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Chapter 03
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Chapter 3
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3
3.1: Introduction
• The basic organizational structure of the human body is the
cell.
• There are about 75 trillion cells in the human body.
• Cell size is measured in micrometers.
• Differentiation is when cells specialize.
• As a result of differentiation, cells vary in size and shape
due to their unique function.
4
3.2: A Composite Cell
• Also called a ‘typical’
cell
• Major parts include:
• Nucleus
• Cytoplasm
• Cell membrane
Microtubules
Flagellum
Nuclear env elope
Basal body
Chromatin
Ribosomes
Cell membrane
Mitochondrion
Cilia
Microtubules
Microtubule
Centrioles
Microv illi
L ysosomes
Nucleolus
Nucleus
Phospholipid bilayer
Smooth Endoplasmic reticulum
Rough Endoplasmic reticulum
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Golgi apparatus
Secretory v esicles
The Generalized Cell
6
Cell Membrane
(aka Plasma Membrane) • Outer limit of the cell
• Controls what moves in and out of the cell
• Selectively permeable
• Phospholipid bilayer • Water-soluble “heads” form surfaces (hydrophilic)
• Water-insoluble “tails” form interior (hydrophobic)
• Permeable to lipid-soluble substances
• Cholesterol stabilizes the membrane
• Proteins: • Receptors
• Pores, channels and carriers
• Enzymes
• CAMS
• Self-markers
Cell Membrane
Cell Membrane Inner leaflet
Outer leaflet Plasma membranes Cytoplasm
Extracellular matrix
9
Cell Membrane
Cell membrane Cell membrane
(b) (a)
“Heads” of phospholipid
“Tails” of phospholipid
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a: © Biophoto Associates/Photo Researchers, Inc.
Fibrous protein Carbohydrate Glycolipid
Glycoprotein
Extracellular side of membrane
Cytoplasmic side of membrane
Cholesterol molecules
Globular protein
Double layer of Phospholipid molecules
Hydrophobic fatty acid “tail”
Hydrophilic Phosphate “head”
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Membrane
Lipids
Membrane
Proteins
Membrane
Carbohydrates
Phospholipid
Bilayer
Outer Leaflet Inner Leaflet
Phospholipid Molecules Fatty Acid
Tails
Polar Heads
Membrane Lipid Cholesterol
Membrane Lipid Glycolipid
Membrane Protein
Transmembrane
Proteins
Channel Pore
Peripheral Protein
Membrane Carbohydrates Glycocalyx
Glycoprotein
22
3.1 Clinical Application
Faulty Ion Channels Cause Disease
23
Cell Adhesion Molecules
(CAMs)
• Guide cells on the move
• Selectin – allows white blood
cells to “anchor”
• Integrin – guides white blood
cells through capillary walls
• Important for growth of
embryonic tissue
• Important for growth of nerve
cells
Adhesion
White blood cell
Integrin
Selectin
Exit
Splinter
Attachment
(rolling)
Blood vessel
lining cell
Carbohydrates
on capillary wall
Adhesion
receptor proteins
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24
Cytoplasm
• Cytoplasm = networks of membranes and
organelles suspended in the cytosol
• Cytoskeleton forms supportive framework
and is made of protein rods and tubules
Cytoplasm
Cytoplasm Nucleus
Mitochondria Peroxisomes Vesicles
26
Organelles
Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
• Connected, membrane-bound
sacs, canals, and vesicles
• Transport system
• Rough ER • Studded with ribosomes
• Smooth ER • Lipid synthesis
• Added to proteins
arriving from rough ER
• Break down of drugs Ribosomes
• Free floating or connected to ER
• Provide structural support and enzyme activity
to amino acids to form protein
Membranes
Ribosomes
Membranes
(b) (c)
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ER membrane
Ribosomes
(a)
(a): © Don W. Fawcett/Photo Researchers, Inc.
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum
Ribosomes Fixed ribosomes Free ribosomes
Rough & Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum
Rough Smooth
Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum
Membrane-bound Ribosomes
Ribosomes
Free Membrane-bound
Free Ribosomes
Golgi apparatus
• Stack of flattened,
membranous sacs
• Modifies, packages
and delivers proteins
Vesicles
• Membranous sacs
• Store substances
34
Organelles Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Nuclear
env elope
Nucleus
Cytosol
Rough
endoplasmic
reticulum
Golgi
apparatus
Secretion
Transport
v esicle
Cell membrane (a) (b)
a: © Gordon Leedale/Biophoto Associates
Golgi Apparatus
cis- and trans-Face of Golgi Complex
cis-face trans-face
Golgi Apparatus cis-face
trans-face
Transport vesicles
Secretory vesicles
38
Organelles
Inner membrane
Outer membrane
Cristae
(a) (b)
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a: © Bill Longcore/Photo Researchers, Inc.
Mitochondria
• Membranous sacs with
inner partitions
• Generate energy
Mitochondrion
Cristae of Mitochondrion
Cristae
Matrix
Outer mitochondrial membrane
Inner mitochondrial membrane
Mitochondrion
Interaction of Organelles
42
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1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Lysosome Lipids are
synthesized
in the smooth
endoplasmic
reticulum (ER).
Mitochondrion
Cell membrane
Carbohydrates
Nuclear pore
Nuclear envelope
Milk protein genes are
transcribed into mRNA.
mRNA exits through
nuclear pores.
Most proteins are synthesized
on ribosomes associated with
membranes of the rough ER,
using amino acids in the cytosol.
Sugars are synthesized in the
smooth ER and Golgi apparatus
and may be attached to proteins
or secreted in vesicles.
Proteins are secreted from
vesicles that bud off of the
Golgi apparatus.
Fat droplets pick up a layer of
lipid from the cell membrane
as they exit the cell.
Milk
protein mRNA
Milk
protein
in Golgi
vesicle
43
Organelles
Lysosomes
• Enzyme-containing
sacs
• Digest worn out cell
parts or unwanted
substances
Peroxisomes
• Enzyme-containing
sacs
• Break down organic
molecules
Centrosome
• Two rod-like centrioles
• Used to produce cilia and
flagella
• Distributes chromosomes
during cell division
(a) (b)
Centriole
(cross-section)
Centriole
(longitudinal section)
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a: © Don W. Fawcett/Visuals Unlimited
Lysosomes
Lysosomes
Primary lysosomes Secondary lysosomes
Peroxisomes
Centrosome
Centrosome
Centrosome Microtubules
Centriole
50
Organelles
Cilia
• Short hair-like projections
• Propel substances on cell
surface
Flagellum
• Long tail-like projection
• Provides motility to sperm
(a)
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
a: © Oliver Meckes/Photo Researchers, Inc.
© Colin Anderson/Brand X/CORBIS
Cilia
Cilia and Microvilli
Cilia Microvilli
Cilium
Axoneme
Microvilli
Microvilli
Microvilli Microfilaments Glycocalyx
Microvilli - Cross-section
Sperm - Flagellum
Sperm Acrosome Nucleus Axoneme Flagellum Neck Midpiece Principal
piece
Mitocondria
58
Microfilaments and microtubules
• Thin rods and tubules
• Support cytoplasm
• Allows for movement of
organelles
Organelles Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Nucleus Mitochondrion Vesicle
Rough
endoplasmic
reticulum
Cell membrane
(a) Microfilaments Microtubules Ribosome
(b) b: © K.G. Murti/Visuals Unlimited
Cytoskeleton
Intermediate Filaments Microtubules Microfilaments
Cytoskeleton
Intermediate filaments Microfilaments Microtubules
Cytoskeleton
Microfilaments Intermediate filaments
Cytoskeleton Microfilament & Microtubule
Microfilament Nucleus Microtubule
63
3.2 Clinical Application
Disease at the Organelle Level
64
Cell Nucleus
•Control center of the cell
• Nuclear envelope
• Porous double membrane
• Separates nucleoplasm from
cytoplasm
• Nucleolus
• Dense collection of RNA and
proteins
• Site of ribosome production
• Chromatin
• Consists of all the cell’s chromosomes,
each containing DNA wound around
proteins
• Fibers of DNA and proteins
• Stores information for synthesis of
proteins
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Nucleus
Nucleolus
Chromatin
(a)
Nuclear pores
Nuclear envelope
Nucleus
Nucleus and Nuclear Envelope
Nuclear Pores
Nucleolus
69
3.3: Movements Into
and Out of the Cell
Physical (Passive) Processes
• Require no cellular
energy and include:
• Simple diffusion
• Facilitated diffusion
• Osmosis
• Filtration
Physiological (Active) Processes
• Require cellular energy and
include:
• Active transport
• Endocytosis
• Exocytosis
• Transcytosis
70
Simple Diffusion
• Movement of substances from regions of higher concentration to
regions of lower concentration
• Oxygen, carbon dioxide and lipid-soluble substances
T ime
Solute molecule
W ater molecule
A B A B
(2) (3)
Permeable
membrane
A B
(1)
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71
Animation: How Diffusion Works
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Facilitated Diffusion
• Diffusion across a membrane with the help of a channel or carrier
molecule
• Glucose and amino acids Region of higher concentration
Transported substance
Region of lower concentration
Protein carrier molecule
Cell membrane
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73
Animation: How Facilitated Diffusion Works
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Osmosis
• Movement of water through a selectively permeable
membrane from regions of higher concentration to
regions of lower concentration
• Water moves toward a higher concentration of solutes
T ime
Protein molecule
W ater molecule
A
B
A B
(1) (2)
Selectively
permeable
membrane
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75
Animation: How Osmosis Works
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Osmosis and Osmotic Pressure
• Osmotic Pressure – ability of osmosis to generate
enough pressure to move a volume of water
Osmotic pressure increases as the concentration
of nonpermeable solutes increases.
• Isotonic – same osmotic pressure
•Cells placed in isotonic have no net gain or loss
of water.
• Hypertonic – higher osmotic pressure (water loss)
•Cells placed in hypertonic solution lose water.
• Hypotonic – lower osmotic pressure (water gain)
•Cells placed in hypotonic solution gain water.
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© David M. Phillips/Visuals Unlimited
(b)
(a)
(c)
77
Filtration
• Smaller molecules are forced through porous membranes
• Hydrostatic pressure important in the body
• Molecules leaving blood capillaries Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Capillary wall
Larger molecules
Smaller molecules
Blood
pressure Blood
flow
Tissue fluid
78
Active Transport
• Carrier molecules transport substances across a membrane from regions of
lower concentration to regions of higher concentration
• Requires energy
• Sugars, amino acids, sodium ions, potassium ions, etc. Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Carrier protein Binding site
(a)
(b)
Ce
ll m
em
bra
ne
Carrier protein
with altered shape
Phospholipid
molecules Transported
particle
Cellular
energy
Region of higher
concentration
Region of lower
concentration
79
Active Transport:
Sodium-Potassium Pump
• Active transport mechanism
• Creates balance by “pumping” three (3) sodium (Na+) OUT and
two (2) potassium (K+) INTO the cell
• 3:2 ratio
80
Animation: How the Sodium-Potassium
Pump Works
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81
Endocytosis
• Cell engulfs a substance by forming a vesicle around the
substance
• Three types:
• Pinocytosis – substance is mostly water
• Phagocytosis – substance is a solid
• Receptor-mediated endocytosis – requires the substance
to bind to a membrane-bound receptor
Nucleus Nucleolus
V esicle Cell
membrane
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82
Endocytosis
Cytoplasm
V esicle
(a) (b) (c) (d)
Receptor protein
Cell membrane
Molecules outside cell
Cell membrane
indenting
Receptor-ligand combination
Nucleus Nucleolus
Particle Vesicle Phagocytized particle
Cell membrane
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83
Exocytosis
• Reverse of endocytosis
• Substances in a vesicle fuse with cell membrane
• Contents released outside the cell
• Release of neurotransmitters from nerve cells
Nucleus
Endoplasmic
reticulum
Golgi
apparatus
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84
Transcytosis
• Endocytosis followed by exocytosis
• Transports a substance rapidly through a cell
• HIV crossing a cell layer
V iruses bud HIV
Exocytosis
Receptor-mediated endocytosis
HIV-infected white blood cells Anal or
vaginal canal
Lining of anus or vagina (epithelial cells)
Virus infects white blood cells on other side of lining
Receptor-mediated endocytosis
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Cell membrane
85
3.4: The Cell Cycle
• Series of changes a cell
undergoes from the time it
forms until the time it divide
• Stages:
• Interphase
• Mitosis
• Cytokinesis
Apoptosis
G2 phase
Cytokinesis
Restriction
checkpoint
Remain
specialized
Proceed
to division
S phase:
genetic
material
replicates
G1 phase
cell growth
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86
Interphase
• Very active period
• Cell grows
• Cell maintains routine functions
• Cell replicates genetic material to prepare for nuclear division
• Cell synthesizes new organelles to prepare for cytoplasmic
division
• Phases:
• G phases – cell grows and synthesizes structures other than
DNA
• S phase – cell replicates DNA
87
Mitotic Cell Division
• Produces two daughter cells from an original somatic cell
• Nucleus divides – mitosis
• Cytoplasm divides – cytokinesis
• Phases of mitosis:
• Prophase – chromosomes form; nuclear envelope disappears
• Metaphase – chromosomes align midway between
centrioles
• Anaphase – chromosomes separate and move to centrioles
• Telophase – chromatin forms; nuclear envelope forms
88
Mitosis
Telophase and Cytokinesis
Nuclear envelopes begin to
reassemble around two daughter
nuclei. Chromosomes decondense.
Spindle disappears. Division of
the cytoplasm into two cells.
Anaphase
Sister chromatids separate to
opposite poles of cell. Events
begin which lead to cytokinesis.
Metaphase
Chromosomes align along
equator, or metaphase plate
of cell.
Prophase
Chromosomes condense and
become visible. Nuclear
envelope and nucleolus
disperse. Spindle apparatus
forms.
Late Interphase
Cell has passed the
restriction checkpoint
and completed DNA
replication, as well as
replication of centrioles
and mitochondria, and
synthesis of extra
membrane.
Early Interphase
of daughter cells—
a time of normal cell
growth and function.
Cleavage
furrow
Nuclear
envelopes
Nuclear
envelope
Chromatin
fibers
Chromosomes
Spindle fiber
Centromere
Aster
Centrioles
Late prophase
Sister
chromatids
Microtubules
Mitosis
Cytokinesis
S phase
G1 phase
Interphase
Restriction
checkpoint
(a)
(b)
(c) (d)
(e)
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© Ed Reschke
G2 phase
89
Cytoplasmic Division
• Also known as cytokinesis
• Begins during anaphase
• Continues through telophase
• Contractile ring pinches cytoplasm in half
90
Animation: Mitosis and Cytokinesis
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91
Animation: Control of the Cell Cycle
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92
3.5: Control of Cell Division
• Cell division capacities vary greatly among cell types • Skin and blood cells divide often and continually
• Neuron cells divide a specific number of times then cease
• Chromosome tips (telomeres) that shorten with each mitosis
provide a mitotic clock
• Cells divide to provide a more favorable surface area to
volume relationship
• Growth factors and hormones stimulate cell division • Hormones stimulate mitosis of smooth muscle cells in uterus
• Epidermal growth factor stimulates growth of new skin
• Tumors are the consequence of a loss of cell cycle control
• Contact (density dependent) inhibition
93
Tumors
• Two types of tumors:
• Benign – usually remains
localized
• Malignant – invasive and can
metastasize; cancerous
• Two major types of genes
cause cancer:
• Oncogenes – activate other
genes that increase cell division
• Tumor suppressor genes –
normally regulate mitosis; if
inactivated they are unable to
regulate mitosis
• Cells are now known as
“immortal”
Normal cells
(with hairlike cilia)
Cancer cells
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© Tony Brain/Photo Researchers, Inc.;
94
Animation: How Tumor Suppressor
Genes Block Cell Division
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3.6: Stem and Progenitor Cells
• Differentiation: specialization of cells
• Stem cell:
• Can divide to form two new stem cells
• Self-renewal
• Can divide to form a stem cell and a progenitor cell
• Totipotent – can give rise to every cell type
• Pluripotent – can give rise to a restricted number of cell types
• Progenitor cell:
• Committed cell
• Can divide to become any of a restricted number of cells
• Pluripotent
96
Stem and Progenitor Cells
one or more steps
Sperm
Egg
Fertilized egg
Stem cell
Stem cell
Progenitor cell
Progenitor cell
Progenitor cell
Blood cells and platelets
Fibroblasts (a connectiv e tissue cells)
Bone cells
Progenitor cell
Astrocyte
Neuron
Skin cell
Sebaceous gland cell
produces another stem cell (self-renewal)
Progenitor cell
Progenitor cell
Progenitor cell
Progenitor cell
Progenitor cell
Progenitor cell
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97
3.1 From Science to Technology
Stem cells to Study and Treat Diseases
98
3.7: Cell Death
Apoptosis:
• Programmed cell death
• Acts as a protective mechanism
• Is a continuous process
Blebs
Cell fragments
Phagocyte attacks
and engulfs cell
remnants. Cell components are
degraded.
Caspases destroy various
proteins and other cell components.
Cell becomes deformed.
Death receptor on doomed cell
binds signal molecule. Caspases
are activ ated within.
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© Peter Skinner/Photo Researchers, Inc.
99
Important Points in Chapter 3: Outcomes to be Assessed
3.1: Introduction
Explain how cells differ from one another.
3.2: A Composite Cell
Describe the general characteristics of a composite cell.
Explain how the components of a cell’s membrane provide its
functions.
Describe each kind of cytoplasmic organelle and explain its function.
Describe the cell nucleus and its parts.
100
Important Points in Chapter 3: Outcomes to be Assessed
3.3: Movements Into and Out of the Cell
Explain how substances move into and out of cells.
3.4: The Cell Cycle
Describe the cell cycle.
Explain how a cell divides.
3.5: Control of Cell Division
Describe several controls of cell division.
3.6: Stem and Progenitor Cells
Explain how stem cells and progenitor cells make possible growth and
repair of tissues.
Explain how two differentiated cell types can have the same genetic
information, but different appearances and functions.
3.7: Cell Death
Discuss apoptosis.
Describe the relationship between apoptosis and mitosis.
101
Important Points in Chapter 3: Outcomes to be Assessed
102
Quiz 3
Complete Quiz 3 now!
Read Chapter 4.