing citizens in construction and repairing

works was done in ancient Sri Lanka as a form of tax payment. Such labour may also have been used in the construction of the Polonnaruwa Vatadage. However, the quality of the works indicate that most of the task may have been carried out by skilled craftsmen.

Some of the most striking features of the structure are its elaborate stone carvings. The sandakada pahana (moonstone) at the northern entrance and the two muragalas (guard stone) at the eastern entrance are considered to be the best examples of such architectural features belonging to the Polonnaruwa period 70

Flights of steps, preceded by moonstones of exceptional beauty

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ARCHITECTURE AND STONEMASONRY

The straight, symmetrical stone columns found in the Polonnaruwa Vatadage are quite similar to those seen in buildings of the Anuradhapura period. The foot of each column is carved in the shape of a lotus flower.

Archaeologist Senarath Paranavithana has suggested that these stone columns had supported a wooden roof. This is widely accepted, and nails and roof tiles found in excavations seem to support this.

However, another theory is that the Vatadage did not have a roof, and the stone columns were used to hang lamps, curtains or Buddhist symbols.

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The four Buddha statues, which depict the Dhyana mudra, are also carved from solid rock. Two of them are intact today, while only parts of the other two remain.

The stupa in the middle appears to have been of the Bubbulakara (bubble shaped) design commonly seen in Sri Lanka.

The upper part has been destroyed, and only the dome shaped lower part now remains.

However, it has only two Pesavas (the rings found at the base of stupas) rather than the traditional three.

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VATADAGE The brick wall around

the platform is in a considerably preserved state as well, although parts of it have broken off. It is thick—2 feet 6 inches and was presumably constructed to protect the stupa from the sides.

There is evidence that inner surface of the wall had been decorated with paintings. Its lower portion is covered by stone panels with carvings of a flower design

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VATADAGE

The Kingdom of Polonnaruwa ended in 1215 with an invasion from South India.

The Polonnaruwa Vatadage appears to have been abandoned with the fall of the kingdom, and there is no mention of it in the chronicles in later periods.

It was not until 1903 that the Department of Archaeology began excavation work and it was noted at the time that it was "only a mound of earth" at the time. 76

GAL VIHARA

GAL VIHARA

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IMAGES The rock has been cut almost 15 feet deep

to create a rock face to accommodate the statues and is the only example in the country where a natural rock has been excavated to this extent for such a purpose.

Three of the images are quite large; the smallest of them is more than 15 feet tall, and the largest is more than 46 feet long. However, the fourth image is just over 4 feet and located inside an artificial cavern carved into the rock.

Unlike other statues of the same period, they are all well preserved, and therefore provide a good indication about less well-preserved examples.[

According to the archaeologist Senarath Paranavithana, the images were evidently coated in gold in their early years.

The style of the images differs somewhat from that of statues from the earlier Anuradhapura period. The most notable changes are the broader forehead in the Gal Vihara images. The robe is carved with two parallel lines, rather than the single line seen in the Anuradhapura period, influenced by the Amaravati school of art

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SEATED IMAGE

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STANDING IMAGE

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STANDING IMAGE

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RECLINING IMAGE

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RECLINING IMAGE At 46 feet 4 inches in length, the reclining image is the

largest statue in Gal Vihara and also one of the largest sculptures in Southeast Asia

It depicts the parinirvana of the Buddha, who is lying on his right side with the right arm supporting the head, while the left arm lies along the body and thigh.

The palm of the right hand and the soles of the feet have a single lotus flower carved on them.

The bolster upon which the Buddha rests his head has been so well carved that it looks like a cotton stuffed pillow rather than one carved from rock.

The upper foot—the left foot of the image—is slightly withdrawn to indicate that the image depicts that the Buddha has attained parinirvana, and is not merely lying down.

Unlike the other images, the reclining image does not have a decorated pedestal, and lies on levelled bare rock. On the wall behind the image, several sockets have been carved into the rock, as well as the remains of two stone columns, suggesting that its now missing image house had a wooden roof.

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SMALLER SEATED FIGURE INSIDE AN ARTIFICIAL CAVERN

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NISSANKA LATHA MANDAPA This is a unique structure,

having an unusual pillar type simulating a lotus stalk with the flower as the capital.

An inscription attributed this charming edifice to King Nissankamalla and related how the king used to listen to recitals of the Buddhist scriptures there

The columns which supported a timber roof to house a small stupa, are stylised representations of the lotus stems with the flower at the capital. Lata mandapa represents period Sinhalese art in which austere style yields to heavy ornamentation

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TOOTH RELIC SHRINE OF NISSANKAMALLA

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PARAKRAMA SAMUDRAYA

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CHARACTERISTICS OF SINHALESE CLASSICAL ARCHITECTURE While many features of Sinhalese architecture can be

viewed as having being developed based on Indian influence, the extent of Indian influence should not be overstated

Sri Lankan artists and craftsmen responding to their particular set of circumstances developed unique deigns that were wholly Sri Lankan in spirit. This ability to absorb and transform external influences became an enduring characteristic of Sinhalese architecture

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DECLINE AND DISPERSAL

Early part of 13th century, Polonnaruwa, the dry zone was abandoned moved on to the central highlands western coastal planes of the wet zone.

That are the reasons for this sudden retreat from their homeland for nearly 2000 years - Debilitating effects of successive invasions from

Southern India Internal political instability The growing power of the Tamil Kingdom in the

north The progressive collapse of the irrigation systems Etc.

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DECLINE AND DISPERSAL Slowly the land of the ancient Sinhalese

kingdom reverted to a jungle and the memories of the lost civilisation was erased from the minds of people who has created it

During the ensuing centuries the Sinhalese established a succession of short-lived kingdoms centred on temporarily capitals at Dambadeniya, Yapahuwa, Gampola, Kotte, Sitavaka and finally in Kandy.

Often two and sometimes three separate kingdoms existed simultaneously vying for supremacy

When the capital was established in Gampola, this period is remembered for a brief architectural renaissance manifested in a group of temples that show the transformation of the classical style into a more localised style that responded to the climate and vegetation of the hill country and this period doesn’t form part of this presentation.

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REFERENCES The Cultural Triangle of Sri Lanka (2000 ) UNESCO Publishing, France. Senaka Bandaranayke (1989 ) Sinhalese Monastic Architecture Dr.Senarath Paranavithana (year of publicaiotn: not known) , Inscriptions of Ceylon -

History of Ceylon , Art of the ancient Sinhalese, Stupa in Ceylon and Village Communities of Ceylon

Prof.Anuradha Seneviratne (date of publication not known), Ancient Anuradhapura, Polonnaruwa-Medieval Capital and Springs of Sinhala civilisation , Sri Lanka Archaeological Dept

Senaka Bandaranayake (2004) Sigirya – city, Palace and Royal Gardens, Central Cultural Fund Publication

David Robson ( 2002), Geoffrey Bawa – The complete works : Thomas and Hudson Leelananda Premathilleke & Chandra Wickramagamage (Ed.) (2003). Sri Lanka:

Glimpses of Island Culture Senaka Bandaranayake (2009), Sinhalese Monastic Architecture: The Viharas of

Anuradhapura, Orient Blackswan, 404 p, ISBN: 81-250-3675-3 Senaka Bandaranayake & C Jayasinghe (1986), The rock and wall paintings of Sri

Lanka, Lake House Bookshop R Coningham (2000), Anuradhapura: Site v.1: The British-Sri Lankan Excavations at

Anuradhapura Salgaha Watta 2: Site Vol 1 (British Archaeological Reports (BAR) International), Archaeopress, ISBN-10: 1841710369 or ISBN-13: 978-1841710365

MT Stark (ed). (2005), Archaeology of Asia , Blackwell Studies in Global Archaeology, 364 pages, Wiley-Blackwell (illustrated edition), ISBN-10: 1405102128 or ISBN-13: 978-1405102124

UNESCO (2002), World heritage: archaeological sites and urban centres, ISBN: 8884913934 93

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

British Library Centre for South Asian Studies, University of

Cambridge Sanjaya Amaratunga Kaushal Keraminiyage Chamindi Malalgoda Roshani Palliyaguru Krishanthi Seneviratne Mohan Siriwardena Menaha Thayaparan

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THANK YOU!

Any questions?

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