practice, opportunities and challenges of decentralized primary
TRANSCRIPT
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ADDIS ABABA UNIVERSITY
PRACTICE,OPPORTUNITIES AND CHALLENGES OF DECENTRALIZED PRIMARY SCHOOL CURRICULUM
DEVELOPMENT :THE CASE OF OROMIA REGIONAL STATE
KEBEBE NEGEWO HURRISA
PRESENTED IN PARTIAL FULFILEMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ARTS IN CURRICULUM AND
INSTRUCTION
ADDIS ABABA UNIVERSITY
ADDIS ABABA ,ETHIOPIA
Advisor: Lemma Setgne (Ph .D)
JUNE,2016
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ADDIS ABABA UNIVERSITY
SCHOOL OF GRADUATE STUDIES
This is to certify that the thesis prepared by Kebebe Negewo Hurrisa ,entitled
"Opportunities and Challenges of Decentralized Primary School Curriculum
Development :The case of Oromia Regional State'' is submitted in partial
fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of Master of Arts in Curriculum
and Instruction compiles with the regulation of the university and meets the
accepted standards with respect to originality and quality.
Signed by the Examining committee :
External ExaminerSignatureDate ______
Internal ExaminerSignatureDate_____
Advisor Signature Date_____
Chair of Department or Graduate program Coordinator
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Above all, I would like to thank God, the most gracious and merciful, for the guidance,
compassion ,and mercy, which he has bestowed up on me throughout my entire life and in
particular while working on this thesis.
I am very much indebted to my lovely thesis advisor,Dr.Lemma Setegn,for his unreserved
guidance and counseling and rendered from the very beginning to the completion of the study .I
have sincere appreciation for his support, critical and constructive comments and tolerance.
I would also like to express my sincere appreciation to all other persons who contributed to the
completion of this study. Specifically, my wife Angatu Gazu Ida'a and to my beloved
childSifen Kebebehas given me material and moral support and sacrifice for more than can
simply be stated in words. I wish to express my indebtedness to . My thanks also go to my
colleagues;Mandisu Jima,Dejene Zawude, Yilma Gazu, Haimnot Andarghe and all my family's
Negewo Hurrisa,Genet Negewo and Mesfin Negewo.
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Table of Contents Contents Page
Acknowledgments ............................................................................................................................ i
Table of Contents ............................................................................................................................ ii
List of Tables .................................................................................................................................. v
Acronyms and Abbreviations ........................................................................................................ vi
Abstract ......................................................................................................................................... vii
CHAPTER ONE ............................................................................................................................. 1
INTRODCTION ............................................................................................................................. 1
1.1 Background of the Study ....................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Statement of the Problem .................................................................................................... 4
1.3. Objectives of the Study ........................................................................................................ 6
1.3.1. General Objective .......................................................................................................... 6
1.3.2. Specific Objectives ........................................................................................................ 6
1.4. Research Questions .............................................................................................................. 6
1.5. Significance of the Study ..................................................................................................... 7
1.6 Delimitation of the study ...................................................................................................... 7
1.7. Limitation of the Study ......................................................................................................... 7
1.8. Operational Definition of Terms .......................................................................................... 8
1.9. Organization of the study ..................................................................................................... 8
CHAPTER TWO ............................................................................................................................ 9
2. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE .................................................................................. 9
2.1. Concept of Curriculum ......................................................................................................... 9
2.1.1. Concept of the term Curriculum Development ............................................................ 12
2.1.2 Stages in Curriculum Development Process ................................................................. 13
2.1.3. Participants in Developing the Curriculum ..................................................................... 20
2.2 Curriculum Centralization versus Curriculum Decentralization .................................... 22
2.3 Benefits of Decentralization of the curriculum .................................................................. 23
2.4 Factors Affecting Decentralization of Curriculum ............................................................. 24
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2.5 The Decentralization Policy of Ethiopia ............................................................................. 25
2.6 Primary School Curriculum Development and Decentralization in Ethiopia. ................... 27
2.7. Decentralization of curriculum in different setting ............................................................ 29
2.7.1 Latin America ............................................................................................................... 29
2.7.2 Africa ............................................................................................................................ 30
2.7.3. Eastern Europe ............................................................................................................. 31
2.7.4. South East Asia ............................................................................................................ 31
2.8 The consequences of Decentralization ................................................................................ 33
2.8.1 Lessons Drawn from experience ................................................................................... 33
2.9 Back ground information on Decentralized Curriculum and the Status of Curriculum in Oromia Education Bureau. ........................................................................................................ 34
2.9.1. Decentralization of curriculum .................................................................................... 34
2.9.2 Problems of Decentralized Curriculum ........................................................................ 35
2.9.3 .Role of the Central Government in Decentralized system. .......................................... 36
CHAPTER THREE ...................................................................................................................... 37
RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY ....................................................................... 37
3.1. Research approach .............................................................................................................. 37
3.2. Research Design ................................................................................................................. 38
3.2.1 Case Study .................................................................................................................... 38
3.2.2. Unit of analysis ............................................................................................................ 40
3.2.3. Research method .......................................................................................................... 40
3.2.4. Participants of the study ............................................................................................... 42
3.2.5. Data collection procedures ........................................................................................... 43
3.2.6. Data analysis procedures .............................................................................................. 43
3.3. Validity and reliability of instruments ................................................................................ 44
3.4. Ethical consideration .......................................................................................................... 45
CHAPTER FOUR ........................................................................................................................ 46
4. PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF DATA. ............................... 46
4.1. General personal Information about Informants. ............................................................... 46
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4.2.The process /stage of Curriculum Development for Primary Schools. ............................. 47
4.3 Evaluation of Curriculum Experts involved in the Process of Curriculum Development for Primary Schools . ...................................................................................................................... 51
4.4. Institutions' Involvement in the Curriculum Development ................................................ 53
4.5 .Major Problems of the Development of Curriculum in Decentralized for Primary Schools in Oromia Regional State .......................................................................................................... 55
CHAPTER FIVE .......................................................................................................................... 59
5. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATION .............................................. 59
5.1. Summary ............................................................................................................................ 59
5.2 . Conclusions ....................................................................................................................... 61
5.3 Recommendations ............................................................................................................... 62
References ..................................................................................................................................... 63
Appendixes ................................................................................................................................... 68
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List of Tables Table 1. Types and major characteristics of Respondent ...................................................... 46
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Acronyms and Abbreviations
ADLI Agricultural Development Led Industrialization
BBO Biiroo Barnoota Oromiyaa
ERGESE Evaluative Research on General Education System of Ethiopia
ESR Education Sector Review
ETP Ethiopian Training policy
ICDR Institute for Curriculum Development and Research
ICTInformation Communication Technology
MOE Ministry of Education
OREB Oromia Regional Education Bureau
PRSP Poverty Reduction Strategy program
SDP Social Development Program
TGE Transitional Government of Ethiopia
UNESCOUnited Nation Education, Scientific and Cultural Organization
USAIDUnited States Agency for International Development
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Abstract The main purpose of this study was to investigate the practice ,opportunities and challenges decentralized primary school curriculum development in Oromia . To achieve this objective, department of curriculum and evaluation work process in Oromia Regional Education Bureau was selected as the main study area. To conduct the study, qualitative case study was employed. Availability sampling was used to select for curriculum experts and curriculum coordinator from curriculum development sub process of Oromia Regional Education Bureau. Qualitative Interview, content analysis and focus group discussion were used as instruments in data collection. The data were examined looking for common and distinctive ideas. Common issues were identified to form themes and interpretational analysis method was used in analyzing the data. The finding revealed that most of curriculum experts in Oromia Education Bureau who played major role in the curriculum work are not specialized for curriculum development. Stages of curriculum development for primary schools in Oromia Regional state seem that it passes through the steps of curriculum planning and development in Ethiopia . An encouraging attempt has been made to involve the stakeholders who should be involved in the process of curriculum development for primary schools. The curriculum development process was entangled with lack of material resources, reference materials in the library and financial support. Therefore, unless the prevailing problems are resolved, it would be difficult to develop a curriculum that reflects the needs of the social forces existing in society. Finally, for further improvement on the practice, opportunitiesand challenge of curriculum development for primary schools in Oromia Regional State, specializing the curriculum experts in the area of curriculum development process, facilitating the task of curriculum work with the necessary materials with better facility and making conducive the working space of curriculum experts are some suggestions forwarded by the researcher.
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CHAPTER ONE
INTRODCTION
1.1 Background of the Study
In Ethiopia, the government has pursued decentralization policy by shifting authority and
responsibility to regional states since 1992.Transitional Government of Ethiopia (TGE,1992)
decentralization of education to lower levels of the government has been undertaken in the
context of a more general decentralization of government. In the process of decentralization,
significantchanges have been made in the area of provision of educational services and the
management of the education system whose foundation was based on the proclamation issued
and the 1994 Education and Training Policy Promulgated .The decentralization reforms as well
as the Education Training Policy (TGE, 1994) seek to improve access, equity, quality and
efficiency of the education system. For the realization of decentralization and education reforms,
the Government of Ethiopia started a sector wide policy implementation ;Social Development
Program (SDP) this was introduced as part of the overall Poverty Reduction Strategy Program
(PRSP) and school empowerments strengthening and institutionalizing the woreda structure .The
Governments prepared a strategy for capacity building and program framework in 1998.The
strategy was implemented in medium term
anddesignedtofeedintotheAgriculturalDevelopmentLedIndustrialization(ADLI),decentralization
and empowerment. The strategy foresees reorganization or restructuring of ministries/bureaus,
executive organs (2001)and further fiscal and administrative decentralization to woredas and
grass root level.
Regardless of the attempts made, reforms introduced cannot be considered as simple or straight
forward process the complexities and uncertainties were all associated with policy development
processes and implementation capacities as well as with mobilizing the support needed to adopt
policies.
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These mirror that success of educational decentralization reform processes are connected to the
availability of resources, political and social realities and administration capacity (MOE,2002).
Modern Education in Ethiopia has a history of nearly a century. In this relatively short period the
system of education in general and the curriculum in particular hasunder gone several phases of
development with subsequent influences from abroad. The works of
Teshome,Taddesse,Ayalewand Girma (in Feleke,1990) shows that quite often, a simple
adoption of curricula, curricular materials ,school structure and the like of the foreigners who
have had the greatest influence at a particular period in history had been put into effect .
In the faces of such influences, the curriculum was planned with little emphasis to meet the
needs, concerns, and demands of the Ethiopian people. However, it also well to remember that
great efforts such as the Education Sector Review (ESR) which was the imperial government
made bold policy decision ,in October 1971,to conduct a comprehensive study of the education
sector with emphasis on curriculum aimed to relate education to Ethiopian reality. In 1983,the
MOE responded by launching of a project known as the Evaluative Research on the General
Education System of Ethiopia (ERGSE) .The study under lined that the most serious problem
,particularly in secondary schools, was that there were significant number of teachers who lack
competence but had teaching responsibilities (MOE,1986:19), which also focused to adjust the
education system with respect to national needs and the nature of the learner. In addition , the
input, process outcome model evaluative study of the General Polytechnical Education System in
Ethiopia ,which was conducted in 1980,the MOE revised the transitional curriculum and
developed a new curriculum known as '' General polytechnic Education''(Abebe,1986:46). On
grades 1-8 where Amharic was used as a medium .This was done to advance the economic
cultural ,technical, and vocational development of the country (MOE,1983).These were some of
the attempts made to check the curriculum and its relevance to the country .
Because of the reform made in socio -economic and political policy in Ethiopia in the early
1990's the new Educational and Training Policy was formulated in 1994. The policy emphasized
that education and training programs need to be as relevant as possibleto the needs of the society
and maintain a certain level of standards (TGE,1994),However, the curriculum in use has to have
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a direct bearing on the existing socio- economicpolicies and directions so that students who come
out of the system are active actors and beneficiaries of the system (Dereje,1998) .
In this regard ,decentralization has been widely advocated as a means of increasing the relevance
of education by allowing educational planners and policy makers to incorporate regions, zonal
and district needs in their programs more effectively (Derebessa,1998).
To materialize this , the government has devised decentralized education management, which
enables regional states to pursue educational development goals based on their own objective
conditions, identified objectives and needs (MOI,2004).It is stated in TGE (1994:5)that '' Due
attention is given to the evolution of a decentralized, efficient and professionally coordinated
participatory system indicated in respect of administration and management of education
system”. Furthermore ,Ethio-Education consultants (1994) cited in Akalewold (2005:7) that the
responsibility to develop and implement elementary education curriculum is given to Regional
Education Bureau .Under this circumstance, all the regions in the country have begun to develop
their own primary school curriculum .In Ethiopia, primary education is defined as education in
grades 1-8 in two cycles 1st cycle, (grades 1-4) and 2nd (grades 5-8). The program is normally
designed on a unit or project basis to give pupils sound basic education in reading, writing,
mathematics and an elementary understanding of the subjects such as history, geography, natural
sciences, social science, art, music etc. These subjects serve to develop pupils’ ability to obtain
and use information they need, about their home, environment/community or country. Education
should develop cultured citizens. It should also help learning to know, learning to be, learning to
do and learning to live together. It should help enhanceand strengthen social justice, democracy,
human rights, co-existence, equity andequality. Education should also address peace, tolerance,
etiquette and employment. In the present organized and formal educational management,
education is taken for the preparation of employment. The curriculum covering all these aspects
can be considered as norms and value based curriculum. The level wise consistency of
curriculum directly affects the overall quality and effectiveness of education. A curriculum
should be in consistent with level , grade, subject wise, and students' capability. Furthermore,
vertical and horizontal relationof the curriculum also plays a pivotal role in maintaining
consistency andcontinuity. But,the questions raised on the level wise consistency of the existing
curriculum is questionable.Thus, this study tries to assess the practice, opportunities and
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challenges of decentralization of primary school curriculum development in Oromia regional
state.
1.2 Statement of the Problem
Curriculum is the foundation of the teaching-learning process. The development of programs of
study, learning and teaching resources, lesson plans and assessment of students, and even teacher
education are all based on curriculum. Curriculum and curriculum development at first glance
appear to be of chief concern to educators, governments and parents, and both have relevance
and impact on the development of communities and prosperity. For education to serve and
satisfy the needs of the society, the curriculum should be relevant in considering the social values
of the target group of people, for this will promote self –realization, humanrelationship,
economic efficiency, and civic rights(Smithand MC Quigs, 1969).Furthermore,Salia-Bao(1989)
cited in Woube ,(2004)argues curriculum development based on social values of the target
people by emphasizing that the basis for effective curriculum development for Africans is a
curriculum theorizing based on African culture and environment.
However, in contrast to the above argument of education and culture based curriculum
development ,which closely bound to the needs of the society, the objective of education and the
curriculum in Ethiopia had problems of such quality to be based on real life situation of the
country.
The document of the Education Sector Strategy (MOE, 1994) pointed out that though the
curriculum was broadly based on international standards, its usefulness to the objective situation
in Ethiopia was contentious. This may imply that the impact of modern education on the day -to-
day life of the society at large has been negligible.
Accordingly, in the regime of Haile Silassie, for instance, the curriculum had been dominantly
shaped by western culture with the purpose to produce elites and western intelligence. Similarly,
the curriculum during the Military Dergue’’ Regime (1974- 1991) had been overloaded by
Eastern socialist values.
The cardinal and ultimate target of to the curriculum of post 1974 was to induce of Marxist and
Leninist ideology in all lines of learning. The educational objective was to produce socialist
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citizens (Milkias,1988).Moreover,TekleHaimanot(1999)argues that the existence of irrelevant
curriculum in the past two governments , ‘’the Ethiopian secular culture and spoken languages
were not given appropriate emphasis and level of importance in the curriculum from traditional
education in the modern system of education up to the beginning of the 1990’s’’.
As a result in the previous time, thecontents of the curriculum and the objective of education did
not consider the needs of the society and did not adequately indicate future direction. As the
Ministry of Education in the Education and Training Policy (1994) stated,‘’Education in Ethiopia
is entangled with complex problems of relevance, quality, accessibility, equity and efficiency’’.
Hence, the need for educational reform arose because of this aged long educational problem after
the change of the government since 1991.In this respect, theMinistry of Education hasattempted
to revise the educational objectives and curriculum based on the culture and objective situation
of the country. For instance, one of the changes of the curriculum was the formulation of civic
and ethical curriculum. However, this development of civic and ethical education curriculum
seemed to lack the capability to adequately address the needs of the society incorporating
Ethiopian common values as stipulated by the education policy .As culture rooted curriculum
design is a new trend in the curriculum planning and development may have some difficulties in
the formulation approach and professional skills.
The global experiences indicated that education under a decentralized system has to be assessed
and must be viewed realistically ,as a range of administrative or organizational devices used in
improving the efficiency, effectiveness and responsiveness to meet the needs .In this respect,
there are few studies on curriculum decentralization ,that havebeen conducted in Ethiopia.(Ethio
Education Consultant,1994:USAID,1994,Girma,1998,Derebsa,1998,Shiferaw,2010)
.Therefore,there is a need to carry out the study in the context of oromia that addresses the
decentralization of curriculum system starting from the upper administrative echelon down to the
grass roots level.
Curricula for primary schools have been prepared by Ministry of Education since the end of
1950’s until the beginning of 1990’s (MOE, 2006).To this end, centralized curriculum activities
did not and cannot enjoy immediate and healthy professional relationships between and among
educators, who are supposed to work for the common educational objectives (ICDR, 1999)
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.Hence, this research tried to explore the gaps in terms of Practice, Opportunities and Challenges
of Decentralized primary Schools in empowering region to be more involved in the teaching-
learning activities and making them accountable and responsible. ICDR (1999) states that the
curriculum decentralization process in Ethiopia has created a mechanism by which teachers
participate in the preparation, implementation and evaluation of the curriculum and curriculum
materials. The teacher as a resource person who works with the learners closely and
knows them better than others concerned with the education process, holds a strategic
position in the planning, development and subsequently the implementation of the
curriculum and its material (Tyler, 1949 ) in ICDR (1999). Hence, all the above facts
mentioned initiated the researcher to investigate whether these facts are practiced in the
process of curriculum development for primary schools in Oromia Regional State. The purpose
of this study is therefore, to investigate about the Practice, Opportunities and Challenges of
Decentralization of Primary School Curriculum Development in Oromia Regional state.
1.3. Objectives of the Study
1.3.1. General Objective
The general objective of the study is to investigate the practices, opportunities and challenges of
decentralizing Primary school curriculum development in Oromia Regional state.
1.3.2. Specific Objectives
The specific objectives of the study are to:
1. assess the present situation of Decentralized Curriculum Development practice for
primary schools of Oromia Regional state.
2. examine the opportunities of decentralization of primary school curriculum development
in Oromia Regional state.
3. identify the major challenges facing decentralization of primary school curriculum
development in Oromia Regional state .
1.4. Research Questions
To achieve the above objectives, the study tried to answer the followingresearch questions.
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1. What does the status of decentralized primary school curriculum development look like
in Oromia regional state?
2. What are the opportunities for decentralization of Primary School Curriculum
development in Oromiaregional states?
3. What are the major challenges encountered in decentralizing curriculum development for
primary schools in the Oromia regional states?
1.5. Significance of the Study
The results of the study may generate awareness among the concerned people about the
majorachievements drawbacks and problems encountered in the process of primary education
curriculum development in the Region.It also serves as an initial study and pave the way for
those who want to make further studies in the area.
1.6Delimitationof the study
The study is delimited to the exploration ofthe practice ,opportunities and challenges of
curriculum development for primary schools at Oromia Regional state .Therefore , Oromia
Regional Education Bureau's Curriculum Development activity is the focus of the study .The
study is also delimited to curriculum adaptation of the centrally designed subject syllabi, text
book preparation ,teachers' guide and other relevant materials.Thusit does not include what all
other educational levels and institution and their ascribed tasks.
1.7. Limitation of the Study
The major restriction of the study is lack of adequate and exhaustive research conducted in
related areas of the title of the research in the region which limited the researcher not to refer
what was done before this research .Furthermore ,absence of get sufficient documented materials
related to the issue of the research from Oromia Education Bureau, Department of curriculum
development had put limitation in getting sufficient information from the department as
expected. Nevertheless,other tools like interview ,focus group discussion, and content analysis
were employed to overcome the problem.
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1.8. Operational Definition of Terms
It is evident that words or terms are define according to their contextual meaning as used by
different writers .with this understanding , the following words (phrases) are defined according
to the context as employed in the study.
Curriculum Development: deals with planning syllabi, writing text books and teachers’
guides and other related resources.
Primary Schools: education structure consisting of grades 1-8 in two cycles 1st cycle,
(grades 1-4) and 2nd
Decentralization: Any change in the organization of government , which involves the
transfer of power or functions from national level to any sub – national levels to another
lower one.
cycle (grades 5-8).
1.9. Organization of the study
This research paper has five chapters, Chapter one deals with the introductory part including
background of the study, statement of the problem, objectives, research
questions,significance,delimitation and limitation of the study.
In Chapter two, the review of related literature is dealt with .Then, comes research design and
methodology in Chapter three, followed by presentation, analysis and in Chapter four
,summary,conclusionsand recommendations of the study are presented in Chapter
five,Finally,lists of reference materials are given.
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CHAPTER TWO
2. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
2.1. Conceptof Curriculum
Surprisingly, there is no fixed definition of curriculum (Sahlberg, 2011). The word curriculum is
derived from the Latin verb currere which means to run. As Sahlberg notes, in Anglo-Saxon
countries curriculum refers to what students should learn, within a framework of goals,
objectives, content and pedagogy. In countries such as Sweden (läroplan), Holland (leerplan)
and Germany (Lehrplan), curriculum is defined as a “plan for learning” . Curriculum can also be
“concerned with what is planned, implemented, taught, learned, evaluated and researched in
schools and at all levels of education” (McKernan, 2008). This latter definition of curriculum is
seen to be more as a process rather than just a product.
Johnson (1967) defines curriculum as a “structured series of intended learning outcomes” that
prescribes the results of instruction. Curriculum is, therefore, viewed as an output of the
development process. Research in curriculum development has focused more on improving the
process of curriculum than on curriculum theory, which aims to better understand the educational
significance of what students are learning. Given that there are a number of activities related to
curriculum, distinctions among various levels of curriculum activities (e.g., policy, design and
development, implementation) and the level of curriculum development ( Akker van den , 2007)
provide deeper understanding of curriculum products.
Curriculum development according to Salia-Bao,(1989),is a systematic approach to the
development of curriculum materials for teaching and learning. In wider sense, it could be seen
as the process for making programmatic decisions and for revision, the products of those
decisions based on continuous and subsequent evaluation. In addition, it is widely recognized as
the way and means of ensuring continuous adaptation of the work of the schools in rapidly
changing world. Furthermore, the statement of Taba cited in oliva (1988:162) makes it clear that
“if one conceives of curriculum development as a task requiring orderly thinking one needs to
examine both the order in which decisions are made and the way in which they are made to make
sure that all relevant considerations are brought to bear on these decisions”
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Therefore, the task of bringing the curriculum into line with social and psychological realities
requires the use of principle and procedures. These principles and procedures help curriculum
developers not to skip components or reverse the order and work on two or more components
simultaneously.
Before we define the term Curriculum Development because, “In any fields of study there
has to be a clear and persistent meaning of its basic terminology” (Belack, 1969:289).
Hence, there comes a need to answer, “What is curriculum?” The answer for this question
doesn’t lead scholars to come up with a common answer, since curriculum as a field of
study has been characterized as elusive, fragmentary, and confusing (Ornstein and
Hunkins, (2004:1). As a result of this, there has been a plethora of definitions suggested
by different scholars.
Curriculum is the base in education on which the teaching-learning process is planned and
implemented. It is the totality of all the learning to which students are exposed during their
study in the school; in the classroom, in the laboratory, in the library, in the workshop,
on the farm and the play ground (Aggarwal, 1996, 306). In addition to this, Shiundu and
Omulando (1992:39) discussed that, the study of curriculum is a major aspect of the
study of education as a discipline.
Chamber’s Dictionary cited in Shiundu and Omulando (1992:39) traces the term ‘curriculum’
to the Latin world’ Currere’, meaning’ ‘to run, more probably to run a course’. Therefore,
Curriculum represents a course of subjects covered by students in their ‘race’ towards the finish
line which may be a certificate, a diploma or a degree. Educators define curriculum in
different ways, in part because they bring to that task different perceptions of what
curriculum should be. Some educators see the curriculum as a list of subjects to be studied,
while others see it as an entire course content. Still others perceive curriculum as a set of
planned learning experiences offered by teachers. Another group states that the Curriculum
is a written plan of action, there by distinguishing it from what actually happens in a
school. Hence, there are many ways to characterize the curriculum and this has enhanced a
multiplicity of definitions (Print, 1993). Some of the definitions of curriculum stated in
(Murray Print, 1993:8-9) by different persons at different times are:
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A. Ralph Tyler (1949): All of the learning of students which is planned by and
directed by the school to attain its educational goals.
B. K.Sheeler (1967):By “curriculum” we mean the planned experiences offered to the
learner under the guidance of the school.
C. Eisner (1979):The Curriculum of a school, or a course, or a classroom can be conceived
of as a series of planned events that are intended to have educational consequences for
one or more students.
D. Saylor, W. Alexander andA.J. Lewis (1981): We define Curriculum as a plan for
providing sets of learning opportunities for persons to be educated.
E. Skilbeck (1984): The learning experiences of students, in so far as they expressed
or anticipated in goals and objectives, plans and designs for learning and the
implementation of these plans and designs in school environment.
F. Glatthorn (1987):The Curriculum is the plans made for guiding learning in schools,
usually represented in retrievable documents of several levels of generality and the
actualization of those plans in the classroom, as experienced by the learners and as
recorded by an observer; those experiences take place in a learning environment
which also influences what is learned.
G. Wiles and J. Bondi (1989): The curriculum is a goal or set of values, which are
activated through a development process culminating in classroom experiences for
students. The degree to which those experiences are a true representation of the
envisioned goal or goals is a direct function of the effectiveness of the curriculum
development efforts.
For the purpose of common understanding and discussion, this study considers Murray Print’s
(1988) definition. For him, curriculum is defined as all the planned learning opportunities
offered to learners by the educational institution and the experiences learners encounter
when the curriculum is implemented. This includes those activities that educators have
devised for learners which are invariably represented in the form of a written document
and the process whereby teachers make decisions to implement those activities given interaction
with context variables such as learners, resources, teachers and the learning environment.
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The above definition argues that a curriculum consists of:
- planned learning experiences;
- offered within an educational institution/program;
- represented as a document; and
- includes experiences resulting from implementing that document.
This conceptualization of the term goes beyond the notion of simply preparing a planned
document to be applied later. When a curriculum document is implemented in an
institution with an educational program (kindergarten, school, college, university and so
forth), interaction takes place the document, learners and instructors such that modification
occurs and a ‘curriculum’ emerges (Print, 1988).
2.1.1. Concept of the term Curriculum Development
Curriculum development according to Richards and Taylor cited in Salia-Bao (1989:8), is
considered as comprising those deliberately planned activities through which courses of
study or patterns of educational activity are designed and presented as proposals for those in
educational institutions. This means that curriculum development is a deliberately planned
enterprise. It involves syllabus construction, which includes aims, content and methods, and
the syllabus may be sent to schools as a guide for teachers.
According to Shiundu and Omulando (1992:152), curriculum development is the planning
of learning opportunities intended to bring about certain changes in the learners. It also
involves the assessment of the extent to which these changes have taken place. For them,
curriculum development, specifically, involves the writing, trial and testing of instructional
plans and educational materials.
Tyler (1949) defines curriculum development as a systematic attempt at problem solving,
namely the understanding and guidance of learning in school. For Giroux (1981), the term
curriculum development refers to developing plans for educational program, including the
identification and selection ofeducational objectives, the selection of learning experiences, and
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the evaluation of the educational program. Print (1993) also defines Curriculum development
as the process ofplanningconstructing,implementing and evaluating learning opportunities
intended to produce desired changes in learners. For him, it must be seen as deliberate,
purposeful, planning activity that seeks to achieve general and specific intentions.
In practice, according to Murray Print (1993), this means that the curriculum developers
take with them their conceptualization of curriculum, construct a curriculum document from
it, implement or monitor the implementation of that document and finally appraise the
effectiveness of the entire curriculum. Curriculum development, according to Salia-Bao
(1989), is a systematic and rationally planned activity that takes into consideration the
child, society, subjects, and assumptions and ideologies about teaching and learning. This
means that curriculum development should start from a study of the society, the children,
the subject and the philosophical and psychological foundations that can be used as a basis
for the course of study.
2.1.2 Stages in Curriculum Development Process
The development of a Curriculum is a process that requires a relatively long time.
Definitely, there are differences in the curriculum development process. In some countries the
school curriculum is developed in highly centralized institutions while in others it is
developed at local levels. The stages of curriculum development process also differ. As
mentioned in Shiundu and Omulando (1992), the four major stages of curriculum
development process according to Tyler (1949) are:
selection of objectives,
selection of learning experiences,
organization of learning experiences, and
evaluation.
In real practice, curriculum developers do more than what is suggested in those four stages. As
discussed in Shiundu and Omulando (1992), these four major stages of curriculum
development reflected in Tyler (1949), are so broad that they conceal many details of
curriculum development activities. It is also mentioned in Shinudu and Omulando (1992)
14
that, Skilbeck, Dave (1976), Bishop (1985), and Nicholls (1972), among others, have
analyzed in detail the various basic models and suggested a more detailed process of
curriculum development. As a result, Shiundu and Omulando (1992), suggested a more
detailed curriculum development process with nine stages:
1. Situational analysis (Need assessment);
2. Formulation of objectives;
3. Setting up the curriculum project;
4. Program building;
5. Piloting the new programme in selected schools;
6. Improving the new programme;
7. Implementation;
8. Evaluation; and
9. Maintenance.
According to Shiundu and Omulando (1992), whether developing a new curriculum or
changing the existing one, the process will generally follow these stages. The curriculum itself
should be regarded as dynamic rather than an activity, which is undertaken once and for
all. It is a continuous process. For them, the nine stages therefore should not be regarded as
always starting with situational analysis. This may be true with a new instructional
programme, otherwise the whole process is cyclic in nature.
Shiundu and Omulando (1992), presented the nine stages of Curriculum development
systematically explained in detail as follows.
1. Situational Analysis
This stage involves finding out the context in which the curriculum process or activities
are to take place. It is based on the reasoning that ‘we must know where we are before
15
we can plan a course of action’. Shiundu and Omulando (1992), strongly argue that,
curriculum developers start with situational analysis. They further explained that, instead of
beginning with an abstract list of objectives, the process should start with a realistic appraisal and
analysis of the situation as it exists in society.
According to Print (1993), Situational analysis is a detailed examination of the context in
to which a curriculum is to be placed and the application of that analysis to the
curriculum being developed. It involves a detailed analysis of several factors that relate to
the context, albeit a school, group of schools, region or system.
He further explained that, the need for conducting a situational analysis is a fundamental
precept of effective curriculum development. Developers commencing their task should ask
important questions such as: “What do we know about the context-the students, teachers,
school environment-of this curriculum and why is it needed?’ In addition to this, a
situational analysis is an obvious commencement point for the construction of a
curriculum. It is an ideal opportunity for curriculum developers, aware of the curriculum
presage factors affecting them, to bring a reasoned, relational approach to the development
of curricula. It is also an opportunityfor curriculum developers to take account for local factors
when developing curriculum to meet student needs.
To undertake a situational analysis, Print (1993) suggested that, a curriculum developer is
required to:
identify problems in context;
select appropriate factors;
collect and analyze data; and
make recommendations.
Print (1993), further summarizes the argument for undertaking a situational n analysis as:
identifying local needs of students, parents, teachers and the
community;
understanding the local curriculum context;
facilitating planning and subsequent curriculum development; and
16
providing a systematic data base for devising curriculum goals and objectives.
2. Formulation of Objectives
According to Taylor and Richards (1979) in Salia-Bao (1989), the chief aim of education
is ‘to change individuals in some way: to add to the knowledge they possess, to enable
them to perform skills, which otherwise they would not perform, to develop certain
understandings, insights and appreciations. The statements of these expected or desired
outcomes are said to be educational aims or educational objectives.
The next task in the curriculum process after situational analysis is the formulation of
aims or objectives. Many scholars like Lawton (1973), Kerr (1968), Hirst (1974), Nicholls
(1972) and Bishop (1985) in Shiundu and Omulando (1992) strongly support and cherish
Tyler’s (1949) objectives model of curriculum development. They argue that there can be
no dependable curriculum without objectives to define the educational destination,
especially given the fact that there are several problems and needs of society and the
school has to select the ones that they can and have to deal with.
Regarding the formulation of aims or objectives, Salia-Bao (1989) states functions of aims
or objectives as:
objectives provide a sense of direction to anyone interested in the
educational process such as students, teachers, administrators, parents,
superintendents and so forth.
objectives provide a basis for relational and logical curriculum planning ; and
3. Setting up the Curriculum Project
Shiundu and Omulando (1992) describe setting up thecurriculum project as a stage in
curriculum development process as the day-to-day activities of curriculum development
such as making reviews and effecting minor changes are done by full time curriculum
developers or teachers. When major changes are to be effected, it becomes necessary to
set up a curriculum development project with one or more teams as may be necessary.
17
The project will involve the full time curriculum developers, panel members,other educators
and those not directly involved in education like sociologists, economists, religious
personnel, anthropologists and others interested groups as they may be found use full from
within the country and even outside, especially when they come in as consultants.
4. Programme Building
According to Shiundu and Omulando (1992) programme building is actually the main task of the
project team. The question here iswhat are we going to teach in schools to various grades of
pupils? Terms like selecting content or subject matter, selecting learning experiences,
identifying learning opportunities, describe activities within the programme building stage.
5. Piloting the New Programme in Selected Schools
Before the new programme is adopted in schools as part of the regular curriculum, it
must be tried out in a few schools, which are representative of those that will be
affected by the final implementation.
Through piloting, the curriculum validity is established, that is, the extent to which it will
or it will not achieve the educational objectives (Shiundu andOmulando, 1992). In Lewy
(1977), this stage is also named as the preliminary tryout stage. At this stage the drafted syllabus,
teacher’s guide, student’s text book(s), manuals and worksheets will be distributed to sample
schools. During tryout stage, the curriculum developers carefully observe the teaching-
learning process in the class room situation. They employ a variety of formative
evaluation instruments. According to Lewy (1977), the purpose of try-out stage is to find
out any weakness in the curricular materials and improve them on the basis of the feedback.
Supplementing their idea, Shiundu and Omulando (1992), piloting requires clarity in
programme objectives, clear conceptualization and the identification of rationale for all
programme elements. For these reasons, there must be a training component in piloting
for the teachers from the few representative schools and all other personnel who will
participate in the experiment.For them, the purpose of training is to ensure that theparticipants
are thoroughly familiar with the objectives of the new programme and once piloting starts, it is
18
essential that information is efficiently and accurately gathered and reported systematically
and periodically to the project leaders or decision makers.
6 .Improving the New Programme
The next stage in the curriculum development process, according to Shiundu and
Omulando (1992), is improving the new programme. As the piloting is carried out, some
modification is also being made based on the feedback but there is a special period when
the piloting stops, to allow for major revision and consolidation of the programme in order to
address more effectively the needs of the learners and other requirements of the programme.
During this stage, the suggestions from the piloting personnel are used to modify the
programme to make it appropriate to the real school and instructional situation, the
number of students with diverse backgrounds, teachers, and the general educational
environments.
Stressing on the importance of improving the new programme, Shiundu and Omulando
(1992), usually, every new programme, even the most carefully planned, needs revision
and modification. No curriculum planner, therefore, should assume and implement the new
curriculum without careful revision. One major weakness in developing countries is to
implement new instructional programmes without careful revision, some even without
piloting, leave alone providing appropriate training for the piloting personnel.
Finally, they summarized their ideas by saying that depending on the nature, objectives
and the scope of the programme, one or more piloting programes can be carried out especially
when the feedback from the first piloting reveals many problems with the programme. It is
more professional and even economical to subject the project to several tests than to
implement what you do not understand fully and therefore likely to be problematic.
7. Implementation
Implementation in a curriculum involves changing the status quo by accepting and utilizing a
newly created curriculum or part of curriculum. That is, taking the curriculum document as
devised in the development phase of the model and putting it into practice. If the
curriculum is accepted and utilized successfully we say that it has become institutionalized
19
(Print, 1993). According to Derebssa (2004), curriculum implementation is a process of
putting the developed/planned curriculum in to effect. The term implementation refers to
the actual use of a curriculum. Alliance and Francis (1988), view implementation as a separate
component in the curriculum action cycle. It is the logical step once a program has been
developed and piloted. It involves extensive actions by many parties not just, for example, an
offer to staff one workshop. Implementation also involves attempts to change individuals’
knowledge, actions and attitudes.
Shiundu and Omulando (1992), consider curriculum implementation as the process of
effecting the new curriculum. It is the systematic process of ensuring that the new curriculum
reaches the immediate beneficiaries, the learners. They, further explained the process of
curriculum implementation as, after the programme has been piloted in sample schools,
evaluated and improved or modified, it a can then go to all schools in the country. The process
of effecting the new curriculum is the stage when many more people come in to interact
with the new curriculum-students, parents, administration and the lay public.
8. Evaluation
According to Salia-Bao (1992), curriculum evaluation is the collection and use of
information for decision-making about an educational programme. It includes measuring and
assessing pupils and their work so that judgments can be made based on the results of this
measurement and assessment.
Ornstein and Hunkins (2004) defined evaluation as a process or cluster that people
perform in order to gather and interpret data to decide whether to accept, change, or
eliminate something of the curriculum in general or an educational textbook in particular.
Tuckman (1985) in Ornstein and Hunkins (2004) defined evaluation as the means for
determining whether the programme is meeting its goals: that is, whether the measures/out
comes for a given set of instructional in puts match the intended or prescribed out comes.
Similarly, for Shiundu and Omulando (1992), evaluation is generally the process of
generating data which is used in assigning value to something and finally make a
decision, either to accept, improve or reject it. In curriculum, specifically, the term
20
evaluation refers to the process used to with the relative merits of those educational
alternatives which fall within the domain of curriculum practice.
When we talk of evaluation as a major stage in the process of curriculum development,
we must be careful not to imply that curriculum evaluation occurs only at one stage in
the process. As a matter of fact, curriculum evaluation is a process which affects all
other stages of curriculum development. It goes on throughout the process of curriculum
development.
9. Maintenance
Curriculum maintenance refers to activities and procedures that allow the operation of the
program me (the curriculum development process) to continue. Various methods and means
are employed to ensure that the implemented programme continues to function effectively.
It involves several tactics whose prime purpose is to monitor all curriculum elements and
the roles of persons supporting these elements. This stage of curriculum developments is
mainly people-oriented. Essentially, it attends to the actions so students, teachers, parents,
administrators and others in response to the on-going programme (Shiundu and Omulando,
1992).
2.1.3. Participants in Developing the Curriculum
Developing or designing a curriculum involves a large number of persons, both school based and
community based- curriculum development is not an activity of a single individual or groups
of individuals. It rather needs the involvement of many parties in the process of developing it.
Macdonald (1978) in Ornstein and Hunkins (2004), long ago advocated that all parties affected
by the curriculum should be involved in deciding its nature and purpose. According to him,
the key players would be scholar-experts, professional educators, teachers and students. Less
involved players, but still important, would be community members and parents. Under
community members would be business people and politicians. Furthermore, as mentioned in
Amde Silasie (1989), the importance of active participation of the following groups when
developing and improving any curriculum. These are:
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Professional groups (i.e., teachers of various schools, administrators, directors,
principals, university lectures, researchers etc);
Representatives of governmental bodies (i.e., ministerial bodies, heads of
organizations, etc)
Citizens, particularly parents and students;
Other concerned bodies i.e., project directors, authors, publishers, etc; and
Various persons i.e., representatives of non-government or organizations, etc).
From many educators’ (especially the proponents of the objective centered school) point
of view, these are the key elements to be basically concerned in processing curriculum
development and improvement. This is because part and parcel of the society is affected by
curriculum decisions, thus, all the concerned bodies of a nation must participate in making
decisions so as to be able to inspect the view and contributions of other people. Hence,
curriculum development and improvement, if it is to be democratic and effective, the
involvement of at least the representatives of various groups and of concerned individual
who are directly or indirectly affected by curriculum decisions and results is to crucial
importance.
In addition to this, Fullan (2001), Partt (1980), Ornsten and Hunkins (2004), explained
that different groups such as students, teachers, parents, associations, administrators,
community leaders etc should be involved and participated in the process of curriculum
development. Many participants out side the school district affect the nature and scope of the
curriculum and influence who will plan the curriculum. According to Ornstein and
Hunkins (2004), these participants exist at various levels i.e., the Federal Government,
State Agencies, regional organizations,and other participants like educational publishers, testing
organizations, and professional organizations.
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2.2 Curriculum Centralization versus Curriculum Decentralization
The Ethiopian school curriculum, like most African school curricula, has been influenced by
such factors as dominating or competing ideologies and also donor countries and funding
organizations have injected alien to the society (Dereje, 1998).such problems do not seem to
have been surmounted completely even today.
According to Dereje, these and other problems led most African education systems to a highly
centralized management that denies curriculum relevance. Curriculum in most African countries
had also the privilege of control and patronage, therefore, what is taught and how it is taught in
schools is all decided at one center .This tells us that centralized curriculum cannot satisfy the
needs of the learner and public at large. Centralized curriculum activities do not and cannot enjoy
immediate and healthy professional relationships between and among educators who are
supposed to work for the common educational objectives. Moreover, the content and approach of
the teaching –learning processes are too far detached from actual life of the learner, thus, lacking
in practical meaning and application.
The centralized system of education in Ethiopia did not allow curriculum relevance, equity
between the urban and the rural, gender considered. Therefore, quality and efficiency reforms
have never been to the satisfaction of the public (Dereje, 1998).This has led to a constant and
series of changes in the Ethiopian Education system in general and curriculum in particular.
Hence, after the 1990s change of political power and the socio-economic restructuring process
reform in the education system was found to be imperative.
Consequently, the need for the drafting of the Education and Training Policy was felt which also
called for the curriculum reform, a prime strategy set for the policy implementation.
Based on the decentralization guide lines, both the center and Regional Education Bureaus have
been exerting relentless efforts in the last five to six years .Now they have almost realized the
primary curriculum reforms and a complete phasing in is expected to take in the immediate
academic year all over the country except in the Somali Regional state. (Dereje,1988)
23
(Dereje 1998) also suggested that decentralization of education serves the purpose of
empowering the public, who are directly responsible for and also the beneficiary of the school it
has instituted. In other words, it creates favorable conditions for the school-community
intersections. The fact that educational organization and management is the prime responsibility
of the community and its corresponding lower government echelonsmakes smooth professional
and administrative communications among the educational personnel.Decentralization of
education is also another viable strategy to maintain curriculum relevance. It is not only that
curriculum planning and implementation are done at the grass –root level, but there is also
abroad participation in terms of local professionals and the invaluable in puts that come from the
community in the time of its design and its implementation.
2.3 Benefits of Decentralization of the curriculum
Under appropriate conditions, all forms of decentralization can play important roles in
broadening participation in political, economic and social activities in countries. Where it works
effectively, decentralization helps alleviate the bottlenecks in decision making that are often
caused by central government planning and control of important economic and social activities.
Decentralization can help cut complex bureaucratic procedures and it can increase government
officials' sensitivity to local conditions and needs.
Decentralization can help national government ministries reach larger numbers of local areas
with services, and allow greater political representation for diverse political, ethnic, religious,
and cultural groups in decision-making, Decentralization can relieve top managers in central
ministries of "routine" tasks to concentrate on policy,In some countries, decentralization may
create a geographical focus at the local level for coordinating national, state, provincial, district,
and local programs more effectively and can provide better opportunities for participation by
local residents in decision making.
Decentralization may lead to more creative, innovative and responsive programs by allowing
local" experimentation", Decentralization can also increase political stability and national unity
by allowing citizens to better control public programs at the local level( Neven,1998).
24
At least five conditionsare important for successful decentralization: The decentralization
framework must link, at the margin, local financing and fiscal authority to the service provision
responsibilities and functions of the local government - so that local politicians can bear the costs
of their decisions and deliver on their promises, the local community must be informed about the
costs of services and service delivery options involved and the resource envelope and its sources
so that the decisions they make are meaningful.
A mechanism by which the community can express its preferences in a way that is binding on
the politicians -so that there is a credible incentive for people to participate, there must be a
system of accountability that relies on public and transparent information which enables the
community to effectively monitor the performance of the local government and react
appropriately to that performance- so that politicians and local officials have an incentive to be
responsive; and, the instruments of decentralization -the legal and institutional framework, the
structure of service delivery responsibilities and the intergovernmental fiscal system- are
designed to support the political objectives. Fulfilling these goals (or at least having local
governments improve upon the central government’s record) is a tall order, but achievable.
Successful decentralization is closely related to observing the design principles of: finance
following (clear assignment of) functions; informed decision making; adherence to local
priorities; and accountability. However, applying these principles in practice has not proven to be
simple.
Country circumstances differ, often in subtle and complex ways; consequently the policy and
institutional instruments that establish decentralization have to be shaped to the specific
conditions of individual countries.
2.4 Factors Affecting Decentralization of Curriculum
Empirical studies have shown that adopting the role of curriculum developers creates tremendous
demands on classroom teachers; many teachers are not adequately prepared nor do they have the
experience necessary to undertake curriculum design tasks (Cocklin, Simpson, & Stacey, 1995;
Hannay, 1990; Keys, 2000 cited in Marsh, 1992).Moreover, as pointed out by Marsh (1992),
among the common problems they would experience are the following:
25
o lack of time—to plan, to reflect, to develop curricula;
o lack of expertise—knowledge, understandings, skills;
o lack of finance—for materials, for teacher relief days;
o externally imposed restrictions—by employers, parents;
o a threatening school climate—numerous resistors, lack of effective leadership
Curriculum development activities are not located at the school level. They argue that centrally
based curriculum developers fail to take into account the diverse needs of students and teachers
in a particular school. “Top-down” modes of curriculum development, ignore classroom teachers
and provide them with little incentive, involvement, and job satisfaction (Marsh, 1992). The
materials developed , thus restrict teachers’ professional decisions about the selection,
sequencing, means, and modes for imparting the content (Smith, 1983)
2.5The Decentralization Policy of Ethiopia
Unlike the previous government, the post-1991, government embarked on decentralization policy
to legitimize the new state and empower the citizens and/or country’s ethnic groups located by
regions (Galshberg& Winkler, 2003) and devolve power to the local level following the 1992
charter of the transitional government of Ethiopia (Garcia &Rajkumar, 2008; Gebre-
Egziabher&Berhanu, 2007). It was intended to open the way for regional and local governments
and through them for local communities, to take greater responsibility, financial and otherwise,
for managing their own affairs, including the delivery of social services (Dufera, 2005; Garcia
&Rajkumar, 2008). Since its inception the decentralization process has passed through two
phases: decentralization devolution (1991 - 2002) and district level decentralization policy (from
2002 to the present).
During the decentralization devolutions period the transfer of power and function were limited to
the regions. Regions were made to deliver all health and education services except tertiary level
education and training of secondary school teachers (Garcia &Rajkumar, 2008). At the time
regions were dependent on federal government while woredas were dependent on the regions
(GebreEgziabher&Berhanu, 2007). The woredas and their constituencies had limited
administrative and fiscal autonomy and this has hindered public sector efficiency, grassroots
26
empowerment and accountability, and hence, replaced with the second wave of decentralization
(Garcia &Rajkumar, 2008, p. 8).
Unlike inthe first phase, district level decentralization was characterized by devolution of power
and service delivery function further to woreda and sub-woreda and their institutions and the
development of block grant intergovernmental transfer systems. The regions and sub-regions
were to use own resources and to generate additional income from existing resources and was to
increase autonomy in planning and in budget preparation. The regions were given the power to
redeploy more skilled and experienced manpower and to recruit more staffs depending on local
decisions and available budget.
This was supposed to make sub-national levels of government become more independent and
more autonomous compared to decentralization devolution or regional decentralization (Gebre-
Egziabher&Berhanu 2007).The federal state is federated by nine regions and two chartered city
administrations. The regions are formed based on ethno-linguistic locations while the two city
administrations are created based on special consideration. The regions are sub-divided into
woredas, which are again sub-divided into kebelles. Regions have also established zones in their
respective area. The zones are not self-autonomous. They serve as intermediaries between
regions and woredas and help to facilitate administrative and development activities with
technical assistances from regions. The legal and institutional structure of regions and woreda
mirror the structure of the federal one. The Federal constitution defines the power and function
of the regions and the regional constitution defines the power and functions of woredas. Officials
in kebelles are the only paid part-time workers though they have similar functions and
responsibility as officials at the woreda level. Recently, kebelles have been sub-divided and sub-
sub-divided into “Gare” and “Gooxii” respectively for ease of administration and grassroots
mobilization.
The sub-national levels are underpinned by bi-directional accountability to theirrespective
constituencies and their upper tiers. Regions enact and execute state constitutions and other laws;
formulate and execute economic, social and development policies and strategies; administer land
and other natural resources; levy and collect taxes under their revenue source. The woredas
27
implement regional policies, plans, laws, directives and guidelines; coordinate activities of
woreda sector offices; and oversee socio-economic and development activities of their kebelles.
Finally, the kebelle controls the day-to-day socio-economic and development activities in their
jurisdiction; and prepare a consolidated plan in consultation with sub-kebelle and government
teams. The financial strategy is designed so that the federal and regional governments share both
the revenues and cost in order to boost the capacity of regions for developing themselves through
self-initiatives (Gebre Egziabher&Berhanu, 2007). Resources and finances are also further
devolved to lower levels.
The amount of government funding for social services is determined by identifying community
contributions - cash, material and labor. Regions transfer funding in block grants to woredas that
are then to reach the sub-woredas and their institutions. The block grant is intergovernmental
transfer of funds from region to woredas according to a predetermined formula and with
minimum conditionality (Gebre-Egziabher and Berhanu, 2007, p. 10).
2.6 Primary School Curriculum Development and Decentralization in Ethiopia.
Concerning the process of curriculum development in Ethiopia, the task of planning and
developing curricula and curricular materials had been undertaken by the Institute for
Curriculum Development and Research (ICDR) since its establishment in 1975 until
1995.According to Feleke (1990),ICDR had the responsibility to plan curricula and develop
curriculum materials for use in primary and secondary schools all over the country. However,
after the education and training policy was issued in1994, the curriculum development process
has been partly decentralized to regions. Thatis, development of text books of primary education
became mainly the responsibility of respective regional state governments with technical
assistance from Federal organ (ICDR).
This is one, big step forward as far as diversity is concerned in the history of the country. With
regard to the contents of the primary education curriculum, contents areas have been organized
in such a waythatboth the learners and societal perspectives have been taken into consideration
.The primary school curriculum aimsto: prepare children for the changing world they will inherit.
The aim is to help thechildrento develop qualities that will help them play an active, constructive
28
role as future citizens of the world. Work towards developing students who, while developing
pride and confidence in their own culture, will value, appreciate and respect all peoples and will
work towards co-operation and understanding. They will need to recognize the need to share, to
preserve limited resources and maintain the safety of our planet for all.
Strive towards continuous progression and excellence, whilst meeting the educational needs of
the different educational backgrounds and experiences of the children who enter the
school.Students are encouraged to become thinkers and communicators, who can express
themselves confidently and clearly in more thanonelanguage.
The goal of primary curriculum is to offer basic and general primary education to pupils in order
to prepare them for further general education and training .Attempt to reform the policy ,began
before the advent of the ESDP I and continued during its implementation .The emphasis of the
curriculum reform was to design and develop learning materials that shall improve the problem –
solving capacity of the pupils and to make them more productive members of the community
who respect human rights and democratic values. The Institute for Curriculum Development and
Research (ICDR) played a central role in the implementation of the reform, and some regions
have established curriculum In the design of the new curricula two cardinal principles have been
determined to guide the development of the contents for each of the core subjects. These are ;(i)
to connect theoretical knowledge with practical real life situation; and (ii) to use in problem-
solving.
With decentralized curriculum the modalities and approach regarding the teaching of the
languages .It followedthe communicative language teaching’ ’approach with the learner at the
center .With this approach ,the learners will create an atmosphere of real –life situations and
form social interaction in the class room ,so as to solve their problems through communication
social science (which includes history ,geography and civic education ) is essentially a broad -
based inter disciplinary subjects drawing its contents from the varieties of disciplines under
social sciences ,so that it really takes the applied science dimension.
Basic social studies skills are the predominant contents in the lower primary cycle. Similarly,
awareness of cultural heritages, development of the sense of equality, cooperation and tolerance
,fostering love on one’s people and patriotism ,familiarizing students with values, culture and
29
mechanisms of democratic governance and forming basic moral and ethical up rightness ,are the
major contents for the upper primary cycle. The contents are closely related to the major
activities of mankind and to contemporary problem related to socio-economic development. It
should be noted that a series of consultations at regional and central levels with all stake holders
such as professional associations, academic societies, trade unions, parent committees and
individuals have been under taken in the process of designing and implementing the new
curricula. It is reported that, these consultations led to the first and most important step in the
process i.e. the identification of an agreement up on the core subjects .The next step was to draft
national syllabi that served as prototype for developing text books by commissioned text book
writers closely monitored by curriculum experts at the ICDR and their counter parts at regional
education bureaus. The strategy was to have wide perspective in text book writing and at the
same time to ensure adaptation of central syllabi to the learner .There has also been a system of
on the spot evaluation that involved the teachers and pupils comments at the try out process.
2.7. Decentralization of curriculum in different setting
The policies and practices used to implement decentralization vary widely across countries .In
some countries the decision making authority ranges from the central to the individual, and in
others some decision -making authority is delegated to legal agencies of central administrative
units and decentralized decision-making responsibility to the elected officials of local units.
2.7.1 Latin America
A case study of curriculum decentralization in Chile reveals that Chile's education system began
with deconcentration of administration from the central ministry to regional and provincial
department .The implementation of devolution and privatization policies has not had the
expected positive impact on quality while it had a negative effect on equity (parry,1997).Chile's
experience showed that the introduction of market mechanisms resulted in unfair policy
practices, for lower income rural groups that are deprived of information and school alternatives
to make selections and significantly widened the gap in cognitive achievement results
(prawda.1992).
30
Organization of school finance and expenditure as reported for Brazil indicated that,
municipalities finance municipal schools with small federal contribution (10% of the total), in
terms of recurrent expenditure.For financing of capital expenditures, teacher recruitment and
remuneration, each government level was responsible (Winkler,1989,Hannaway and
Carnoy,1993).
In Elsavador ,the analysis of decentralization process indicates that, the management of financial
and human resources in school councils and community association in an effort to improve the
use of resources ,and contribute to higher quality education .However ,there have been successful
and un successful experiences with both, not only in terms of participation but the organization
and administration of transferred responsibilities. Among the factors that have contributed for
success are the political commitment organized community and the continuity of management
(Otero,1998,prawda,1992).`
2.7.2 Africa
In a decentralized system,the local community finances often through voluntary contributions
and constructs school using local materials and construction standards. Especially school
construction and finance tends to be more decentralized then the other components of
elementary-secondary education in Africa and Asia (Wrinkler,1989).
Some case studies have notified that cost reductions have been achieved local due to a shift in
the burden of resource provision from governments to households through extensive in kind-
contributions of the local community .The case in Zambian context shows that the shares to the
primary level have fallen markedly and local contributions to the direct costs of
equipment,instruction materials and maintence have risen (Hopper,1989,in Klugman,1994).
In many countries the central government offers an implicit matching grant to address the
problems of equity. For example in Nigeria it was estimated that 70 % of federal and state grants
to local governments support the primary education scheme (Klugman,1994).
There are also limited evidences for malfeasance to appear as a result of local autonomy. Mwira
(1990) reported that the Harambe schools (kenya) that are not subject to regular auditing suffer
from continued mis appropriations of school funds to corrupt head teachers and school
31
committees.In addition, there were also teacher opposition to local autonomy (Cited in Klugman
,1994).
In most developing countries where inspection are the responsibility of higher authorities ,these
functions are often poorly executed due to inadequate resources (Lock head ,1990).
2.7.3. Eastern Europe
In eastern Europe,former socialist countries are undergoing rapid changes and their educational
systems are influx.The hopes for decentralization includes:the scape from top down ,rigid
bureaucracies,democratization and accountability for individual actions.Some of the fears
were:danger to rely on local authorities with in sufficient financial resources and lack of capacity
to run the school system (Riddel,1994:Cummings and Mc Ginn,1997).
For example,in Poland ,the overall functioning of schools taken over by local authorities has
both negative and positive results.In the year 1997/98,there were well maintained schools within
sufficiently qualified teachers,who ignore the views of local community.Decentralization ,which
gives schools increased autonomy provides active communities at one end and passive
communities that wait government action on the other extreme.
2.7.4. South East Asia
In the Chinese context,Curriculum decentralization has been driven almost entirely by resource
constraints.The central government finances 64% of the total education costs, while local
government ,bridges,enterprises and the mass contribute the remaining cost over 90 % of the
central funding go to recurrent costs. In the country side, the local population finances primary
schools and teaching staff (Rosen,1985 in Klugman ,1994).The case in Philippines showed that
for given levels of enrolment and quality schools that rely more heavily on local funding area
more efficient. Regarding quality, the students at school that relied up on local funding attained
better achievement scores (Simenez et al .1988 in Klugman ,1994).
32
2.7.5. School based management in developing countries.
Several empirical studies involving school based management made in western countries failed
to indicate changes in student learning (Taylor and Teddlie,1992;Weiss 1992,Fullan ;1993 cited
in Watson and Fullan,1999).
Wholstetter ,et al .(1997) found that successful districts introduce changes in the formation
,accountability and control systems to enable schools to become self -improving entities better
able to manage themselves (cited in Watson and Fullan,1999).
Similarly the work of Bryk,et .al (1998) argued that ,maintaining decentralization providing
local -capacity building ,establishing re groups for external accountability and stimulating access
to innovation must be incorporated to support school based management development.There are
some cases under which decentralized strategies at school level are directly linked to
improvements in the quality of learning.The central and middle level management has to shift
accountability and responsibility to the school and community level .Thus, in support of this
Hanson (1997) suggested that, Decentralization is not created by passing a law .Rather it must be
built by overcoming a series of challenges long established behaviors and attitudes ,developing
new skills, convincing people in the centre who enjoy exercising power to give it up, permitting
and sometimes encouraging people to take creative risks promoting and rewarding local
initiatives ,and maintaining continuity with the decentralization reform even as governments
change.
The evaluation of Mombassa school improvement program in kenya by Anderson and Nderitu
(1999) found that,there is evidence of impact on the work of teachers, and their relationships to
students and community members and positive on students learning out comes (cited in Watson
and Fullam ,1999).
Similarly the work of Farah(1996,1997) in pakistan on school improvement indicated the
involvement of parents (community)in school governance and decision making (cited in Watson
and Fullan,1999).The Escuela Neuva project of Colombia a low cost education model, has been
able to improve quality of rural basic education that apply school-based management and school
improvement style(Schiefelbeian ,1999).
33
Indonesian experience showed that, in order to provide school environment which support the
achievement of their students' growth ,the school principals need to have the capability of
managing the school and supervising the teaching learning activity.Thus,the principal
characteristics such as education level,experience,age,training,contribute to student academic
achievement (Cummings,et al.1994).
In general school based management is a means of altering the capacity of the school and
community to make improvements. So placing decision making in the hands of schools will
enable themselves to make more rapid responses about the provision of curriculum resources or
up skilling of teachers and other conditions that improve learning (wylic,1997).
2.8 The consequences of Decentralization
2.8.1 Lessons Drawn from experience
A policy of curriculum decentralization is expected to result in improved education affiance and
worsened equity.Thus the goals aimed at decentralization process includes, accelerated
economic development, increased management effiency,redistribution of financial responsibility,
deregulation, market based education, neutralizing competing centers of power and improving
the quality of education (Hanson,1997).
Riddel (1994) discussed that some lessons can be drawn from decentralization ,such as greater
access to education ,greater differentiation in schooling quality.A trade of access versus equity
and diversity afforded through decentralization can lead to innovation ,However, there may be a
price to pay for national integrity. The task of education planning and dispersed decision -
making in increasingly decentralized system may influence national standards.
Lessons from New Zealand experience of decentralizing authority to schools level showed that
change is catalyzed by a general reform climate, broad public support and requisite
infrastructure, consistent strong and committed political leadership ,action to gain the
cooperation of existing staff and adequate fund(Wylie,1997,perris,1998).Experiences of
various countries indicated that, successful decentralization is closely related to the design
principles of finance, informed decision making adherence to local priorities, andaccountability.
The policy and institutional instruments that establish decentralization have to be shaped to the
34
specific conditions of the specific countries. Wolman (1990) explained benefits of
decentralization and justified that its success is based on wide variable ,such as the
organizational capacity to which power is devolved (management assigned) will determine the
extent of responsiveness (plan resource allocation, monitor and regulate out comes) .
It also depends on the extent to which local communities are in a position to access the
information available, structural arrangements for decision-making and financial control .In
addition to these, decentralization strategies depend on what is decentralized and how ,the levels
and nature of control and whether control over to local level of government
(Subrahamanie,1999).
2.9 Back ground information on Decentralized Curriculum and the Status of Curriculum
in Oromia Education Bureau.
2.9.1. Decentralization of curriculum
Provision of education is one of the statutory local functions devolved to regional governments.
As the result of the decentralization of power after 1991 and the new education policy,the
management of education has been decentralized (except tertiary level) to regions.
The new education and training policy (ETP,1994) is basis to lay the foundation for education
development in response to educational problems manifested in the form of poor
quality,inequitable distribution and un responsiveness to the needs of the learner and the local
community.The goal of the policy has been to restructure,expand educational provision and
make it relevant to the learners.Based on language policy issued,the region has chosen Afan
Oromo and Amharic languages as subjects to be taught and as a media of instruction at primary
level and to develop curriculum materials relevant to its region.
Regional Education Bureau is the primary decision -making centre for the region's education
system. In Oromia,there are 18 Zonal education department under the regional education
bureau.Accordingly,the region has developed a five year plan known as Education Sector
Development program which is meant to approach the fundamental educational problems by
bringing together the efforts of the governments,private,community and donors (OEB,2002)
Thus, to achieve educational objectives, to improve access,equity,relevance quality and
35
efficiency ,educational planning and management becomes central.Therefore, decentralized
management system to support the region's educational objectives was the core for the reform
process.
2.9.2 Problems of Decentralized Curriculum
Decentralization may not always be efficient especially for standardized routine services. It can
result in the loss of economies of scale and control over scarce financial resources. Some
authorities argue for a strong central government role in the provision of elementary-secondary
education ,for reasons like to maximize social benefits, efficient resource allocation ,and better
information to evaluate educational attainment ,equity in educational finance and expenditure
(Wrinkler ,1989).
On the other hand ,the chance of successful change are greatly enhanced, if the decentralization
process transfer positive opportunities to local levels. Thatmeans, if badly maintained schools,
poorly trained teachers, heavier financial demand without the means to pay over burden or
constrained decentralization (Hanson,1997).Weak administrative or technical capacity at local
levels may result in poor quality and inefficiently and less effectively delivered services
.Administrative responsibilities transferred to local levels without adequate financial resources
results in difficulties in implementation.
local government and communities and manage the responsibilities if they have the local
technical and managerial capacity, to carry functions like, decision -making, resource
mobilization and management, communication and coordination ,and conflict resolution
(Tendler,1997).
Some authorities also ill advised to proceed with decentralization .The rationale behind includes
the disagreement in principle, lack of readiness to accept and lack of courage to sustain
constraints in the decentralization efforts. The criticism against decentralization indicates that it
negates national unity and integration ,reinforces narrowness and promotes inequality and thus
becomes cyclical and unstable as likely revert in to centralization
(Mintezberg,1983,Cubban,1990:Glick man ,1990 cited in Brown 1991).
36
2.9.3 .Role of the Central Government in Decentralized system.
The central government can correct the problems of decentralized curriculum system by
employing a combination of regulatory and incentive measures. Theseare, improving information
available to local decision makers on standards and inform employers regarding the level and
extent of knowledge through regulations and mandates by establishing national or regional
standards, increasing educational spending to compensate for benefit spill over's,reducing
horizontal and vertical inequalities and realize economics of scale through centralization of
educational functions (Wrinkler,1989).
37
CHAPTER THREE
RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY
Documenting the research is important for seeing how the conclusions are drawn from the
empirical evidence, to help others who might want to do the research over again and to assess the
overall quality of the study.This chapter presents research methodology applied in this thesis .It
comprises of research approach :research design that includes research strategy ,unit of analysis
and research method ,validity and reliability and ethical consideration .
3.1. Research approach
Research approach refers to the general orientation of conducting a social research (Bryman
,2008).This study employs a qualitative research approach for gathering data and analyzing the
evidence and the approach .In the qualitative research approach knowledge is constructed in an
inductive view .The main emphasis is placed on understanding of social world through the
examination of the interpretation of that world by its participants in a constructivist
perspective(Bryman 2008). A qualitative finding mainly involves verbal statements andemerging
open -ended data in constructing meaning and knowledge (Bryman,2008;Creswell,2003).It
involves participating in or immersing oneself in the social world where people and their
institutions are located and interact with each other,and examining the way they interact together
,the meaning they give to their interactions and the world they are living in (Bryman
,2008,Patton,2002).The Oromia Education Bureau Curriculum experts were selected using
availability sampling technique.Data were selected using qualitative interviews ,focus group
discussion and content analysis from the Oromia Education Bureau.
Qualitative research methodology has been applied to build an understanding of decentralized
primary school curriculum development in Oromia Education.Firstly,qualitative
methodologyallows flexibility in collecting relevant data emerging from respondents that were
not included in the interview guide but worth to answer the research questions (Bryman
,2008).Secondly Qualitative methodology is appropriate for a kind of study that demandsgoing
into where people and their instructionsare located .The use of qualitative methodology
,therefore, has enabled the researcher to interact with experts face- to face in their own words and
38
develop an understanding of the research interview at hand based on practical experience of the
education office. The face- to-face interaction has enabled the researcher to collect enough data
using different qualitative research tools to address the research interview. Finally, the
researcher applied qualitative research approach as available selection of the participants at the
heart of the study. Qualitative research approach is appropriate when the researcher seeks
freedom for selecting information rich participants ,document or site that would help to address
the research questions (Creswell,2003,p.185).The data that could address the research questions
were available from experts and curriculum head.
3.2. Research Design
3.2.1 Case Study
This study has used a case study research design in selecting the area and in collection of data to
explore opportunities and challenges of decentralized primary school curriculum development. A
research design is crucial in thinking how to guide data collection ,its analysis and interpretation
;how to establish a link between research question ,data analysis and conclusion and how the
research question can be addressed. Yin (2003,p.20),for example ,defines research design as '' a
logical sequence that connects the empirical data to the study's initial research questions, and
then ultimately ,to its conclusions". A research design comprises some elements ;the research
questions and strategy ,its propositions ,the units of analysis, the logic linking the data with
research questions and its prepositions and the criteria for interpreting the findings(Yin,2003 ).To
achieve the objective of this study, a case study research design is applied. A case study design
is “an empirical inquiry that investigates a contemporary phenomenon within its reallife context
especially when the boundaries between phenomenon and context are not clearly evident” (Yin,
1994, p. 13). Case study design can be a single case, such as, a person (e.g. a student), a
principal, a program, a specific policy, a school, a community or organization or a multiple case
study, such as when it involves two or more cases at the same time (Merriam, 1998). Case study
involves an intensive examination of the case in question with the primary task of understanding
the case per se (Bryman, 2008; Stake, 1995).
Similar to other social researches, a case study design is not perfect because of weaknesses
embedded in the method. Other research designs in social research could be equally or more
important to collect data for the same purpose. Therefore, the use of case study will not
39
discredit the worth of other social research designs for this study. Nonetheless, case
study design is preferred for the following six considerations.
Firstly, a case study is appropriate to answer the research questions of the type in this study. Yin
(2003, p. 1) urges that case study is appropriate for ''how‟ type of research question. The first
research question ofthe study is ''how‟ type of Yin‟s category research question. While the last
research question, besides the views of Curriculum Head and Curriculum officers, it needs
the analysis of documents as part of a case study (Yin 2003)
Secondly, curriculum experts in syllabus development for the primary schools by adapting
federal syllabi in general and in text book preparation and teachers guide in particular is a
recently emerging contemporary phenomenon in Ethiopia. For a case in point, Yin (2003)
notes that case study design is to be appropriate when astudy deals with a contemporary
phenomenon as opposed to past event.
Thirdly, case study is appropriate when the researcher has little control over the subject of the
study or events (Yin, 2003). The researcher has no control over the participants of this study.
Because manipulating the participants will affect the authenticity and accuracy of data
that then affects the result of the study. Due to this fact, the data has been collected in a natural
social setting of respondents without any manipulation and control except for the gathering of the
curriculum experts for the focus group discussion .
Fourthly, the general objective of the study can be addressed with the use of case study
design. The main emphasis of the study is to explore the current practice decentralized
primary school curriculum development in oromia Education Office.Case study design can be
employed for exploring how a phenomenon is undergoing (Yin, 2003). Fifthly, case study
involves multiple sources of evidence - „documents, archival records, interviews, direct
observations and physical artifacts (Yin, 2003, p. 85). This provides the opportunity to
deal with issues of validity and reliability of the study through triangulating the data. The use
of case study, consequently, has helped the researcher to understand the research
questions through triangulating data from focus group discussion, qualitative interview,
field observation, field notes and documents.
40
Finally, the study has opted for a case study because small number of carefully selected
respondents, which were nighteen (19) , can provide accurate and rich information about
the topic at hand through in-depth examination of issues. This has advantaged the researcher to
manage the work with the available fund and time. Case-oriented approach also works well
when the number of participants is relatively small . A case study is preferred because of the
kind of research questions proposed; the contemporary nature of the phenomenon under
investigation; necessity for collecting evidence in real life setting of the participants; to exploit
the advantage of the availability of multiple sources of evidence that corroborate each other;
the demand for in-depth understanding of issues; and the possibility of using small number of
respondents.
3.2.2. Unit of analysis
This study was based on Oromia Education Bureau Curriculum experts and curriculum head
each was taken from the Bureau. Eighteen (18) of the participants were curriculum experts who
were part of the Bureau and serve mostly in the region . These experts follow the same rule
in developing syllabi for primary school strategy designed at the regional level.
They follow the same curriculum with these considerations the experts and curriculum head
were selected. These participants were information rich about the issue at hand. Their views
were then used to critically examine opportunities and challenges of decentralized primary
school curriculum development and its effects in Oromia Education Bureau.
3.2.3. Research method
Research method is a technique used for collecting data that can involve different
specific tools of data collection through which the researcher listens to and observes others
(Bryman, 2008).
Instruments of Data collection
I. Interview
Qualitative interview was the main data collection instrument for this study. According to
Bryman (2008, p. 699), a qualitative interview refers to a process in which “the
41
interviewer has a series of mostly general questions that are in the general form of an interview
guide but in which the interviewer is able to vary the sequence as well as ask further questions in
response to what are seen as significant replies”. Interviews serve to get insight into things that
cannot be observed directly such as peoples experience, knowledge, feeling, attitude,
perspectives, activities that happened in at some point of time, how people organize and define
their activities or the world through questioning them (Patton, 2002). A qualitative interview
was used based on the above arguments in order to get perspectives of peoples to develop
understanding of the issue at hand with the required level of flexibility. This attribute has
helped the interviewer to change the sequence of questions and to be curious about things
not fully understood on previous interviews. The face-to-face interaction has helped to get into
both verbal and non-verbal communication - through reading the interviewee non-verbal
expressions.
It has also provided the opportunity to ask and get clarifications for questions depending on
the interviewee interest to add more explanation. At both the curriculum experts and Curriculum
department head interviews, guides were prepared before the interviews were conducted. The
interviewer was engaged in questioning and note taking .
II. Focus Group Discussion (FGD)
Focus group discussion was the second data collection instrument used for data collection. The
focus group discussion is a form of group interview in which there are several
participants ranging from six to ten or twelve, who were known to have had a certain
experience in a specific issue and participate in the questioning of about that experience in a
form of particularly fairly tightly defined question and the focus is upon interaction within the
group and the joint construction of meaning (Bryman, 2008, pp. 474-475).
With this consideration, curriculum department head and curriculum experts were organized
and interviewed together. The focus group discussion was used with the expectation that when
people are questioned ingroup they will bring idea that they think important and
significant, argue on it, clarify it, modify it and they may challenge each other. This was
found advantageous to get factual understanding of issues and to filter incorrect ideas from the
focus group discussion . The focus group discussion were intended to get understanding of
42
opportunities and challenges of decentralized primary school curriculum development in Oromia
Education Bureau to probe their knowledge and perspectives for holding certain views and
to enhance the decentralization process in education. The focus group discussion were
conducted based on interview guides prepared before the session . In addition, short notes
were usually taken while the interview was undergoing and to get into none verbal expressions
and for memorizing views that needs further explanation.
III. Content Analysis
content analysis is a method for summarizing any form of content by counting various aspects of
the content. This enables a more objective evaluation than comparing content based on the
impressions of a listener.A wide and heterogeneous set of manual or compute red -assisted
techniques for contextualized interpretations of documents produced by communication
processes in the strict sense of that phrase (any kind of text, written,iconic,multimedia,etc.) or
signification process . The content analysis done in oromia education office for Grade 5 subject
Environmental science Publication year 1999 E.C publisher Oromia Education Bureau No.of
pages 195 No. units 4. Grade 6 subject social studies Publication year 2011 publisher Oromia
Education Bureau No.of pages 68 No. units 4 .Grade 6 subject civic and Ethical Education
Publication year 2003 E.C publisher Oromia Education Bureau No.of pages 164 No. units 11
.Grade 2 subject Mathematics Publication year 2003 E.C publisher Oromia Education Bureau
No.of pages 108 No. units 11 .
3.2.4. Participants of the study
The total number of participants in the formal interview schedule were nighteen (19). The
participants were Eighteen(18) curriculum experts and one curriculum department head,and 18
participants in the focus groups. Of the 18 focus group participants, there were one process
owner and the rest were curriculum experts. This was intended to corroborate datafrom the
formal data collection tools and to get into points that the focus group participants were not
free to express due to privacy cases while they were in group. Most of the formal interviews
were made during the period from April 25– 30, 2016. The selection of the participants have
been taken usavailabilitysampling technique. The participants were randomly selected and
43
then the focus group participants and qualitative interviews believed to be ''information
rich‟ about the issue at hand.
The qualitative interview participants ; curriculum experts , were information rich more than
anybody concerning the overall work of developing syllabi and text book preparation . The
curriculum head was purposively selected and made part of the participants for being
information richness.
3.2.5. Data collection procedures
The interview schedule was held in bottom up approach i.e. curriculum experts and taken
curriculum department head . The researcher Present cover letter from the College of
Education and Behavioral Studies to Education Bureau to start the work. Then, the Bureau
accompanied the researcher with a cover letter to the curriculum department. In turn, the
department gave me a permit to contact curriculum experts and the department head. It was
after this point that appointment was sought for interviews with the participants and to collect
documentary data.
The focus group participants were formally interviewed at small venue in the office
compounds.Here also the interviews were recorded note taking . The officers were given the
interview guide in advance of the interview session to get ready for the interview and to
prepare relevant documents as necessary. The interviews were held based on the appointment
given that all ended up in note taking the interview and obtaining relevant documents.
Generally, the data collection process was conducted in bottom-up sequence having two
levels: curriculum experts and department head .
3.2.6. Data analysis procedures
Through data analysis, a researcher addresses the research depending on the evidence
collected. Data analysis “consists of examining, categorizing, qualitative evidences to
address the initial proposition of the study” (Yin, 2003, p. 109). Data analysis started with
transcribing and translating interview note followed by coding, and then by categorizing.
The data were categorized into different roles of curriculum experts and curriculum department
head played in different aspects.
44
The analysis and discussion were then undergone by corroborating evidence from the
primary sources and secondary sources through examining and comparing with each other
in relation to the research interview guide and focus group .The analysis had adopted a
special procedure for maintaining the anonymity of the education office and participants. The
participant were named group ''A”, and group ''B‟.
3.3. Validity and reliability of instruments
A piece of research to be acceptable, the researcher should show that the data collection
instruments are reliable and the conclusions are valid. Data collection, interpretation and
analysis are based on some logical set of statements (research design); therefore, the process that
undergo from data collection to the conclusion need certain logical test for judging the quality of
the study (Yin, 2003). A social research is not entirely precise science when one studies social
interactions, the question for researchers and consumers of research is then to be able to evaluate
the validity of results and the soundness of the research conclusions based on the
appropriateness of the methodology and the quality of the data upon which the
conclusions are based (Cano, n.d.). In line with this, reliability and validity are the two criteria
for judging the acceptability and quality of this study. Reliability is concerned with whether data
collection instruments can provide consistent results provided that the same datacollection
procedures and instruments are used (Bryman, 2008; Yin, 2003). And validity refers to,
the integrity of the conclusions that are generated from the research (Bryman, 2008). That
means, to what extent the instruments used actually measure or explain what a researcher intends
to measure as the conclusions depends on the result of these measurements. The main purpose of
reliability test is to eliminate bias and errors in a study (Yin, 2003). To this end, at all levels of
work, I had introduced my role as a researcher, expressed what the research is all about, for what
it is going to be employed, and assured the confidentiality of documents and information to
participants of the work.
This decreases the extent of receiving misleading information and losing the relevant
documents that would have happened if these disclosures were missing. To minimize the
errors in data collection, an interview guide wasprepared and approved by the advisor to
guide the focus group and qualitative interview. Furthermore, “case study data base” (Yin,
45
2003, p. 101), in the forms of notes, and reports before and after interviews were parts of
the work. These steps were taken to address issues of reliability of data. A good or valid case
study uses as many sources of evidence as possible for establishing multiple measures for
corroborating evidences for the same fact or phenomenon (Yin, 2003). Multiple source of
evidence (data triangulation and investigator triangulation) adds strength to construct validity .
In this study, evidences had been gathered from Regional Educational Bureau through
qualitative interview and focus group discussion . Herriot and Firestone (1983, as cited in
Yin, 2003, p. 46) argue that “evidences from multiple. Sources are considered more compelling
and the overall study is regarded as robust”. Furthermore, secondary data that includes other
similar studies and the Internet were part of the evidence used in the study. Besides, with the
same rationale, the data collection was conducted in a bottom up approach - the data collection
started at the curriculum experts then followed by curriculum department head.This chain of
gathering evidence helped in explanation for doubt or questions raised at the lower phase
of the data collection. I have used my advisor and fellow friends to check the reliability of
methods, interview guides, before the work starts and will also use in the analysis, for the matter
of checking coherence between the research question and conclusion based on the existing
data sets. While doing the work I have triangulated ideas with others who have knowledge
of the issue and target area of the study.
3.4. Ethical consideration
The letter from the College of Education and Behavioral Studies was presented to Oromia
Education Bureau and got permission to conduct the work with the curriculum department. At
all levels of the work, participants were asked to participate in the interview for which they
can agree or disagree to participate. Then, explanations were made about what the research
is about, the research objectives, and what is expected from them to participate. Besides, the
researcher assured them, the confidentiality of their information, documents and anonymity of
participants when analysis made on the data and reporting the result. Subsequently, the
interviews were conducted .
46
CHAPTER FOUR
4. PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF DATA.
4.1. General personal Information about Informants.
The chapter deals with the presentation and analysis of the data collected from the respondents.
The first part of the chapter discussed about the characteristics of respondents while the second
part deals with the analysis of the findings of the study. Corresponding to the basic research
question. Under this topic personal data of the 18 curriculum experts and one curriculum head
are presented .
Table 1. Types and major characteristics of Respondent
NO.
Type of Respondents
Respondents Characteristics Level of
Education
Experience of Respondents in year
Age Sex In curriculum development office
Outside of curriculum development office but in the field of education
36-40 41-45 46&above
Male Female
1 Informant 1
MA 15
7
2 Informant 2 BSC 15 3 3 Informant 3 BA 18 9 4 Informant 4 BSC 15 11 5 Informant 5 BA 17 12 6 Informant 6 BA 16 13 7 Informant 7 BSC 6 16 8 Informant 8 BSC 5 8 9 Informant 9 BA 12 5 10 Informant 10 BA 20 8 11 Informant 11 BSC 18 9 12 Informant 12 BA 17 10 13 Informant 13 BA 6 11 14 Informant 14 MA 21 8 15 Informant 15 BA 7 5 16 Informant 16 MA 17 6 17 Informant 17 MA 10 7 18 Informant 18 MA 17 9 19 Informant 19 BA 8 7
47
As indicated in Table 1 most of the curriculum experts in oromia Education Bureau had a
qualification of BA/BSC in different fields.Thus,out of 18 curriculum experts and one
curriculum coordinator (head) in Oromia Education Bureau, only 5 of them have specialized
(had second degrees)in curriculum and Instruction .Concerning the work experience of
respondents, the above shown in table one, majority (83%) of the respondents are in the group
of thirty six to forty and forty six and above years.This seems that the curriculum experts have a
good experience ,either in the use or the task of curriculum development, on the other hand, one
female is assigned as curriculum expert in the department.
Regarding respondents' level of education and experience, the table shows that the experts served
in the field of education outside of curriculum development office as well as in the curriculum
development office.
From the above discussion it seems that, curriculum development department of oromia
Education Bureau lacks specialized curriculum experts who contribute to a better curriculum
work experience.
4.2.The process /stage of Curriculum Development for Primary Schools.
Regarding the process of curriculum development for primary schools in Oromia Regional state
the interviews and focus group discussionswere made with curriculum experts and content of the
text bookswere analyzed .In connection to this .Among the informants, informant1, explained
that the need assessment was made by the Ministry of Education .
Based on the need assessment made the objectives were developed by the Ministry of Education
,Next to this ,the syllabus was prepared by the Ministry of Education in collaboration with
curriculum experts of the regions .Taking the syllabus as a frame work of the curriculum for
primary education and based on the objective situation of our region, we adopted the syllabus
and prepared text books and teachers' guide from the syllabus (25/08/08).
Concerning the process of curriculum development for primary school the informant (I6)also
responded similar response to that of informant I1.
48
As it is discussed in shiundu and Omulando (1992) the four major stages of curriculum
development in Tyler(1949),are so broad and show the planning process .They also conceal the
many details of curriculum development activities.
As a result ,they suggested a more detailed curriculum development process with nine stages.
• Situational Analysis (need assessment)
• Formulation of objectives
• Setting up the curriculum project
• Programme building
• Pilot the new programme in selected schools
• Improving the new programme
• Implementation
• Evaluation
• Maintenace
It fits with what is practically followed in the real practice. Almost all the informants who
participated in the study agreed that the process of curriculum development for primary schools
started by assessing the needs of the schools.This task was accomplished by the curriculum
development and distribution process of Federal Ministry of Education .In connection with this
,Informant I2,explained that ,
The process of developing a curriculum for primary schools began from
the need assessment of students,parents and the community which was done
by MOE.Based on the need assessments made the objectives were set out
and the flow chart was prepared by MOE. After the preparation of flow
chart ,syllabus for each grade and subject was prepared by
MOE.Next,curriculum experts from the regional education bureaus were
49
invited by curriculum development and distribution process of Federal
Ministry of education to discuss,comment on and modify (improve) the
prepared syllabus.
Based on the syllabus prepared by MOE and the objective situation of our
region, we translated it to Afan oromo and from that we prepared the text
books and teachers' guide ,Curriculum experts from Oromia Education
Bureau ,teachers from colleges and teachers from different primary schools
were participated .Finally, the prepared text books and teachers' guides
were tested in selected schools and based on the field trial feed backs
collected from teachers and students the text books and teachers' guides
were modified and ready for final implementation (25/08/08).
The rest informants share similar ideas. The content analysis concerning this issue confirms the
response from the books .
Regarding the process of developing a curriculum ,especially in the current education system of
Ethiopia it started from the needs assessment that appropriate and mandatory. As a result, it is
possible to develop a curriculum, which is relevant to needs of the society.
From the above discussion of informants and content analysis ,it is possible to understand that
some of the texts used in the primary school education in oromia regional state were prepared in
the region.
on the other hand, from the responses of most of the informants and content analysis ,it seems
that there is no explicitly set itemsused in developing the curriculum for primary schools in
Oromia Regional State.
Eventhough, it seems that no explicitly identified item used in developing the curriculum, the
response of most informants showed that the developed curriculum for primary schools was
based on problem solving approach or activity oriented or student centered approach.
It is evident that in most cases textbooks are developed based on thecurriculum guide, the
syllabus. A syllabus contains learning objectives, contents, teaching/learning methods and
50
evaluation techniques. Thisenables textbook writers to make framework for the depth and width
of the material. Objectives stated in the syllabus describe what the learner will be able to
doWhen the learning process has been successfully completed. Textbooks aretherefore, prepared
to support the attainment of these objectives and tofacilitate the learning process. Accordingly,
the textbooks under the studywere prepared to attain the objectives stated in the syllabuses
developed byICDR.Analysis of the incorporation of environmental issues in these textbooks
ismade in accordance with the objectives stated in the correspondingsyllabuses. Contents in the
syllabuses are organized in such a way that they keep thepedagogical relationship of contents and
their integrity. This is becausecontents are clearly influential both on the processes of
textbookdevelopment and on the learning process. Analysis of the content relationbetween the
textbooks and the respective syllabuses were made. TheInvestigation of their relationships is
below.
Relation of Syllabuses and Textbooks Contents
Contents in the Syllabus
Science Grade-5
1. Breathing system and respiration
2. Human nervous system
3. Hormones
4. Reproduction in animals
5. Conservation in plants
6. Conservation of Resources
7. Force, Machines and Energy
8. Classification of Substances
Social Studies Grade-6
1. 1.The universe and our world
2. World people
3. Great thoughts of the world
4. World great civilization
5. World heritages
6. Government systems and
democracy
51
7. Major world economic and
international relations
8. Great civilizations of the world
9. Historical heritages
10. Government systems & democracy
11. International relations
As observed from the text books there is significant variation of the order of contents in the
textbooks with that of the syllabuses, particularly regardingthe contents related to environmental
education. In Grade five sciences, forexample, the unit that is relatively appeared to present
environmental issuesis unit six in the syllabus, where as in the textbook it is the last unit,
uniteleven. Similarly, in Grade six science, the unit that stands first in thesyllabus (Basic
Environmental) is the last (unit nine) in the textbook.
In Grade five science, there are eight units in the syllabus where as it iseleven in the textbook.
This is due to that unit seven in the syllabus is splitinto four distinct units. It is of course
reasonable to present these units insuch a way that they are more comfortable to present and to
learn thetopics.Bringing environmental related units at the end of the textbooks by itself
hascertain implications. However, according to the regional curriculum development experts,
theseunits were brought at the end of the textbooks to relate the lesson with theseasons when
sufficient amount of water and variety of plants are commonlyfound in the region. especially
different types offlowers are more available at the beginning of a year (Ethiopian New Year)than
at the end. Water is also found adequately during this time. Second, itis more essential for the
students to learn with what they have in theirenvironment than missing it at all in case of certain
disruptions. In social studies, there is no single unit prepared to present environmentaleducation.
Regardless of this, the units in the syllabuses are presented inthe textbooks with some topic
modifications. For example, in Grade five, theunit "African Natural Environment" (unit one) in
the syllabus is sated as"Formation of African Continent" in the textbook.
4.3 Evaluation of Curriculum Experts involved in the Process of Curriculum Development
for Primary Schools .
Those who participated in the curriculum development process should possess the knowledge of
an agreed up on Item. The developer should be an investigator rather than reformer .He/She
52
should start from a problem not from a solution .In addition,he/she should not aim to be right ,but
to be competent(Sten House,1983:120).Thus,to make the curriculum including the course of
study basically sound, they must be built on knowledge and understanding .They must be backed
by sound research (Krug,et al,.1956).
In addition to this,Krug and his friends stated that '' those who are working in the area of
curriculum development should have knowledge and access to the basic research in such broad
areas as child growth ''.
In this section i.e. about an evaluation of the curriculum experts in terms of experience,
competency and qualification, the views of the coordinator of the curriculum and evaluation
work process department in Oromia Education Bureau and the content analysis are
presented.Regarding this issue, informantI1, explained that,
There is a difference among the curriculum experts in their knowledge or
understanding about the curriculum development .There are experts who have
relatively adequate knowledge or understanding and there are also curriculum
experts who are less in their understanding about the process of curriculum
development. But, what is appreciable about these curriculum experts is that they
fully devoted and self initiated in their work .Concerning their qualification, there
are only five personnel from the department who have MA (master in curriculum
and Instruction).The rest have a qualification of BA/BSC in different
subjects.Regarding the experiences of each curriculum expert in curriculum
development process, the minimum services of years as a curriculum expert is
twelve years (25/08/08).
In Oromia Education Bureau department of curriculum development, there are 18 curriculum
experts and one curriculum coordinator .From these only five of them have specialized in
Curriculum and Instruction (MA in Curriculum and Instruction) and the rest thirteen (13)
curriculum experts have a qualification of BA/BSC in different fields.
53
From the above explanation of the informants and the focus group discussion,it is possible to
understand that though there was a good work experience of the experts ,their level of education
to the work of curriculum development is not adequate.
4.4. Institutions' Involvement in the Curriculum Development
In principle,curriculum development is not an activity of a single individual or individuals .It
rather needs the involvement of many parties in the process of developing it.This is because ,the
designed curriculum is going to be implemented and changed in to reality in order to attain the
objectives intended.For attaining these objectives different parties like teachers,
students,administrators,etc.In addition to curriculum experts should be involved. With regard to
this,Fullan (2001),Pratt (1980),Ornstein and Hunkins (2004),explained that different groups
such as learners,clients,teachers,parents,associations,administrators,community leaders etc
should be involved and actively participate in the process of curriculum development.
Regarding the institution involved in the development of curriculum for primary Schools
,Informant I2, explained that ''The stake holders involved in developing a curriculum for primary
schools were teachers,curriculum experts from oromia Education Bureau ,students and the
community''(25/08/08).
All the informants share similar idea with informant I2 .The document analysis also showed that
the institution in the process of curriculum development for primary school were the
students,thecommunity(thesociety,UNICEF,UNSECO,USAID,ETHIOITALIANCOOPERATIO
N and commission for pastoralists of Oromia Region).
The education sector receives support from Netherlands, USAID. Thesesupports come partly as
budget support and sector support. Among all USAID is the biggestof these donors within the
education sector. MOE prefer part budget support and part sectorsupport. This will help fair
division of aid within all regions and sectors. At present, donorsdo not implement projects and
division of aid fairly. National and regional ESDP I, II and IIIhave been developed by Ethiopian
government. This is done with the representative of REBand MOE. Therefore, ESDP always
work towards government plan. The roles of donors havebeen always limited to consulting of
ESDP. As with many African countries, one of the maingoals include achieving primary
education for all. The Ethiopian government had this targetor plan before the existence of
54
MDGs. In fact, donors including USAID have pushed for years primary education. However,
the Ethiopian government has decided to keep the targeton 8 years of primary education. Donors
also push mainly for the development and expansionof primary education. However, the
government put forward and implement its plan, which isnot always in favour of donors
including USAID. For example, in recent years thegovernment has opened 13 universities in the
different regions. MOE also expand secondaryeducation throughout the country. However, this
expansion is not sufficient as it is not able toserve the demand. Even though, MOE not always
have equal level negotiation with USAID,they use their ability to convince this specific donor
.convincing is best..One of the USAID conditionality includes MOE having to buy products and
also employexpatriates from the US. In relation to education policy USAID does not have a
directinfluence. MOE has the obligation that donor support to the education sector has to fit
intoESDP. Therefore, USAID always make sure that their project (BESO) would help Ethiopia
toachieve ESDP. In fact, BESO I is considered to be a pilot project and came more or less at
thesame time as ESDP I. Under project implementers USAID provide meeting, workshops
andtraining. MOE make sure the relevant employees attend relevant training or meetings. In
thepast, REB were not strong, and the problem of sending irrelevant employees was taking place.
USAID runs masterprograms in Curriculum Development and Education Planning and
Management (EDPM) inAddis Ababa University. These programs are designed to upgrade the
competence of peoplewho are already in the system. However, this education has not always
served its purpose, asmany individuals have left the government to work for NGOs. International
institutions arestealing government employees without any compensation. Additionally, USAID
directlyinfluences the education policy of Ethiopia and ESDP. USAID has also been involved
indesigning the content of curricula. Joint Review Meetings (JRM) takes place in Ethiopia.
Inthese meetings donors including USAID dictate and put strong demands on the
Ethiopiangovernment. In fact within these meeting the World Bank is the most influential one.
Donorsare also said to be against technical education.
From the discussion with the informants and the document analysis made, it is possible to
understand that the stake holders involved in the
processofdevelopingthecurriculumforprimaryschoolswereteachers, students, community different
organizations (government and non -government),and regional curriculum experts .As clearly
indicated in the documentsentitled"The process of preparation and distribution of curriculum for
55
primary education in oromia regional state "the demand /request ofinstitution in the preparation
of curriculum was assessed by teachers and curriculum experts of the region .
Furthermore, those doing in the curriculum work need to have samples of current
instructionalmaterials available and should have access to the best professional books in the
fields of which they are working .These provide general back ground, suggest new approaches,
list up-to-date materials, stimulate creative thinking and give the points of view of recognized
leaders in the various fields(Bishop,1985,247-248).
Similarly,Derebsa (2004) noted that, some pre-determination must be made before initiating
curriculum development. There must be tangible resources: the required personnel and sufficient
time should be available to allow reasonable expectation of success.
Concerning the number of curriculum experts required (needed) for each subject area, the
informants were interviewed to forward their ideas. Among the informant explainedthat
'' Assigning only one curriculum expert for each subject area is not enough ,For instance, if we
want to conduct research on the subject area or if we want to evaluate and modify the curriculum
already prepared, the involvement of more than one curriculum expert for each subject area is
very important''.(25/08/08).
4.5 .Major Problems of the Development of Curriculum in Decentralized for Primary
Schools in Oromia Regional State
As it was mentioned in the previous sections, according to Urevbu (1991) one of the sources of
problem of curriculum is the deviation of the goals of education from the actual needs and
problems of the learner and society which result in an irrelevance curriculum.Another source of
problems of curriculum, according to Aeth (1978) and Lewy (1977) is an importation of foreign
educational experience without attempting to adapt it to the actual developing countries.
Furthermore, other curricular problem that could be mentioned aboutcurriculum according to
Bowman and Anderson, (1982) is that curriculum is designed on the basis of nationally
formulated goals. Such a curriculum does not take into account the local ecosystem, cultural and
religious,values, occupationalopportunities, and learning experience of students.
56
Regarding the major problems encountered throughout the process ofprimary schools
curriculumdevelopment in Oromia Regional State, Informant,I1 explained that
People give less attention to the curriculum work.From this point of view,they say
that ''every teacher can prepare a curriculum material '' Inability to discuss with
the society about the curriculum,absence of short term training for curriculum
experts, shortage of curriculum experts on some subject areas such as music are
some major problems of the development of curriculum materials for primary
education in Oromia Regional State Since 1995.(25/08/08).
Another informant,I4 also explained it as follows:
In our library we couldn't find relevant reference materials that help us
in developing the curriculum materials .It is difficult to get reference
materials about the experience of different countries in developing the
curriculum .In addition to this ,up to 13/01/08 there was no access to get
the service of internet,we are too late to get internet service some time
there was a case in which MOE does not invite us to participate on
preparation of the syllabus making the three sub process as (the
curriculum development sub process ,the assessment sub process, and
certificate delivery sub process and ICT sub process )to work in one
office creates disturbance on the work process among the three sub
process. (25/08/08).
Sharing similar ideas, informant, I3 ,also explained that
The place of work for developing curriculum materials was not
suitable.Relatively now, it is better except the three sub processes are
made to work in one office where the voice of one sub process disturbs
the work of the other sub processes. We have no relevant reference
materials in the library that could help us developing the Curriculum .we
are also too late to get internet service .The probability of joining higher
education (especially, graduate programmed)was narrow.
57
Assigning only one curriculum expert for one subject area is not enough. The reason is two or
more curriculum experts on one subject area do better than one curriculum, expert. Finally, there
is shortage of budget for experience sharing with curriculum experts other regions(25/08/08).
In general, from the above discussion it is possible to understand that though the present
atmosphere for developing curriculum ofprimary schools in Oromia Regional state seems better
than that of certain years back, still there are some major problems encountered in the whole task
of curriculum development .
The informants' view and focus group discussion made on the major challenges of
development of curriculum development in Oromia Regional State are listed as follows.
• There is no short term training for curriculum experts.
• lack of related reference materials in the library that could help curriculum experts in
developing curriculum materials
• Absence of partition in evaluation and curriculum work process office that separate one
sub process from the other in order to minimize the disturbance of noise among the three
sub process in one office.
• Lack of professionals on the areas.
• Lack of budget to share experience of different curriculum experts of different regions.
• too late to get the service of internet
• Probability of up grading curriculum experts through education was less especially, for
graduate programme is rare.
In the document analysis, too, the curriculum for primary education is not clearly indicated and
stated clearly, the Regions and the Federal state.
From the above documents analysis, it is possible to understand that some of the text book
clearly stated used to develop the curriculum for primary school education in Oromia regional
58
state. On the other hand, from the other text book content analysis, it seems that there is no
explicitly identified model used in developing the curriculum for primary education in oromia
regional state. Even though, it seems that no explicitly identified model used in developing
a curriculum, the responses of most informants shows that the developed curriculum for
primary education was based on problem solving approach or activity oriented or students
centered approach.
59
CHAPTER FIVE
5.SUMMAR, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATION
5.1. SUMMARY
Education, as a very important factor to human development, is a process by which man
transmits hisexperiences,new findings and values accumulated over the years, in the struggle for
survival and development, throughgenerations. It also enables individuals and society to make
all-rounded participation in the development process by acquiring knowledge,ability,skills and
attitudes (TGE,1994).
These roles of education can be materialized when the curriculum is designed reflecting the
needs of the social forces existing insociety. Some prominenteducators (Tyler,1949,Taba,1962)
stressed that curriculum issues are central to education and the curriculum is taken to be at the
heart of the education enterprise.Similarly,Shiundu and Omulando (1992) noted thatthe study of
curriculum is a major aspect of the study in education as a discipline.
Hence, the Education and Training Policy of Ethiopia formulated in 1994 emphasized that the
education and training programs need to be as relevant as possible to the needs of the society and
maintain a certain level of standards .The curriculum in use,also, has to have a direct bearing on
the existing socio-economic policies and directions so that students who come out of the system
are active actors and beneficiaries of the system (Dereje,1998)
In addition to this, the Ethiopian government has devised a decentralization curriculum ,which
enables regional states to pursue educational development goals based on their own objective
conditions,on identified objectives and needs (MOE,2002).
Furthermore, theresponsibility to develop,implement and evaluate primary education curriculum
is given to Regional Education Bureaus (ETP,1994).Therefore,the main purpose of this study
was to investigate about the practice ,opportunities and challenges of decentralized curriculum
development for primary school in Oromia Regional Education bureau since 1995.
60
In the attempt to achieve its objectives this study, raised the following:
1. What does the status of decentralized primary school curriculum development look like
in Oromia regional states?
2. What are the opportunities for decentralization Primary School Curriculum developments
in Oromia regional states?
3. What are the major challenges encountered in decentralize curriculum development for
primary school in the Oromia regional states?
The researcher employed qualitative research approach and case study research method to find
out answers for these research questions.To effect this,18 curriculum experts and one curriculum
head from Oromia Education Bureau were selected for the study.
Interview ,Content Analysis and Focus Group Discussion were used to collect data about the
case under study.The collected data were examined and discussed in words.Based on the
research method employed, the following major findings have been documented in response to
the basic research questions raised in the study.
The study revealed that currently,
In Oromia Education Bureau the department of curriculum development there are 18 curriculum
experts and one curriculum coordinator, of these only five of them have specialized in
curriculum and Instruction.The rest curriculum experts (13 of them) have BA/BSC in different
subject areas.
• The stage of curriculum development process for primary school in Oromia region include
that:
First the need assessment was analyzed by MOE:
Next,the objectives were formulated by MOE:
Based on the formulated objectives, the syllabus was prepared by MOE.
61
Taking the syllabus prepared by MOE as a frame work,the Oromia Regional Education
Bureau adapt its own syllabus for primary schools based on the objective condition of
the region.
From the syllabus prepared by the Federal Ministry of Education, the Oromia Education
Bureau prepared text books, teachers’ guide and manuals.
Before the actual implementation of the prepared curriculum, the text books and
teacher's guide were tested in some selected schools.
Based on the feedback obtained from the try out, the curriculum were modified and
finally made ready for implementation.
The study also disclosed that in developing the curriculum for primary schools in
Oromia Regional State, It is prepared based on "student centered approach'' or ''activity
oriented'' or''problem solving approach''.But had problems of getting materials,trained
human resources.
5.2 . Conclusions
Based on the above major findings of the study, the following conclusions are made.
• Most of curriculum experts in Oromia Education Bureau who played major role in the
curriculum work are not specialized for curriculum development. Except the experience
acquired through the involvement in thetaskof curriculum development they have, no
formally learned knowledge in the area of curriculum development.
• The stage of curriculum development for primary schools in Oromia Regional state seems
that it passed through the stages of curriculum development to be passed.However,the
decentralization is limited to preparing text books and implementation of that along with
evaluation.
• The curriculum developed for primary schools in Oromia Regional state was '' Student-
Centered approach''or''activity oriented ''or'' ''problemsolving approach in developing of
62
curriculum.There have been opportunities to adapt it to local conditions in both in the
adaptation of the syllabi and text book preparation
• The Regional state Education Bureau curriculum development had problems related to
shortage of human resource material and physical constraints.
• The oromia regional education bureau has not yet reached on a full-fledged decentralized
exercise of curriculum development. Its role is largely limited on translating the syllabus
prepared at federal level and preparing text books and teachers guide .
• The curriculum process in oromia region is centralized at regional level where it does not
involve zones and woredas.
5.3 Recommendations
Based on the findings obtained and the conclusionsreached, the researcher recommends the
following.
To develop effective curriculum most of curriculum experts in Oromia Education Bureau
need to get specialized training in the areas of curriculum development process. Moreover,
due attention should be given during budget allocation by Oromia Education Bureau for
short term training of curriculum experts and sharing of experience with curriculum
experts of other regions.
Even though the curriculum for primary education in Oromia Regional state was
developed based on the fact that ''student - centered approach''or''''Activity - oriented''
''problem solving Approach'' the type of curriculum development needs to be clearly
stated,and the curriculum developers need to be aware of it.So that,it enables them in
discharging the curriculum development activities competently and effectively.
The Regional State needs to respond more effectively to local situations and be
encouraged to develop curriculum plans and manage their resources.
The region has to work more in collaboration with the federal MOE to exercise true
decentralization of curriculum development process end-to-end.
63
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Appendix-A
Addis Ababa University
School of Graduate Studies
College of Education and Behavioral studies
Department of Curriculum and Instruction
Interview items to be conducted with a coordinator of Curriculum Development and Curriculum
Experts for primary school in oromia Education Bureau.
Part I.Personal Information
1. Sex of interviewee _______________
2. Age ____________________
3. Work experience of interview _________________
4. Current working position of interviewee__________________
Part II.Interview guide questions for curriculum coordinator and curriculum experts in
Oromia Education Bureau.
1. Have you participated in developing syllabi for which subject?
2. How did you do it?
3. Do you have any needs assessment data about the region?
4. What supports have been given by the FMOE to the region in decentralizing the primary
school curriculum planning?
5. What supports were offered to the zones and schools in adapting the syllabi to their local
realties?
6. How does the regional state involve the concerned bodies (institutions and figures) ?
7. How the regional state has been updating the syllabi?
8. How decentralization of the curriculum development (planning) has been done in
syllabus development?
9. What experiences have been learnt?
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10. What should be done for the future?
II . Text book and Teachers guide preparation
1. Does the regional state write its text books for the primary school?
2. For which subject and grades?
3. When? How many times?
4. Who writes the text books? Teacher’s guides and others (if any)
5. What are the advantages and disadvantages of curriculum decentralization in the region?
6. What is the status of writing the documents?
7. What are the opportunities and challenges in writing these documents?
8. What measures need to be taken by regional state? The FMOE?
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Appendix B
Addis Ababa University
School of Graduate Studies
College of Education and Behavioral studies
Department of Curriculum and Instruction
Focus Group Discussion to be conducted with a coordinator of Curriculum Development and
Curriculum Experts for primary school in Oromia Education Bureau.
Date: _________Venue ______ hall______ Time.start _________End ______
Attendance _________Responsibility_______________
Main Questions Notes from Discussion 1. How do you evaluate the status of decentralized curriculum planning
process?
2. How you evaluate skills, commitment, encouragement support and incentives, competent management and leadership budget and resource to develop curriculum, sufficient reference books and educational materials of the curriculum experts?
3. What is the response of the community, experts and other stakeholders to the curriculum of primary schools?
4. What are the major achievements and recorded from the decentralization process?
- How do you evaluate it 5 .What opportunities prevail to further decentralize the primary school
curriculum?
6. Are the roles of each structural organs (FMOE, REB and others) clearly being implemented since the beginning?
7. What are the challenges of the decentralization of the curriculum for the primary schools in the region?
8. What future actions have to be done so as to improve the practice?
Declaration
I, the under signed, declare that this thesis is my original work and has not been
presented for a degree in any other university and that all sources of materials used for the
study have been dully acknowledged.
Name Kebebe Negewo
Signature
Date
This thesis has been submitted for examination with my approval as university advisor.
Name Lemma Setegn (Ph.D)
Signature
Date
Thank you /