Post WWII 1945-1989

The Cold War

Europe 1945

• Ravages of war– 6 years, 36.5 million dead, many civilians

– Economies of Germany, France, Britain, USSR destroyed• Industries destroyed, bridges and roads blocked by rubble, rr’s wrecked

• Food shortages everywhere

• Inflation because needed goods to rebuild, none produced

– Political and social collapse• Because of economic collapse and starvation, voting in socialist and

Communist candidates who promise solutions, blamed economic problems during Depression and Post War on failing Capitalism

• US convinced USSR fomenting economic collapse to take over Europe

• USSR out for European domination to spread “revolution” and prevent further invasions

Hindering Recovery

• W Europe second half of 1945-1946 15 European countries increased industrial production from 60% to 83% of 1938 levels, great achievement helped by US loans and aids

• BUT the worst winter in several hundred years in January 1947 hit hard. Recovery stopped. Populations starved and froze, because no food or shelter.

Realities of post war Europe• 50-80% of housing in major cities rubble

– London 3.5 million homes in London destroyed

– Germany 40% , Britain 30% overall, France 20% of homes destroyed

– Berlin 75% of all buildings unuseable

– 500MILLION cubic yards of rubble in Germany

• Transportation in shambles

– Bridges and railroad lines destroyed

– 90% of rail lines in Germany not operational

– Ships and merchant fleets decimated (2/3 of Greek fleet, on which economy depended, destroyed)

– W Europe—no one could go anywhere wo help of occupiers

Human cost• 36.5 million European deaths (roughly the same as the population of pre-war

France) killed from 1939-1945

• VE Day 13 million DP’s—”displaced persons” and increased after war as Soviets encroached. German nationals in Poland, Czechoslovakia, other occupied nations driven back to Germany; POW’s who survived in Russia + east Germans escaping to West Germany; Jews, others from concentration camps and people brought as slave labor to Germany needed to go home; many Russians POW’s in Germany or as slave workers FORCED by treaty to go back to Russia: executed or put into camps in Siberia, treated as traitors/spies

• Occupying Soviets raped as many as 2 million German women as payback for German treatment of POW’s and “slave” labor, especially brutal in Ukraine and Byelorussia, where 40%+ of population executed, enslaved.

• 1946: more Europeans faced starvation than during all war years combined:

– 100 million about 1500 calories/day or less

– 40 million only a few more hundred

Britain• Within 50 years went from top of the world to

economic scarcity, exhausted leadership, loss of Empire (could no longer afford it)– Gave up midE protectorates, particularly Israel– Partition of now independent India: Hindu India,

Moslem Pakistan with disputed territory

• “years of austerity”: by end of war over ½ of national production on war effort; afterwards devastation of aging infrastructure with dispiritedness and exhaustion

France• Wartime France: Vichy collaborators vs Resistance• Consequences: antipathy, suspicion and chaos in post war• Even before war, aging industrial base: couldn’t invest

during Depression; destroyed or plundered during war; lack of infrastructure hindered recovery

• Deprivation– Postwar Paris, people averaged 1330 calories/day– Inflation because little production; demand in order to

recover– Desperation: violence and upheaval– Communist party strength in France

USSR• Russia did “9/10ths of the job of defeating

Hitler” (US navy commander) – For much of the war, 80% of German forces were

engaged against the USSR– The US lost 300,000 in WWII; the Soviets lost 27

MILLION; when Churchill and the Allies put off the Normandy invasion, it was said that they were “willing to fight to the last Soviet death”

– Territory devastated: Nazis destroyed 1700 Soviet cities and towns; 6 million buildings; 31,000 factories; 40,000 miles of track; 90,000 bridges; stole and slaughtered millions of livestock

SO…• Expanded 273,947 square miles of territory including much of

Poland,E Europe and Manchuria (China)

– Demanded as compensation for suffering and guarantee of their security for the future (buffer: all the territory they had taken)

– Support for Communist government in Yugoslavia

– Reparations from Germany (as partial, stripped E German territory they controlled of all that might be useful to the USSR—wanted the rest of Germany, especially expertise and technology, machinery, knowledge and administrative skill)

– Total disarmament of everyone else (especially Germany)

• Yalta: Roosevelt went along with territorial demands to appease Stalin and get him into the war with Japan

• Potsdam: Truman objected, but did not really stand up to USSR

In contrast, the US…• Pre WWII=emerging world power with “meek

military” and suffering economic Depression

• Post WWII=the most powerful country in the world, economically and militarily– One half of the world’s economic production; 2/3 of

world’s gold reserves; ¾ world’s invested capital– US navy and air forces both larger than combined

navies and air forces of the rest of the world– Monopoly on the atomic bomb (temporarily)

The USSR• Economy only 1/3 the US, but world’s 2nd largest

– During 20’s and 30’s had grown key industries

• Greatest and most daunting land military forces.– Had stopped Nazis, rolled them back though

Germany– Had occupied and subdued ½ of Europe and

threatened more aggression in Dardenelles, etc.– Was promoting Communism throughout the rest of

Europe with the message that capitalism had failed Europe, causing the Depression, and could not feed or employ people in the post war world. Communism promised equality, prosperity of Russia

Cold War

• Diplomatic and Ideological clash between US and USSR from 1945 to 1989

• Though small armed conflicts arose between the two powers, no declared war because of the capacity to destroy the world with nuclear capabilities

Lead Up

American View• Russ withdrew from WWI• “Red Scare” of 20’s-30’s• Non-Aggression pact

1939: Stalin & Hitler a betrayal of allies, grab for power

• Atlantic Charter: Roosevelt and Churchill: peace without territorial expansion, free elections for liberated nations

Soviet View• Had to: losing badly• Revolution like 1776• Had to have time to build

up military and move factories E: Communism and fascism = enemies

• Stalin wants US and Brit to move USSR border W at expense of Poland (ratify treaty with Hitler)—got it (then took German territory to compensate Poland)

• Casablanca (1943) Allies promise “invasion as soon as possible”

• Teheran (1943-later) agree to use DDay strategy to win war: Churchill wanted to follow up invasions in It and Africa (protect Brit interests in Medit)

• DDay opened 2nd front, but only after Africa (oil) and Sicily for 2 pronged attack on Germany

• Stalin wanted immediate invasion of France to ease German pressure on USSR

• Roosevelt conclusion that all Stalin wanted was USSR security; thought that if give all and ask nothing from Stalin, wouldn’t annex E Euro

• Allies deliberately delayed from 1942 promise so Germany and USSR could destroy each other

Yalta: Roose, Ch, St agree to 1. Partition Germany 2. Organization of UN 3. USSR to join war vs Japan no later than 3 months after Ger fall

Potsdam: 1. Nuremberg trials 2. Elections in “liberated” countries

• Hiroshima/Nagasaki 6 Aug 1945: only to save million American lives

• Russ entered Pacific war to get territory

• USSR forced permanent division of Ger to spread communism

• Potsdam 1945: Truman and Atlee (Brit pm) call for free elections in E Euro

• “Iron Curtain” warned by Churchill: Stalin spreading communism

• Japan ready to surrender; nuclear blackmail of USSR (somewhat true—Nagasaki)

• USSR declared war on Japan 8 Aug: kept promise, entered wi 3 months of Ger surrender

• United Germany too big a threat to USSR: twice invaded in 20th C

• Stalin refuses: would be anti Soviet, and could not allow

• Europe liberated by USSR; free elections in all those countries won by communists

Creation of UN• Autumn 1944, Washington DC meeting to plan organization for

international cooperation vs war• Dependent on voluntary contributions of $$, troops• Power in Security Council with 5 permanent members: US,

USSR, England, France, China, each with veto power, + 10 rotating members 2 year terms

• General Assembly: all nations that want to join; 2/3 had to approve any action

• Functions:– No power to interfere in any nation’s internal affairs– If one state attacked, all others must aid; BUT security council must

have unanimous approval for any milit. action to be taken– “Peace Keeping” force used to physically separate 2 sides in armed

conflict; only upon request by nations involved– Mediator, fact finding, forum, neutral place for diplomatic

USSR Post War Threats• Iran:

– USSR and Britain share Iran during WWII (and oil) when they thwarted Nazi occupation there

– After war, Britain ready to get out. No money to keep occupation going.

– BUT USSR into Azerbaijan for oil and refuse to leave Iran

– UNTIL their spies in British highest levels let them know that US will fight them there

• Turkey—similar threat– Mass troops on Soviet borders with Turkey

– USSR/Turkish Communists encourage revolt in Kurdish areas in N Turkey

– Again, ready to invade until Soviet sympathizers in Britain reveal intelligence that shows America will go to war (Truman doctrine) against USSR

– Russia draws back. Not willing to go into real war.

Civil War Greece and Turkey• USSR claimed national partisans spread the rebellion; US

saw it as USSR inspired/supplies Communists• Truman Doctrine: “We will support all free peoples who

are being subjugated by armed minorities or outside pressure”

• Stalin’s view: two invasions, therefore, wants absolute military security; believes only Communist states could be trustworthy as allies; free elections would put hostile nations on his borders.

• Each thought the other had violated previous agreements: US vs Russ for taking Poland and E Eur; USSR vs US for not forcing reparations on Germany, uniting Germany under communist rule

US Outlook• 1945 continuation of Lend-Lease, but food, clothing and

other aid; Congress and US people tired, so Truman stopped it.

• US loans to Europe fueling industrial recovery.– such negative balance of payments for Euro, no hope of

repayment – more loans needed just to make payments.

• US policy: UN relief agency to relieve suffering– US putting in 75% of money. – 17 Nation control of where money went—over ½ to E Europe

and Russian controlled Germany. Communists siphon to USSR.

• Communist party inroads all over Europe because of continued suffering.

Marshall Plan• US = European Recovery Act• No US will for military to get Russ

out of E Eur, Balkans and Baltic Republics; saw postwar inflation/insecurity in It and Fr as “international conspiracy”

• Marshall proposed broad economic aid to Europe to work together for mutual benefit

• US: 2 Billion to Europe for rebuilding, but European countries HAD to work together economically for first time

• Aim = “Containment” –keep Communism from any further spread

Map of Europe showing the countries that received Marshall Plan aid. The red columns show the relative amount of total aid per nation.

Soviet Response• Marshall Plan another act of US imperialism, only

to embarrass USSR

• US invited USSR and Soviet controlled nations to participate: Czech, Finland said yes; Poland and Hungary interested: Stalin forbade it (puppet regimes, so forced to say no)

• USSR organized Cominform (old Comintern dedicated to fall of capitalism, establishing Communism worldwide) and Comecon (economic cooperation and aid)

Arms Race: major competition of Cold War

• 1945: Hiroshima (12.5 Kton bomb) = Soviets steal technology and build and test on bomb• 1948: US Intercontinental bomber, replacing WWII long range jets: US develops same• 1954: H Bomb multiplies explosive force of A bomb by one thousand (15 million tons of

TNT force): next year USSR tested million ton bomb• 1957: Intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBM): land base missiles to carry nuclear

warheads over continents—USSR first, then US matched. By 1962, 6,000 mile range, 5-10million ton nuclears

• 1957 Satellites: USSR Sputnik, then US next year: military for surveillance, targeting, etc• 1960: Nuclear powered submarines and submarine launched missiles with US Polaris (1200

nautical mile range) USSR took 8 years to match• 1966 multiple warhead (MRV) missiles: Us carried 3, each with 16 times Hiroshima; USSR

matched 2 years later• 1968: anti-ballistic missile (ABM) USSR 64 missiles around Moscow that could shoot down

W missiles; US Safeguard system 1960; Treaty to restrict =1972, restricted to one site each country in 1974 (US site closed)

• 1970: multiple independently targeted warhead (MIRV) one missile to hit 3-10 targets as far apart as 1– miles: US first, USSR 3 years later:

• 1976: Neutron bomb kills all life without destroying buildings, etc. Agree not to finish developing

• 1982: cruise missile long range missiles adaptable for launching from sea, air or land; highly accurage, low trajectory, follow contours of earth and fly under radar: US leads

• The U.S. performed 1,030 nuclear tests 1945 – 1992; the Soviet Union carried out 715 between 1949 and 1990. In 1963 US and USSR signed the Limited Test Ban Treaty prohibiting nuclear weapons tests in the atmosphere, in outer space, and underwater.

Soviet Domination of E Europe• E Germany: Communist party headed by Germans who has spent war in

Russia, put in by Soviets, trying to convert rest of nation (including W Germany) to Russian Communism– “Elections” to make Communists seem legitimate– Communist leaders in E Germany presided over dismantling of economy, taking all to

Russia as “reparations”; even by 60’s, war damaged still not rebuilt, even in Berlin; took all factory machinery, business machines and goods, ag. Products

– Redistribution of landed estates to landless peasants a failure (owners of big estates executed or imprisoned), since no equipment, animals (all to Russia);

– Because of “reparations,” and brutality of occupying Soviets, hatred of Communists even in E Germ.

• Czechoslovakia: murdered Czech leader and brought under full control of Communists

• Baltic countries: assimilation into USSR, with relocation of nationalities, influx of Russians; Germans pushed out

• Poland: assimilated 1/3 of Polish land, forcing out all ethnic Germans. Under pressure, Communists take over government of Poland itself.

E Europe under Russian dominion:• Throughout E Europe:

– Purges and show trials of anyone not following Russian Comm.– One party state with “elections”; no civil liberties (press, arms, etc)– Attacks on church, religion– Stalinist economic policies: industrialization at expense of

agriculture; collectivize agriculture, where possible; rebuilding of infrastructure very slowly, if at all; no trade w W (black market)

– Close military control and cooperation– “Satellites” regarded as Soviet colonies: Soviets took resources

and riches and left little for locals, supported looting by government officials loyal to USSR

• AIM: create “buffer” against W invasion, influence • Tight control because Tito in Yugoslavia, although communist, free

of Russian rule; keeps ties, trade with W; declares “non aligned”

Marshall Tito• Croat who fought in Austrian army during WWI,

captured by Russia, fought in October Revolution (Russian) and part of Red Guard

• After WWI Kingdom of Yugoslavia; he helped organize Yugoslav Communist Party, so exiled in mid 30’s

• Lead Yugoslavian guerrilla movement “partisans” vs German occupiers during WWII; became great hero

• After WWII, under Russ occupiers, Prime Minister, then President of Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia; – one of founders of Comintern (Communist International

Information Bureau; organ of Soviet dominated communist parties; expelled 1948, because insisted on “independent road to socialism”; defied USSR

Yugoslavia becomes the exception:•Declared association of “non aligned” nations between US and USSR, with favors from both and distrust of/from both during Cold War; •Presided during Yugoslavian economic boom of 1960’s and 70’s;•Suppressed nationalities in Yugoslavia, BUT fell apart when d. 1980, with old hostilities and ethnic prejudices erupting in war in 1991.

Postwar Germany: Conflict• Postwar Division of Germany

– Germany in half to where Russ invaded– Berlin (200 miles wi Russ controlled

Germany) divided into 4: Russia got ½, though

– W powers agreed to separate constitution for western sectors in 1948; Russ walked out of meetings

– W Germany: democratic constitution, new currency much better than E because more econ recovery (Marshall Plan)

• Soviets proceeded to dismantle E German industry and transfer to USSR; insisted wanted W Ger equipment, too.

• West reviving German industry to make W German economy self sufficient, truly unacceptable to USSR.

Konrad Adenaur, first leader of W. Germany

Berlin Blockade and Airlift• Berlin Blockade: Soviets cut off Berlin by

blocking all railroads and highways into Berlin from W.

• US Airlift: June 1948 to May 1949 continual flights airlifting supplies (food, oil, etc): Soviets backed down and reopened Berlin corridor to W.

• Consequences: – German Federal Republic: September 1949 (W

Germany = Democratic)– German Democratic Republic: October 1949 (E

Germany = Communist)

• BUT continual bleed off of Germans and E Europeans escaping to W through Berlin

Dividing the World

• Bipolarization instead of “balance of power”

• Communist bloc vs West

• Nonaligned nations: played the two sides

• Smaller conflicts instead of world wars

Choosing Sides: US Side =NATO• American aid spurred economic recovery, but W European nations

afraid of Soviet encroachment from within and without, renewed German threats

• Brit/France Treaty of Brussels included Benelux countries vs Soviet aggression

• In response to USSR takeover of Czechoslovakia through intimidation, as well as Berlin blockade, which was another USSR attempt to grab territory, Bevin, foreign secretary of Britain proposed alliance of W Europe with US and Canada for military defense vs USSR

• Appealed to US for formal military alliance• 1948 North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)

– Defensive alliance, part of US strategy of “containment” – 12 Nations: Low Countries (Benelux) + Brit + France + US; then

Italy, Norway, Portugal, Iceland, Denmark, US and Canada; later W Germany, Greece and Turkey

– Still an alliance: added in 1990’s: Poland, E European countries

USSR’s Answer: Warsaw Pact

• Warsaw Pact, called “Treaty of Cooperation, Friendship and Mutual Assistance”– The creation of the Warsaw Pact was prompted by the

integration of a "re-militarized" West Germany into NATO on 9 May 1955

– Soviet domination, though local Communist administered; Russian army was the military force.

– Included Albania, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, E Germany, Hungary, Poland, Romania, USSR

Fall of China

– Two groups striving for power• Communists – Mao Tse Tung

• Nationalists – Chiang Kai Shek

– Mao appealed to US for financial aid, turned down because Communist, so Stalin agrees to help

– Despite US financial support, Chiang outsted 1949; refuge to Taiwan

– Stalin contemptuous of Mao (“margarine, not real butter” “turnip: red on outside, white inside”)

Israel and Struggle for Influence in Non Aligned Nations• 1897 Zionist declarations as homeland of Jews (Herzl): • League of Nations “mandate” gave Palestine to Brit as

“caretakers” after WWI: – Balfour Declaration 1917: Brit favored homeland for

Jewish people in Palestine (but NOT a Jewish state), allows Jewish emigration; 1939 agreement with Arab countries contradicts Balfour Dec.

– Jews develop Yishuv (own Jewish culture, government); collective farms (kibbutz) and industrial development successful economically

– when locals (Arabs) protest, Brit declaration closes Palestine to further emigration of Jews over quota

• When Britain closes Israel to further emigration, violent clashes between Jewish Israeli terrorist forces and British troops, widespread smuggling in of Jews; Britain resigns “mandate” over Israel to UN

Establishment of Israel• UN Resolution

– Conflict and terrorism on all sides in Palestine – Britain turns problem over to UN 1947– UN Resolution: two states in Palestine: Jewish & Arab

• angers Arabs who want Jews OUT; • surrounding Arab states call for fellow Arabs to leave Jewish

controlled areas “we’ll push them into sea,” set up camps

• Establishment of state of Israel– May 1948: UN withdrawal with battle lines set– US recognizes Israel, PM David Ben Gurion– Lebanon, Syria, Jordan, Egypt, Iraq unite and invade to

push Jews into sea– Fighting 1948-9: results—Israel borders expanded,

ceded Old City, but retained control of New City of Jerusalem

• After 1948:– Arab state (red)– Jewish state (blue)– Jerusalem:

International with part Arab control, part Jewish, but much violence and intrigue

Near East: Cold War Source of Conflict

• USSR search for allies/more puppet states

• US political and economic support of Israel

• USSR support of Arab states

• Especially after 1973, with establishment of OPEC, everyone wary of Arabs as source of oil, especially for Europe

Suez Crisis of 1956

• 1952 Egyptian coup by army officers led by Nasser: dictator, spokesman for militant Arab nationalism opposed to imperial powers and committed to destroy Israel

• 1956 Nasser nationalized Suez Canal (controlled before by Brit and Fr commercial interests), threatening transport of oil supplies for Britain and France

• Egypt, supported by USSR, fights Israel, which is supported by W.

• Britain and France intervene, saying just to separate combatants, really to retain control of canal

BUT US refused to support action by Anglo French invading forces: forced to leave UN forces separated Israel and Egypt, Israel withdrew from Sinai

Asian Conflict: Korea, war by proxy• Division after Japanese occupation and

annexation– Russ entered war against Japanese in N Korea– At end of war, agreed with US to divide along 38th

parallel• Political conflict divides the nation into N and

So– North: Communist under Kim il-Sung– South: US deposed leftist leaders; NOT a

democracy; elected an anti-communist, Syngman Rhee

• Beginning of conflict: N. Invasion– Once N. Korea had built up military, USSR gave

OK to invade: surprise invasion 1949• American forces, later ok’d and joined by UN

(USSR was boycotting the Security Council) – S Korea/US forces almost pushed off peninsula

Macarthur lead invasion in N. at Inchon succeeds, pushes almost to Chinese border

– Macarthur wanted to invade into China and wipe out Communist menace: Truman said no

– Chinese vowed to invade if w forces past 38th parallel: invade in force

• Stalemate in fighting – Macarthur treated

Truman with contempt; demanded nuclear strike vs Chinese

– Chinese success vs better armed Americans because divide and conquer, fight at night

• Negotiated Cease Fire– Eisenhower campaign

promise to consider what could be done for peace: kept promise

– Conflict reasserted 38th Parallel with DMZ (Demilitarized Zone)

Meanwhile, Back in the USSR• Stalin’s last years

– Post war: Allies lived up to agreement to repatriate “traitors” in Germany, Western Europe (Yalta); 2 million returned to USSR

– During “Great Patriotic War” relaxation of totalitarian reign of terror

– When war ended, back to purges and exile of dissidents: included culture and art; Prokofiev and Shostakovich denounced

– Continuation of 5 Year Plans: heavy industry; common people wages buying power 25-40% less than 1928

• With his death, power struggle Beria and Khrushchev– Stalin died of massive stroke 1953– Beria head of KGB, powerful but disliked (nymphomaniac---

abducted women he wanted), known for corruption, ruthlessness– Krushchev party secretary with friends in military– 3 year competition, Beria arrested, tried in absentia, arrested

Regime of Nikita Krushchev• Destalinization

– 20th Party Congress 1956, K. denounces Stalin and begins policy of liberalization, known as “secret speech” because not published in USSR

• Attacked Stalin for WWII blunders• Orders release of several million prisoners• Urged “rehabilitation” (restore old jobs,

pensions; if dead, pension to family)• Camps became labor rather than death camps

– Ends “cult of personality” (Stalin made mistakes)

• Idea that capitalist and communist states can coexist; – competition, not war inevitable– “Peaceful co-existence"

Before “Peaceful

Coexistence”

• “We will crush you!”

• Nikita Kruschev threat at the UN

• Actually took off his shoe and pounded on the table

Revolt of satellite states• With “secret speech,” wanted liberalized govts, more national control,

independence• Poland

– Communist party in Poland refused to accept leader designated by Moscow

– Polish students begin revolt: crushed by USSR

– Soviet leaders visited Poland to emphasize, negotiate

– Gromulka emerged as choice, promising economic and military cooperation with USSR; acceptable to both sides

– He quickly halted collectivization, improved relationships with Catholic Church• Hungary (1956)

– Inspired by Polish revolt and US “radio free Europe” broadcasts that promised support from UN and US, demonstrations in Budapest (tore down statue of Stalin), attacked security police and Russ soldiers

– Nagy = communist leader, but wanted Soviet troops out of Hungary, Hungary neutral (non aligned) out of Warsaw Pact; gave some rights (religion, speech)

– 1000 Soviet tanks invaded, crushed revolt, destroyed Hungarian army and captured radio; 4,000 killed (Nagy; 300 executed); W did nothing

– Huge embarrassment for US and Eisenhower (President): 2,000 escaped to Austria; other countries realized revolt would not succeed, didn’t try for 12 years (Czechoslovakia 1968); W communists horrified, left party

Further US Embarrassment: U2• 1959: US upper air spy planes

crossing Soviet airspace for 4 years

• Paris Summit between powers 1960

• Just as negotiating for Summit, Gary Powers (pilot of U2 Spy Plane) shot down

• Eisenhower denied spying; K couldn’t trust;

• No summit: much distrust and tension

Krushchev Successes

• Reestablishes ties with Tito’s Yugoslavia

• Economic growth– De-emphasis on heavy industry– Emphasis on consumer goods: some capitalistic

incentive, decentralized economic planning

• Culture/Intellectual liberalization– Pasternak Dr. Zhivago, but couldn’t leave to get Nobel– Solzhenitsyn’s Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich 1963

Space Race • Sputnik 1957

– The Soviet Sputnik program consisted of four satellites, three of which reached Earth orbit.

– Sputnik 1, Oct.4, 1957, first artificial satellite to successfully orbit the Earth, metallic sphere about 2 feet across, 184 lbs (84 kg), with long "whiskers" pointing to one side, in orbit for 6 months before falling to Earth; rocket booster, weighing 4 tons, also in orbit , easily visible from the ground.

– The second Sputnik satellite, Nov 3, 1957, carried a dog, Laika, into space. Biological data for a week before the animal had to be put to sleep.

– Scared West: more money into scientific development; new push for science education, with much more money

• Kennedy: US man on moon by end of decade– Russ first to enter space– Follow up with first man in orbit, etc

During Kennedy’s Presidency• Krushchev considered Kennedy

weak, so:• Bay of Pigs affair: cause or effect?• Berlin Wall built 1961

– Kennedy “I am a Berliner” (“Ich bin ein Berliner”) speech, but no action

• Cuban Missile Crisis 1962– Castro 1957 vs Batista– Nuclear missiles being established in

Cuba (Castro in late 1950’s) – Kennedy orders blockade– USA military full alert: Russ almost

confronts, then withdraws– Lead to Krushchev resignation

Brezhnev and the invasion of Czechoslovakia

• Alexander Dubcek leader of Communists in Czech.

• Prague Spring = “Socialism with a human face” experiments to give Czechs more freedom to disagree w government

• Brezhnev Doctrine: right of USSR to interfere in domestic politics of other Communist countries

• Invasion 1968: tanks and troops into Czech to install government more compliant with USSR

Europe Postwar: Retreat from Empire

• At beginning of WWII: Britain, France, Russia, Netherlands, Belgium, Italy and Portugal had empires

• Because of war and indigenous nationalist movements, withdrawal of occupation

• Postwar economic collapse: no money to enforce colonization

• 1947: Gandhi wins—Britain withdraws from India– Religious, internal disputes: Indian and Pakistan

– Later Burma and Sri Lanka (Ceylon) independent

• 1950’s Britain gets out of Africa– Ghana (Gold Coast) and Nigeria

End of Imperialism• End of WWII: empires still existed (Britain, France, Holland,

Belgium, Portugal), but weakened during the war because distracted, economic hardship, more democratic in principles, promises to colonies in exchange for support, troops in Europe.

• Decolonization– Asia

• Britain: gave independence to India (1947: Gandhi finally prevailed), but divided with Pakistan because of religion; then Ceylon (now Sri Lanka) and Burma (1948)

• Holland: E Indies become Indonesia 1950• France: more problematic, lead to Viet Nam war

– Africa—much more slowly, because not prepared• Britain: W Africa’s Gold Coast = Ghana (1957); Nigeria later• Mid 1960’s W and Central African states became independent• Portugal didn’t free Angola until 1976• France: fought through the 1950’s to retain Algeria

– FLN (National Liberation Front) rebellion began 1954 after racist policies of French colonials (vs Muslem native Algerians) spoiled chances for peaceful self rule

– 1958 deGaulle elected by right to put down the rebellion, but saw uselessness of war, proposed to let country vote, which lead to formation of right wing terrorist group, OAS

– 1962 voted for independence for Algeria, still allied to France; internally chaotic

Viet Nam: Beginnings• French colony (Indochina) included Laos, Cambodia, too; sent

troops during war• 1930’s Ho Chi Minh (“he who enlightens” not his real name) had

been converted to communism in Paris going to school, wanted self determination for Viet Nam even before Versailles

• Organized Indochinese Communist Party after trips to Moscow, all over Asia; suppressed by French

• Sept 1945 declared independence under Viet Minh, coalition of nationalists dominated by communists; noncommunists and religious resisted; French took advantage and appointed government headed by Bao Dai; lead to 1947 war with Fr

• Because of fall of China, US saw war as war vs democracy, so supported French financially, as USSR supported Ho Chi Minh

• Seige of Dien Bien Phu French wanted US air support; fell during Geneva conference to settle the war; Mendes France withdrew, and US took over

The US War in Viet Nam• US saw Viet Nam as repeat of Korea, w government as Soviet puppet;

so supported Ngo Dinh Diem government with money and advisors, but people didn’t trust him, especially since he was Catholic, backed by French

• Anticolonial, anti-imperial, nationalist, communist Ho Chi Minh organizaed 1960 National Liberation Front, with army = Viet Cong; weapons – widespread terrorism and disruption, with informal government in countryside support and intimidation

• Eisenhower and Kennedy continued support of Diem; Kennedy sent over military units (600 in 1961 became 16,000 in 1963)

• Diem overthrown and executed in army coup (with Kennedy and advisors involved to free Vietnamese to establish government capable of getting people’s support)

• Lyndon Johnson expanded commitment: Gulf of Tonkin resolution; major bombing

• Nixon elected with platform of ending the war = vietnamization• Peace negotiated in Paris 1968-1973

Mid E after Suez: 6 Days’ War of 1967

• US backed Israel with financial support; USSR backed Egypt; both furnished weapons throughout Mid E

• Nasser 1967 thought Arab nations could defeat Israel, massed troops in Sinai and attempt to blockade Gulf of Aqaba to Israel; demanded withdrawal of UN peacekeepers

• Israel, under Moshe Dayan, defense minister, attacked Egyptian airfields rather than wait for attack on Israel

• Syria and Jordan on side of Egypt, but at end of June 5-June 11 fighting, Israel victorious, destroyed Egypt’s military, occupied Egyptian Sinai to Suez, West Bank of Jordan R (part of Jordan) and Golan Heights (Syria)

Israel vs Arabs, Continued• Anwar el-Sadat ruled Egypt when

Nasser died in 1970; distrusted USSR and ordered Soviets out of Egypt 1972– From building of Aswan Dam in

1950’s, Soviet money and “advisors”

• Yom Kippur War: Oct 1973 during Jewish holiday Egypt/Syria attack across Suez to Israeli territory: – Initially, progress vs Israel, then Israel

succeeded in driving them back

– Nov 1973 truce; cost in lives and prestige for Israel Israeli soldiers at W

(wailing) Wall

• Oil Embargo of 1973– Establishment of OPEC (Organization of Petroleum Exporting

Countries)

– Arab oil producing states shut off flow of oil to US and Europe to force them to influence Israel

• Camp David Accords– Anwar Sadat met with Israel’s leader, Menachem Begin,

though technically at war

– Before this time, no Arab state had recognized Israel’s right to exist

– After twelve days of secret negotiations at Camp David, the Israeli-Egyptian negotiations were concluded by the signing at the White House of two agreements.

• peace between Israel and Egypt, to be concluded within three months, giving the Sinai back to Egypt

• a framework agreement for the conduct of negotiations for an independent Palestinian state in the West Bank and Gaza.

• The agreement clearly defined the future relations between the two countries, all aspects of withdrawal from the Sinai, military arrangements in the peninsula such as demilitarization and limitations, as well as the supervision.

Conflict Continues• Assassination of Sadat by Moslem extremists because of the Accords;

Begin also assassinated by Jewish extremist in 1995.• Annexation of Golan Heights by Israel vs UN mandate 1981• PLO (Palestine Liberation Organization) headed by Yasir Arafat,

established as major voice of Palestinian refugees: demanded separate Palestinian state

• Lebanon wracked by civil war, with Syrian presence very strong. Finally (1982) Israel invasion of Lebanon (to stop it serving as base for terrorists vs Israel); US troops there to keep peace, but after a terrorist bombing killed 300 US troops, US withdrew. (Israel eventually withdrew; Syria stayed—though becoming more stable, still a base for terrorists, kidnapping of westerners)

• Intifada, Arab uprising vs Israeli rule from 1987 on, especially at West Bank

Even more conflict:

• Iran: Takeover of Iran by ultra orthodox, conservative Muslim forces, lead by Ayatollah Khomeini, throwing out Shah Pahlavi, 1979, lead to fears of spread or exportation to other Mid East countries– American embassy takeover of 1979-80

• First Iraqi War of 1990: “Operation Desert Storm”– Ten year war between Iraq and Iran ended in a draw– Saddam Hussein invasion of Kuwait for oil revenues– US lead coalition included USSR, all major European powers,

Japan, Israel, Saudi Arabia and most of Mid East vs Jordan and PLO supporting Iraq: short conflict, decisive victory vs Saddam Hussein

– Consequences: PLO isolated, no longer supported by Arab nations, USSR; UN oversight of Saddam Hussein rule

Mid East Talks--continuing• Early 1990’s under Clinton• 1993 agreement between Israel and PLO: The Declaration of Principles--

Oslo Accords– set up transitional Palestine National Authority to govern with jurisdiction in the West

Bank and the Gaza Strip• PLO actual governing, supported by population—more moderate of Palestinian combatants

– began a five-year transitional period at the end of which Israel would withdraw from Gaza and Jericho

– stipulated that permanent status negotiations three years later would decide final status of Jerusalem (Israel and Palestinians claim as capital), Palestinian refugees, Jewish settlements in the West Bank and Gaza, security arrangements, borders, relations and cooperation with other neighbors, and other issues of common interest—STILL no resolution of most issues

• Continuing Conflicts– Interests in Israel that firm up new settlements on W Bank and insist on rule in

Jerusalem cause conflicts with Palestinians, who claim both territories– PLO lost in elections to HAMAS in 2006; H. declared intentions still to destroy Israel;

Israel closes borders with Palestine; shelling back and forth; Israeli destruction of Palestinian towns in Gaza in retaliation for suicide bombs.

Toward European Unification• WWII set up conditions for unification

– Already cooperating in war effort– Everyone impoverished, HAD to rely on US aid– Marshall plan: you come up with plans to rebuild your

economies, but all must accept same plan if want US dollars (USSR walked out of planning talks in Paris because wanted to lead, didn’t want observers

– Destruction of infrastructure meant had to rebuild, so renewed industry and agriculture

• Cold War helped, too, because W Europe threatened by USSR continual pressure for more territory, hegemony in Europe

Europe During the Cold War• Postwar: democratic socialist parties, except for UK• UK Labour party, not popular

– Opposed at both ends, communist and conservatives

• Christian democratic parties lead coalition govts– Roman Catholic leadership/membership

– Germany, France, Italy = progressive

– Promoted democracy and social reform

– Anticommunism and economic growth

• Growth of “Eurocommunism”– Late 1970’s & 80’s—proposed by Italian Communist, Berlinguer

– nonviolent, believed in working within government, even in coalitions with others, open

– Supported by liberal middle; somewhat successful in Italy

• Postwar Britain– Churchill and Conservatives defeated in 1945 elections

because Labour, during war years coalition, had handled domestic issues, made promises of post war help in jobs, housing, medical, education for all

– Labour with Clement Atlee 1945-50: welfare state with some housing, some jobs, NHS, nationalization of major industries, taxing of rich to pay

– BIG MISTAKE: when setting up first common market of coal and steel between France and Germany, Britain opted out because felt own interests supreme and had empire for support

– Consequences: with demand on government for more and more social spending, loss of empire and markets, economy spun into doldrums; by 70’s in trouble

“Iron Lady”

– Margaret Thatcher conservative elected in 1979: • Blamed economic yuckiness on Socialist programs pushed in

post war by Labour, even though Conservatives governed late 50’s and some in 60’s;

• moved away from labor unions, unrest; pressed for free market capitalism;

• Government sold (privatized) industries taken over after war; deregulated

– Falkland Island War 1982 (islanders want to stay British, but 7,000 miles away, hard to supply, expensive: Argentina wants them, but unstable or negative; UN trying to negotiate sovereignty)

• Postwar France– 4th Republic not stable leadership; deGaulle takes

over in midst of Algerian conflict; established 5th Republic; lead to Algerian independence 1962

– 10 Years of de Gaulle• Anti American and anti Great Britain policies• French nuclear development• Anti NATO• 1968 firing on own student demonstrators + general strike

lead to government move to improve wages and benefits for workers

– Later governments• Giscard D’Estaing nationalist• Mitterand, socialist, supported European unification

“Economic miracle”: from Marshall plan• European Coal and Steel Community

– Established after Marshall plan (1950) to cooperate in coal and steel– Fr, W Ger, It, Benelux– Wildly successful: 23% growth coal production 5 years; 150% increase in

steel production• EEC (European Economic Community)

– 1957 Treaty of Rome; Fr, W Ger, It, Benelux– “Common Market” not just free trade; wanted elimination of tariffs, free

flow of capital and labor, similar wage and social benefits– Council of Foreign Ministers; High Commission governing bodies– Stunning success all aims (by ’68 tariffs gone, capital, labor mix, wages =)

• Growth– 1959 Britain, Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Switz., Austria, Portugal formed

competing European Free Trade Area– Britain tried to gain entry into Common Market, blocked by France (UK

tied to US)– Problem: Council of Ministers too tied to national interests, but more

influence than high Commission; France wouldn’t compromise on sovereignty issues, esp ag

– 1973 UK, Ireland, Denmark joined; Norway and Sweden declined; 1982 Spain, Portugal and Greece applied, eventually admitted

EU (European Union)• 1988 agreement establish 1992 for virtual free trade zone

throughout EEC (eliminate remaining restrictions on trade)• Established by Treaty of Maastricht (Treaty on European

Union): steps to unified currency (Euro) and strong central bank (ratification failed in Denmark and narrow passed in France and UK)

• As of 1993 (e=Euro) Austria(e), Belgium(e), Denmark, Finland(e), France(e), Germany(e), Greece(e), Ireland(e), Italy(e), Luxembourg(e), Netherlands(e), Portugal(e), Spain(e), Sweden, UK– 1995, add: Cyprus (Greek part), the Czech Republic, Estonia,

Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Malta, Poland, Slovakia and Slovenia.

• Other jurisdictions:– Trade policy

– Fisheries policy

– Foreign and security policies

• The Schengen Agreement abolished Passport control at internal borders. Customs checks also abolished, creating a single space for EU citizens to live, travel, work and invest.

Organization of EU• The most important EU institutions :

– Council of the EU (old Council of Ministers)– European Commission– European Court of Justice– European Parliament

• European Commission: one member each state– proposes and implements legislation– acts as 'guardian of the treaties' providing the legal basis for the EU

• European Parliament – begun in 1950’s; since 1979 members directly elected by the people they represent, every five years with all

registered EU citizens entitled to vote.– cannot initiate legislation, but can amend or veto in many policy areas; other areas: right only to be consulted– supervises the European Commission, approves members, can dismiss with vote of censure.

– right to control the EU budget.

However….• Treaty establishing a Constitution for Europe 2004

– member state heads of government and state signed– ratified by 13 member states, awaiting ratification by the other states.

• Faltered on 29 May 2005 when the majority of French voters rejected the constitution in a referendum by 54.7%.

• 3 days later Dutch election, 61.6% of voters refused the constitution as well.

• Continuing political controversy within and between member states. • UK one poll suggested 50% of the population indifferent to the

European Union and 20% voted for parties that wanted to withdraw from the EU in the 2004 EU elections.