PragmaticsPragmatics•Austin – How to do things with wordsAustin – How to do things with words

•Grice – The Cooperative PrincipleGrice – The Cooperative Principle

•Goffman – FaceGoffman – Face

•Brown and Levinson – PolitenessBrown and Levinson – Politeness

•Wierzbicka – Culture and CognitionWierzbicka – Culture and Cognition

J. L. Austin J. L. Austin How to do things with How to do things with words.words.•Locutionary ActsLocutionary Acts

– Saying something Saying something about somethingabout something

• Illucutionary actsIllucutionary acts– Doing something Doing something

by saying by saying somethingsomething

– Performatives.Performatives.•Perlocutionary ActsPerlocutionary Acts

PerformativesPerformatives1.1. The uttering of the words is .. the performance of The uttering of the words is .. the performance of

which is also the object of the utterance.which is also the object of the utterance.

2.2. Circumstances around the performative must be Circumstances around the performative must be appropriateappropriate

1.1. good faith v. bad faithgood faith v. bad faith

2.2. Other things have to go right (happy) (felicities)Other things have to go right (happy) (felicities)

3.3. Must be an accepted conventional procedureMust be an accepted conventional procedure

4.4. Particular persons must be appropriate for the Particular persons must be appropriate for the invocation of the actinvocation of the act

5.5. Procedure must be executed correctly and Procedure must be executed correctly and completelycompletely

6.6. Person must have those thoughts and feelings Person must have those thoughts and feelings requisite of the actrequisite of the act

7.7. Must actually conduct themselves subsequently.Must actually conduct themselves subsequently.

PerformativesPerformatives

3. Sinning against rules will make the 3. Sinning against rules will make the performance performance unhappyunhappy

4. Explicit (I bet, I promise, ...) v 4. Explicit (I bet, I promise, ...) v Implicit performatives (where the Implicit performatives (where the performative is only a possibility performative is only a possibility (might, perhaps, (you might be (might, perhaps, (you might be wrong)wrong)

5. Entails (all men blush) v. Implies v 5. Entails (all men blush) v. Implies v Presupposes (all Jacks children are Presupposes (all Jacks children are bald presupposes that Jack has bald presupposes that Jack has children.children.

Examples of Austin’s PerformativesExamples of Austin’s Performatives1.1. Verdictives: Delivering a verdict, Verdictives: Delivering a verdict,

judgement official or unofficial, acquit, convict, find (as a judgement official or unofficial, acquit, convict, find (as a matter of fact), hold, interpret as, understand, read it as, matter of fact), hold, interpret as, understand, read it as, rule, calculate, reckon, estimate, locate, place, date, rule, calculate, reckon, estimate, locate, place, date, measure, put it at, make it, take it, grade, rank, rate, measure, put it at, make it, take it, grade, rank, rate, assess, value, describe, characterize, diagnose, analyze. assess, value, describe, characterize, diagnose, analyze.

2. Exercitives: Giving a decision in favor or against a certain 2. Exercitives: Giving a decision in favor or against a certain course of action from a position of power. course of action from a position of power. appoint, degrade, demote, dismiss, excommunicate, appoint, degrade, demote, dismiss, excommunicate, name, order, command, direct, sentence, fine, grant, levy, name, order, command, direct, sentence, fine, grant, levy, vote for, nominate, choose, claim, give, bequeath, vote for, nominate, choose, claim, give, bequeath, pardon, resign, warn, advise, plead, pray, entreat, beg, pardon, resign, warn, advise, plead, pray, entreat, beg, urge, press, recommend, proclaim, announce, quash, urge, press, recommend, proclaim, announce, quash, counterman, annul, repeal;, enact, reprieve, veto, counterman, annul, repeal;, enact, reprieve, veto, dedicate, declare closed, declare open dedicate, declare closed, declare open

Examples of Austin’s PerformativesExamples of Austin’s Performatives

3. Comissives: Commits the speaker to a course of action; 3. Comissives: Commits the speaker to a course of action; implies obligation implies obligation

promise, covenant, contract, undertake, bind myself, give my promise, covenant, contract, undertake, bind myself, give my word, …word, …

4. Behabitives: Adopting an attitude in reaction to the behavior of 4. Behabitives: Adopting an attitude in reaction to the behavior of others others

1) apologize, 2) thank, 3) sympathy 4) attitudes 5) greetings, 6) 1) apologize, 2) thank, 3) sympathy 4) attitudes 5) greetings, 6) wishes, 7) challenges (dare, defy, protest, challenge). wishes, 7) challenges (dare, defy, protest, challenge).

5. Expositives: Expounding one's views, clarifying 5. Expositives: Expounding one's views, clarifying

• 1. affirm, deny, state, describe, class, identify; 2. remark, 1. affirm, deny, state, describe, class, identify; 2. remark, mention,mention,

Points to rememberPoints to remember•Austin demonstrated that while some words Austin demonstrated that while some words

were used to describe things (a locutionary were used to describe things (a locutionary act), other words (and sentences) did act), other words (and sentences) did things.things.

•The variety of words on the previous slide The variety of words on the previous slide point this out clearly.point this out clearly.

•Austin’s work introduced a new field of Austin’s work introduced a new field of language study now known as pragmatics.language study now known as pragmatics.

•Bourdieu pointed out that conditions of the Bourdieu pointed out that conditions of the performative are all associated with the performative are all associated with the institution.institution.

Institutions (Bourdieu) and Speech Institutions (Bourdieu) and Speech ActsActs

1.1. Roles:Roles:1.1. Particular persons must be appropriate for the invocation Particular persons must be appropriate for the invocation

of the actof the act2.2. Practices:Practices:

1.1. Must be an accepted conventional procedureMust be an accepted conventional procedure2.2. Must be executed correctly and completelyMust be executed correctly and completely

3.3. Other ConsiderationsOther Considerations1.1. Sincerity: Person must have those thoughts and feelings Sincerity: Person must have those thoughts and feelings

requisite of the actrequisite of the act2.2. Consistency: Must actually conduct themselves Consistency: Must actually conduct themselves

subsequently.subsequently.

H. P. GriceH. P. Grice Conversational Implicature Conversational Implicature

A: How is C getting on in his job [at the A: How is C getting on in his job [at the bank]?bank]?B: Oh quite well, I think; he likes his B: Oh quite well, I think; he likes his colleagues, and he hasn’t been to prison colleagues, and he hasn’t been to prison yet.yet.

i.i. What is the implicature?What is the implicature?i.i. While A hasn’t been to prison, he is the While A hasn’t been to prison, he is the

sort of person who could easily end up sort of person who could easily end up there.there.

ii.ii. What is a Conversational Implicature as What is a Conversational Implicature as opposed to Strictly Speaking? opposed to Strictly Speaking?

The Cooperative Principle and the The Cooperative Principle and the MaximsMaxims• The Principle CPThe Principle CP– Make your conversational contribution such as is required, at the stage at Make your conversational contribution such as is required, at the stage at

which it occurs, by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange which it occurs, by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged.in which you are engaged.

• Specific MaximsSpecific Maxims– Quality: make contribution 1) as informative and 2) not more informative Quality: make contribution 1) as informative and 2) not more informative

than required.than required.– Quality: don’t say 1) what you believe to be false and 2) that for which Quality: don’t say 1) what you believe to be false and 2) that for which

you lack adequate evidence.you lack adequate evidence.– Relation: Be relevantRelation: Be relevant– Manner: 1) avoid obscurity; 2) avoid ambiguity; 3) be brief; 4) be orderly.Manner: 1) avoid obscurity; 2) avoid ambiguity; 3) be brief; 4) be orderly.– Others? Aesthetic, social, or moral, be polite, ...Others? Aesthetic, social, or moral, be polite, ...

• Cultural Differences:Cultural Differences: What is relevant, polite, true will vary from culture to What is relevant, polite, true will vary from culture to culture.culture.

A man who by saying that A man who by saying that pp [he’s not in jail] [he’s not in jail] has implicated q [he’s likely to steal money] has implicated q [he’s likely to steal money] may be said to have conversationally may be said to have conversationally implicated implicated qq provided that: provided that:1.1. He is presumed to have followed the He is presumed to have followed the

maxims or at least the CP.maxims or at least the CP.2.2. The supposition that he is aware that (The supposition that he is aware that (qq) is ) is

required in order to make his saying (required in order to make his saying (pp) ) consistent with this presumption;consistent with this presumption;

3.3. The speaker thinks that it is within the The speaker thinks that it is within the hearer to workout that the supposition is hearer to workout that the supposition is required.required.

4.4. And not what happens if it does not.And not what happens if it does not.

Conventional SchemaConventional Schema(things that are assumed to be in place)(things that are assumed to be in place)

• The conventional meaning of the words used, together The conventional meaning of the words used, together with the identity of any references that may be involved.with the identity of any references that may be involved.

• The CP and its maximsThe CP and its maxims• The context, linguistic or otherwise, of the utterance; The context, linguistic or otherwise, of the utterance; • Other items of background knowledge; andOther items of background knowledge; and• The fact … that all relevant items falling under the The fact … that all relevant items falling under the

previous headings are available to both participants and previous headings are available to both participants and both participants know or assume this to be the case.both participants know or assume this to be the case.

Group A: No maxims violatedGroup A: No maxims violated• Petrol ExamplePetrol Example

– A: I am out of petrol. B: There is a garage around the corner.A: I am out of petrol. B: There is a garage around the corner.– B would be infringing the maxim of “be relevant” unless he B would be infringing the maxim of “be relevant” unless he

thinks that A can by petrol at the garage.thinks that A can by petrol at the garage.• Jail exampleJail example: presumption that connection between implication : presumption that connection between implication

and prison statement is obvious.and prison statement is obvious.• The Smith ExampleThe Smith Example

– A: Smith doesn’t seem to have a girlfriend these days. B: He A: Smith doesn’t seem to have a girlfriend these days. B: He has been paying a lot of visits to New York lately. has been paying a lot of visits to New York lately.

– In this example too, the speaker implicates that which he In this example too, the speaker implicates that which he must be assumed to believe in order to preserve the must be assumed to believe in order to preserve the assumption that he is observing the maxim of relation.assumption that he is observing the maxim of relation.

Group B: Conflict between MaximsGroup B: Conflict between MaximsAn example in which a maxim is violated, but its An example in which a maxim is violated, but its violation is to be explained by the supposition of a violation is to be explained by the supposition of a clash with another maxim.clash with another maxim.

• A: Where does C live? B: Somewhere in the A: Where does C live? B: Somewhere in the south of France. south of France.

• B is being vague (violating maximum of B is being vague (violating maximum of quality by saying less) because to be more quality by saying less) because to be more informative he would have to say something informative he would have to say something he does not know thus violating the maxim he does not know thus violating the maxim of quality.of quality.

Group C: FloutingGroup C: Flouting

• Letter of recommendation: Dear Si, Mr X’s command of English is Letter of recommendation: Dear Si, Mr X’s command of English is excellent, and his attendance at tutorials has been regular. Yours, etc.excellent, and his attendance at tutorials has been regular. Yours, etc.

• President: “I never had sex with that woman.”President: “I never had sex with that woman.”• Flouting allows one to say things through implicature without actually Flouting allows one to say things through implicature without actually

saying it (without directly lying).saying it (without directly lying).• ““Since the truth of a conversational implicatum is not required by the Since the truth of a conversational implicatum is not required by the

truth of what is said (...) The implicature is not carried by what is said, truth of what is said (...) The implicature is not carried by what is said, but only by the saying of what is said, or by ‘putting it that way.”but only by the saying of what is said, or by ‘putting it that way.”

Examples that involve exploitation, that is a procedure by which a maxim is flouted for the purpose of getting in a conversational implicature by means of something of the nature of a figure of speech.

The Universality of the CP and The Universality of the CP and MaximsMaxims• Grice assumes the the CP and the maims are universalGrice assumes the the CP and the maims are universal• We may also add that while universal they may not act in We may also add that while universal they may not act in

the same way.the same way.– Different background knowledge.Different background knowledge.– Different ways of resolving conflicts (Group B) or Different ways of resolving conflicts (Group B) or

flouting (Group C).flouting (Group C).– Do you really think I look nice in this outfit?Do you really think I look nice in this outfit?

• Explain breakdowns in cross-cultural communication.Explain breakdowns in cross-cultural communication.• The utility of these maxims in ordinary conversation.The utility of these maxims in ordinary conversation.

Basis for the cooperative principleBasis for the cooperative principle

• If it is universal is it genetic?If it is universal is it genetic?

• If it is not genetic, why is it If it is not genetic, why is it there and how/there and how/

• The social contract.The social contract.

Erving Goffman: On Face-Work: Erving Goffman: On Face-Work: An analysis of Ritual Social An analysis of Ritual Social InteractionInteraction • The concept of face: The concept of face:

– The presentation of the self to the other.The presentation of the self to the other.– Could be in positive or negative terms.Could be in positive or negative terms.

• Everyday termsEveryday terms– Maintaining face, Loose Face, Wrong Maintaining face, Loose Face, Wrong

face, Out of face, Poise, Save face, face, Out of face, Poise, Save face, Give faceGive face

– LineLine: a specific type of face in a specific : a specific type of face in a specific situation. situation.

• Basic structural feature of social interaction.Basic structural feature of social interaction.

Face continuedFace continued

• Rule of self respectRule of self respect: : – One is expected to maintain faceOne is expected to maintain face

• Rule of consideratenessRule of considerateness: : – person must go to certain lengths to save the feelings and the person must go to certain lengths to save the feelings and the

face of others present.face of others present.• The Face-Threatening Act.The Face-Threatening Act.

– Something that does damage to one’s face.Something that does damage to one’s face.• Face Work:Face Work:

– Maintaining face; correcting dammageMaintaining face; correcting dammage– Often habitualized, Cultural variation, Individual variationOften habitualized, Cultural variation, Individual variation

Basic Kinds of FaceworkBasic Kinds of Facework

• Total avoidanceTotal avoidance to avoid possible FTA to avoid possible FTA• Defensive measuresDefensive measures: avoidance; Shift topics; suppress : avoidance; Shift topics; suppress

feelings; hedging feelings, …feelings; hedging feelings, …• Protective maneuversProtective maneuvers: :

– Show respect and politeness; Show discretion about feelings Show respect and politeness; Show discretion about feelings on topics that might embarrass others; Employs on topics that might embarrass others; Employs circumlocutions and deceptions; Employs courtesies; joking circumlocutions and deceptions; Employs courtesies; joking manner; neutralize offending activities by explaining them in manner; neutralize offending activities by explaining them in advance.advance.

• DeniaDenial of FTA or the face threatening nature of the incident.l of FTA or the face threatening nature of the incident.• Loss of controlLoss of control (ironically) others may protectively turn away (ironically) others may protectively turn away

from him to give him time to assemble himself.from him to give him time to assemble himself.

The Corrective ProcessThe Corrective Process

• Ritual: one’s face is a sacred thingRitual: one’s face is a sacred thing• The StagesThe Stages

– Acknowledgement:Acknowledgement: Begins with acknowledge threat to face. Begins with acknowledge threat to face. (The interchange: seems to be a basic concrete unit of social activity.0(The interchange: seems to be a basic concrete unit of social activity.0

– The challengeThe challenge: participants call attention to the misconduct: participants call attention to the misconduct– The offering:The offering: whereby a participant, typically the offender, is given a chance whereby a participant, typically the offender, is given a chance

to correct for the offence and re-establish the expressive order.to correct for the offence and re-establish the expressive order.• explain as a meaningless act, a joke, unintentional, a mistake, unavoidable, not acting explain as a meaningless act, a joke, unintentional, a mistake, unavoidable, not acting

himself, under the influence of something or somebodyhimself, under the influence of something or somebody

– The acceptanceThe acceptance (or not) by the offended of offering (or not) by the offended of offering– GratitudeGratitude by the offender (ritual equilibrium re-established) by the offender (ritual equilibrium re-established)

When participants find themselves in an established state of ritual disequilibrium or disgrace, and an attempt is made to re-establish a satisfactory ritual state for them.

VariationsVariations

• The offender patently refuses to heed the warning and The offender patently refuses to heed the warning and continues with the offending behavior.continues with the offending behavior.

• Possibly calling offended’s bluff: Untenable position Possibly calling offended’s bluff: Untenable position because face for offender cannot be derived from it.because face for offender cannot be derived from it.– The offender withdraws in a visible huff (showing The offender withdraws in a visible huff (showing

righteous indignation)righteous indignation)– Emotions play an important part in this process.Emotions play an important part in this process.– both ways of salvaging face, but with high costsboth ways of salvaging face, but with high costs

• Some cultures apologize freely others with reluctance.Some cultures apologize freely others with reluctance.– The Liberian apology:The Liberian apology:

• I’m sorry your feelings were hurt when I said that.I’m sorry your feelings were hurt when I said that.

The GameThe Game• Every face-saving practice which is allowed to Every face-saving practice which is allowed to

neutralize a particular threat opens up the possibility neutralize a particular threat opens up the possibility that the threat will be willfully introduced for what can that the threat will be willfully introduced for what can be gained by it.be gained by it.– If a person knows that his modesty will be If a person knows that his modesty will be

answered by other’s praise for him, he can fish for answered by other’s praise for him, he can fish for complements.complements.

– He can arrange for favorable events to appear.He can arrange for favorable events to appear.– Sudden withdrawal leading to need for repair. Sudden withdrawal leading to need for repair.

• Cooperation in face-workCooperation in face-work

The Ritual Roles of the Self: Two The Ritual Roles of the Self: Two sensessenses::– The self as an image pieced together from the The self as an image pieced together from the

expressive implication of the full flow of events in an expressive implication of the full flow of events in an undertaking;undertaking;

– The self as a player [agent] in a ritual game who The self as a player [agent] in a ritual game who copes honorably or dishonorably, diplomatically or copes honorably or dishonorably, diplomatically or undiplomatically, with the judgmental contingencies undiplomatically, with the judgmental contingencies of the situation.of the situation.

– Add this perspective to the view of the Self by G.H. Add this perspective to the view of the Self by G.H. Mead.Mead.

– Human need to be socialHuman need to be social

Greetings and Leave TakingGreetings and Leave Taking

• How are greetings and leave-takings relevant to How are greetings and leave-takings relevant to Goffman?Goffman?

• Leave-takings are face threatening.Leave-takings are face threatening.• Two ways to say good byTwo ways to say good by

– Blessing: Sidong fayn (CP), Adieu, Blessing: Sidong fayn (CP), Adieu, – Will see again. Ma lo sina hoe (Mende) Au Revoir, Will see again. Ma lo sina hoe (Mende) Au Revoir,

See ya later.See ya later.• Greetings (Has our relationship changed since we last Greetings (Has our relationship changed since we last

met?met?• What about Aloha and Ciao which mean both hello and What about Aloha and Ciao which mean both hello and

good bye?good bye?

So what?So what?

• Universal human nature is not a very human thing. By acquiring Universal human nature is not a very human thing. By acquiring it, the person becomes a kind of construct, built up, not from inner it, the person becomes a kind of construct, built up, not from inner psychic propensities, but from moral rules that are impressed psychic propensities, but from moral rules that are impressed upon him from without.upon him from without.

• The general capacity to be bound by moral rules may well belong The general capacity to be bound by moral rules may well belong to the individual, but the particular set of rules which transforms to the individual, but the particular set of rules which transforms him into a human being derives from requirements established in him into a human being derives from requirements established in the ritual organization of social encounters. [the ritual organization of social encounters. [the social contractthe social contract]]

• Similarly, the human nature of a particular set of persons may be Similarly, the human nature of a particular set of persons may be specifically designed for the special kind of undertakings in which specifically designed for the special kind of undertakings in which they participate [e.g., cultural varition].they participate [e.g., cultural varition].

• Similarities between Goffman and GriceSimilarities between Goffman and Grice

Politeness: Politeness: Brown and LevinsonBrown and Levinson• Assumptions Assumptions • Based on Goffman’s concept of faceBased on Goffman’s concept of face

– Face: The public self-image that every Face: The public self-image that every member wants to claim for himself.member wants to claim for himself.

– A communication (speech act) may A communication (speech act) may contain an imposition on the “face” of the contain an imposition on the “face” of the Hearer.Hearer.

• Language Universals extend beyond the Language Universals extend beyond the confines of grammar.confines of grammar.

Two types of face: Positive and Two types of face: Positive and NegativeNegative

• Positive Face: HonorPositive Face: Honor

– The public self. The public self. – The positive consistent self-The positive consistent self-

image or ‘personality’ (crucially image or ‘personality’ (crucially including the desire that this self-including the desire that this self-image be appreciated and image be appreciated and approved of) by interactants.approved of) by interactants.

– the want of every member that the want of every member that his wants be desirable to at least his wants be desirable to at least some others.some others.

• Similar to the perspective of “me” of Similar to the perspective of “me” of Mead, Mead,

• The “honor” of Weber.The “honor” of Weber.

• Negative Face: PrivacyNegative Face: Privacy

– Invented by Brown and LevinsonInvented by Brown and Levinson– The concept of the right to privacy.The concept of the right to privacy.– The basic claim to territories, The basic claim to territories,

personal preserves, rights to non-personal preserves, rights to non-distractiondistraction

– the want of every ‘competent adult the want of every ‘competent adult member’ that his actions be member’ that his actions be unimpeded by others.unimpeded by others.

• Similar to the perspective of the “I” of Similar to the perspective of the “I” of MeadMead

• Similar to freedom of action and freedom Similar to freedom of action and freedom of imposition.of imposition.

Intrinsic FTAsIntrinsic FTAs• It follows that “certain kinds of acts It follows that “certain kinds of acts

intrinsically threaten face ... when they intrinsically threaten face ... when they “run contrary to the wants of the “run contrary to the wants of the addressee or speaker.addressee or speaker.

First Distinction: Kinds of face First Distinction: Kinds of face threatenedthreatened

• S threatens H’s Negative Face S threatens H’s Negative Face [imposition][imposition]

• Those that put pressure on H to Those that put pressure on H to act: Orders and Requests; act: Orders and Requests; Suggestions and Advice; Suggestions and Advice; Remindings; Threats and warnings.Remindings; Threats and warnings.

• Those that put H in debt (offers, Those that put H in debt (offers, promises)promises)

• Those that expression desire or Those that expression desire or envy of H’s possessions which lead envy of H’s possessions which lead H to think that he has to protect H to think that he has to protect them (complements, envy, them (complements, envy, expressions of strong emotion expressions of strong emotion (hatred, anger, lust))(hatred, anger, lust))

• S threatens H’s Positive faceS threatens H’s Positive face

• negative evaluation: negative evaluation: disapproval(criticism); disapproval(criticism); disagreementdisagreement

• indifference to H’s positive indifference to H’s positive face: violent emotions (reason face: violent emotions (reason to fear S); irreverence; bad to fear S); irreverence; bad news about H (good news news about H (good news about S); raising divisive topics about S); raising divisive topics (politics); non-cooperation; (politics); non-cooperation; wrong terms of addresswrong terms of address

Second distinctions: Second distinctions: Threats to H’s face versus threats to S’sThreats to H’s face versus threats to S’s

• Those that offend S’s Those that offend S’s negative Facenegative Face

• S expressing thanks, S S expressing thanks, S acceptance of H’s thanks; acceptance of H’s thanks; S’s excuses; S acceptance S’s excuses; S acceptance of offers; S’s response to of offers; S’s response to H’s faux pas; unwilling H’s faux pas; unwilling promises and offerspromises and offers

• Those that damage Those that damage S’s positive faceS’s positive face

• apologies; acceptance apologies; acceptance of a complement; of a complement; breakdown of physical breakdown of physical control, self-control, self-humiliation, humiliation, confessions, confessions, emotional leakageemotional leakage

Strategies Strategies for doing for doing FTAs FTAs

On RecordOn Record (directly Com-(directly Com-municating the municating the FTA directly FTA directly and un-and un-equivocally (I equivocally (I promise to ...)promise to ...)

Without redressive action, baldlyWithout redressive action, baldly With redressive actionWith redressive action Redress: action that gives Redress: action that gives face to addressee by face to addressee by attempting to attempting to counteracting the potential counteracting the potential face damage of the FTEface damage of the FTE

Positive politeness Positive politeness Oriented toward the Oriented toward the positive face of H [honor]positive face of H [honor]

Negative politeness Negative politeness Oriented toward Oriented toward redressing the negative redressing the negative face [privacy]face [privacy]

Off Record (indirect): This strategy: involves some ambiguity so that H is Off Record (indirect): This strategy: involves some ambiguity so that H is not obligated to respond (Damn, I’m out of cash cf. Grice.not obligated to respond (Damn, I’m out of cash cf. Grice.

Don’t do the FTADon’t do the FTA

Sociological variables (331)Sociological variables (331)

• Computing the Weightiness of an FTA Computing the Weightiness of an FTA • Wx = D(S,H) + P (H,S) + RxWx = D(S,H) + P (H,S) + Rx• D = Social Distance between S and H for the D = Social Distance between S and H for the

purposes of that act and as determined by such purposes of that act and as determined by such things as the frequency of interaction and the kinds things as the frequency of interaction and the kinds of material and nonmaterial goods exchanged....of material and nonmaterial goods exchanged....

• P = Power differential (Weber’s sense). Degree to P = Power differential (Weber’s sense). Degree to which H can impose his own plans and own face at which H can impose his own plans and own face at the expense of S’s plans and face.the expense of S’s plans and face.

• ““I think you will take me to the store.”I think you will take me to the store.”

Conclusion: PragmaticsConclusion: Pragmatics• Austin: Speech Acts (Illocutionary Acts)Austin: Speech Acts (Illocutionary Acts)

– The linkages of these acts with institutions (Bourdieu).The linkages of these acts with institutions (Bourdieu).– The range of vocabulary in any language that have to do with speech acts.The range of vocabulary in any language that have to do with speech acts.

• Grice:The Cooperative Principle and conversational MaximsGrice:The Cooperative Principle and conversational Maxims– A Universal that is pragmatically groundedA Universal that is pragmatically grounded– Helps explain implicature and variationHelps explain implicature and variation

• Goffman: FaceGoffman: Face– Activities involved in the presentation of selfActivities involved in the presentation of self– Pragmatically based universalPragmatically based universal

• Brown and Levinson: Politeness (positive and negative face)Brown and Levinson: Politeness (positive and negative face)– Types of strategies for interaction. Types of strategies for interaction. – Positivistic rules. (structuralist?Positivistic rules. (structuralist?– Universals versus cultural variation?Universals versus cultural variation?

SummarySummaryRicoeurRicoeur Structuralism v Post Structuralism v Post

structuralismstructuralismThe dialectical relationship between The dialectical relationship between langue and parolelangue and parole

MeadMead Symbolic InteractionismSymbolic Interactionism The role of languageThe role of languageThe socially constructed selfThe socially constructed self

Berger &Berger &LuckmannLuckmann

Basis for institutionsBasis for institutions The importance of the face to face The importance of the face to face interaction.interaction.

AustinAustin Illocutionary ActsIllocutionary Acts Connection of words with institutions.Connection of words with institutions.

GriceGrice CP and MaximsCP and Maxims Uses of implicatureUses of implicature

GoffmanGoffman FaceFace Importance of face work to humansImportance of face work to humans

TannenTannen Frames, Schema and Frames, Schema and KnowledgeKnowledge

Elaboration of DiscourseElaboration of Discourse

FaircloughFairclough Power/IdeologyPower/Ideology The inclusion of power and ideology in The inclusion of power and ideology in the analysis of texts.the analysis of texts.

The EndThe End