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Post­Soviet states in English alphabetical order:1. Armenia; 2. Azerbaijan; 3. Belarus; 4. Estonia;5. Georgia; 6. Kazakhstan; 7. Kyrgyzstan; 8. Latvia;9. Lithuania; 10. Moldova; 11. Russia; 12. Tajikistan;13. Turkmenistan; 14. Ukraine; 15. Uzbekistan

Post­Soviet statesFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

The post­Soviet states, also collectively known as the former Soviet Union (FSU)[1] or former SovietRepublics, are the 15 independent states that emerged from the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics inits dissolution in December 1991, with Russia internationally recognised as a successor state to theSoviet Union. On March 11, 1990 Lithuania was first to declare its independence, with Estonia andLatvia following suit in August 1991. All three Baltic states claimed continuity from the original stateswhich existed prior to their annexation by the Soviet Union.[2][3] The remaining 12 republics allsubsequently seceded.[2] 12 of the 15 states, excluding the Baltic states, initially formed the CIS andmost joined CSTO, while the Baltic states focused on European Union and NATO membership.

Contents

1 States and geographical groupings2 Economy3 Developmental progress4 Regional organizations

4.1 Commonwealth ofIndependent States4.2 Eurasian EconomicCommunity4.3 Customs Union ofBelarus, Kazakhstan andRussia4.4 Eurasian Economic Union4.5 Collective Security TreatyOrganization4.6 North Atlantic TreatyOrganization4.7 GUAM4.8 Union of Russia andBelarus

5 Other regional organizations5.1 Economic CooperationOrganization5.2 Community of DemocraticChoice5.3 Shanghai CooperationOrganisation

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Common groupings of the post­Sovietstates: Russia

Central Asia

East­Central Europe

Baltic states

Southern Caucasus

5.4 For economic cooperation5.5 For political integrationand security alliances

5.5.1 In other domains6 Politics

6.1 Separatist conflicts6.1.1 Current declaredstates6.1.2 Former declaredstates

6.2 Civil wars6.3 Colour revolutions6.4 Russian population inpost­Soviet states6.5 Religion

7 Post­Soviet nostalgia8 See also9 References10 External links

States and geographical groupings

The 15 post­Soviet states are typically divided into thefollowing five groupings. Each of these regions has its owncommon set of traits, owing not only to geographic andcultural factors but also to that region's history in relation toRussia. In addition, there are a number of de factoindependent, but internationally unrecognized states (see thesection Separatist conflicts below).

Baltic states

Estonia Latvia

Lithuania

East­CentralEurope

Belarus

Moldova

Ukraine

SouthernCaucasus

Armenia

Azerbaijan Georgia

Central Asia Russia

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Kazakhstan Kyrgyzstan Tajikistan Turkmenistan Uzbekistan

Russia

Economy

The dissolution of the Soviet Union took place as a result and against the backdrop of general economicstagnation, even regression. As the Gosplan, which had set up production chains to cross SSR lines,broke down, the inter­republic economic connections were also disrupted, leading to even more seriousbreakdown of the post­Soviet economies.

Most of the formerly Soviet states began the transition to a market economy in 1990­1991 and madeefforts to rebuild and restructure their economic systems, with varying results. The process triggered asevere transition decline, with Gross Domestic Product (GDP) dropping by more than 40% between1990 and 1995.[4] This decline in GDP was much more intense than the 27% decline that the UnitedStates suffered in the wake of the Great Depression between 1930 and 1934.[5] The reconfiguration ofpublic finance in compliance with the principles of market economy resulted in dramatically reducedspending on health, education and other social programs, leading to a sharp increase in poverty.[6] Theeconomic shocks associated with wholesale privatization resulted in the deaths of roughly 1 millionworking age individuals throughout the former Soviet bloc in the 1990s.[7][8]

The initial transition decline was eventually arrested by the cumulative effect of market reforms, andafter 1995 the economy in the post­Soviet states began to recover, with GDP switching from negative topositive growth rates. By 2007, 10 of the 15 post­Soviet states had reached GDP greater than what theyhad in 1991.[9] Only Moldova, Ukraine, Georgia, Kyrgyzstan, and Tajikistan had GDP significantlybelow the 1991 level. The recovery in Russia was marginal, with GDP in 2006­2007 just nudging abovethe 1991 level. This could be perceived as failure of capitalism to improve the standard of living inRussia, and combined with the aftershocks of the 1998 economic crisis it led to a return of moreinterventionist economic policies by Vladimir Putin's administration.

Change in Gross Domestic Product (GDP) in constant prices, 1991­2007[10]

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Country 1991* 1996 2001 2006 2011 Turnaroundyear**

Eastern European statesRussia 100 63.1 74.5 103.3 118.3 1997Ukraine 100 47.2 51.8 73.7 75.9 2000Belarus 100 67.9 94.0 141.5 192.5 1996Moldova 100 45.2 45.0 62.5 74.5 1997Baltic statesEstonia 100 ? ? ? ? ?Latvia 100 67.8 92.9 143.1 130.1 1993Lithuania 100 64.6 81.5 119.8 123.9 1995Central AsiaKazakhstan 100 69.3 88.5 141.4 185.7 1996Kyrgyzstan 100 58.9 76.1 89.6 114.4 1996Tajikistan 100 34.1 45.2 56.0 98.1 1997Turkmenistan 100 68.4 107.7 215.5 351.8 1998Uzbekistan 100 82.9 102.6 137.5 208.4 1996TranscaucasusArmenia 100 63.3 84.2 154.7 172.5 1994Azerbaijan 100 42.7 65.2 150.2 241.1 1996Georgia 100 39.8 49.8 74.1 93.2 1995

*Economy of most Soviet republics started to decline in 1989­1990, thus indices for 1991 don't matchpre­reform maximums.

**The year when GDP decline switched to GDP growth.

List of the present Gross domestic product (GDP) (figures are given in 2013 United States dollars forthe year 2013 according to The World Factbook[11][12][13][14]):

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N°

123456789101112131415

Country nominalmillions

nominalper capita

PPPmillions

PPPper capita

Armenia 10,440 3,400 20,610 6,300 Azerbaijan 76,010 7,900 100,400 10,800 Belarus 69,240 7,500 150,400 16,100 Estonia 24,280 18,300 29,940 22,400 Georgia 15,950 3,200 27,300 6,100 Kazakhstan 224,900 12,700 243,600 14,100 Kyrgyzstan 7,234 1,300 14,300 2,500 Latvia 30,380 15,400 38,870 19,100 Lithuania 46,710 15,300 67,430 22,600 Moldova 7,880 2,200 12,680 3,600 Russia 2,113,000 14,600 2,553,000 18,100 Tajikistan 8,537 1,000 19,000 2,300 Turkmenistan 40,560 7,900 55,160 9,700 Ukraine 175,500 3,800 337,400 7,400 Uzbekistan 55,180 1,900 112,600 3,800

Developmental progress

The post­Soviet states listed according to their Human Development Index scores (2013).

Very High Human Development:

Estonia: 0.846 Lithuania: 0.818 Latvia: 0.814

High Human Development:

Belarus: 0.793 Russia: 0.788 Kazakhstan: 0.754 Georgia: 0.745 Ukraine: 0.740 Azerbaijan: 0.734 Armenia: 0.729

Medium Human Development:

Turkmenistan: 0.698

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v • d • e (http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Supranational_PostSoviet_Bodies&action=edit)

Euler diagram showing the relationships between various multinational organisations inthe post­Soviet space

Moldova: 0.660 Uzbekistan: 0.654 Kyrgyzstan: 0.622 Tajikistan: 0.622

Regional organizations

A number of regionalorganizations andcooperating blocshave sprung up sincethe dissolution of theSoviet Union. Onlyorganizations that aremainly (orcompletely)composed of post­Soviet states arelisted in this section;organizations withwider membershipsare not discussed.The 15 post­Sovietstates are divided intheir participation tothe regional blocs:

Belarus,Russia, andUkrainefounded the

Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) in December 1991. It was conceived as a successororganization to the USSR, and as of December 1993 it included 12 of the 15 former Soviet

republics (except the three Baltic states).[15]

The three Baltic states have not sought membership to any of these post­Soviet organizations,seeking and achieving membership in the European Union and NATO instead (only theirelectricity and rail systems remain closely connected with former Soviet organizations). The soleexception to the above has been their recent membership in the Community of DemocraticChoice.

The Central Asian states of Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan (as well as

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CIS members

States that joined EU andNATO Other EU or NATO

members

Belarus) are members of the CIS and participate in severalregional organizations that have Russia as a primary mover.Such organizations are the Eurasian Economic Community(later merged with Eurasian Economic Union, whichTajikistan and Uzbekistan are not members of), CollectiveSecurity Treaty Organization, and the Shanghai CooperationOrganization. The last two groups only became distinct onceUzbekistan withdrew from GUAM and sought membership inEurAsEc and CSTO (which it subsequently withdrew from in2008 and 2012, respectively).

Armenia, besides its membership in CIS participates inCollective Security Treaty Organization and the Eurasian Economic Union.

Ukraine, Moldova, and Azerbaijan participate in the CIS but other than that they mostly cooperatewithin regional organizations that are not dominated by Russia. Such organizations are GUAMand the Community of Democratic Choice. Although Ukraine is one of the three foundingcountries of the CIS, it is legally not a member because it has never ratified the 1993 CIS

Charter.[15]

Turkmenistan is an associate member of CIS (having withdrawn from full membership in August

2005)[16] and a member in the Economic Cooperation Organization; it has not sought closerintegration in any of the other Western or post­Soviet organizations.

Georgia notified (on 18 August 2008) the CIS executive bodies of its decision to leave the

regional organization,[17][18] and according to the CIS Charter (sec. 1, art. 9) this decision went

into force 12 months after the notification date.[19]

Commonwealth of Independent States

The Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) consists of 11 former Soviet Republics that differ intheir membership status. As of December 2010, 9 countries have ratified the CIS charter and are full CISmembers (Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Moldova, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Russia, Tajikistan,Uzbekistan), one country (Turkmenistan) is an associate member, one country (Ukraine) is a foundingand participating country, but legally not a member country, and one country (Georgia) left theorganization in 2009. In 2014, Ukraine declined its CIS chairmanship and considered withdrawal fromthe organization.[20]

In 1994, the CIS countries agreed to create a free trade area, but the agreements were never signed. OnOctober 19, 2011 Armenia, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Moldova, Russia, Tajikistan, and Ukrainesigned a free trade agreement.[21] Uzbekistan joined the free trade area in 2013.[22]

Eurasian Economic Community

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EAEC members

GUAM members

Other CIS members

Economical integration blocs in European / Post­Soviet area ;EU, EFTA,CEFTA and Customs Union of Belarus, Kazakhstan and Russia

The Eurasian Economic Community (EURASEC), formerly the CISCustoms Union, was established by Russia, Belarus, Kazakhstan,Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan. Ukraine and Moldova have observerstatus in the community; however, Ukraine has declared its desirenot to become a full member state. Because having common borderswith the rest of the community is a prerequisite for full membership,Moldova is barred from seeking it. Uzbekistan applied formembership in October 2005,[23] when the process of mergingCentral Asian Cooperation Organization and the Eurasian EconomicCommunity began; it joined on 25 January 2006. Uzbekistansubsequently suspended its membership in 2008.[24]

On 10 October 2014 an agreement on the termination of theEurasian Economic Community was signed in Minsk after a session of the Interstate Council of theEAEC. The Eurasian Economic Community was terminated from 1 January 2015 in connection with thelaunch of the Eurasian Economic Union.[25]

Customs Union of Belarus, Kazakhstan and Russia

Russia, Belarus, Kazakhstancreated a customs union thatentered into force in July2010. Ukraine, Kyrgyzstanand Tajikistan indicatedinterest in joining at thetime.[26][27] Russia has beeneager for Armenia, Moldovaand Ukraine to join thecustom union instead of theEuropean Union, and theMoldovan break­away state of Transnitria has supported this. In 2013, Kyrgyzstan and Armeniaannounced plans to seek membership, but division over the issue in Ukraine led to the 2014 Ukrainianrevolution after the Ukrainian government backed out of an EU Eastern Partnership in favor of theunion. In 2014, voters in the Moldovan autonomous region of Gagauzia rejected closer ties to the EU infavor of the union.[28]

On 1 January 2012, Russia, Kazakhstan and Belarus established the Single Economic Space whichensures the effective functioning of a single market for goods, services, capital and labour, and toestablish coherent industrial, transport, energy and agricultural policies.[29][30] The agreement included aroadmap for future integration and established the Eurasian Economic Commission (modelled on theEuropean Commission).[31] The Eurasian Economic Commission serves as the regulatory agency for theEurasian Customs Union, the Single Economic Space and the Eurasian Economic Union.[29]

Eurasian Economic Union

The Eurasian Economic Union is an economic union of post­Soviet states. The treaty aiming for theestablishment of the EEU was signed on 29 May 2014 by the leaders of Belarus, Kazakhstan and Russia,and came into force on 1 January 2015.[32] Treaties aiming for Armenia's and Kyrgyzstan's accession tothe Eurasian Economic Union were signed on 9 October 2014 and 23 December respectively. Armenia's

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EEU members

Acceding EEU Members

Other CIS Members

CSTO members

GUAM members

Other CIS members

NATO/CSTO

accession treaty came into force on 2 January 2015.[33] Although Kyrgyzstan's accession treaty will notcome into force until May 2015, provided it has been ratified,[34] it will participate in the EEU from theday of its establishment as an acceding state.[35][36][37][38][39]

Collective Security Treaty Organization

Seven CIS member states, namely Russia, Belarus, Kazakhstan,Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan and Armenia, have enhancedtheir military cooperation, establishing the Collective SecurityTreaty Organization (CSTO), this being an expansion of theprevious Collective Security Treaty (CST). Uzbekistan which(alongside Georgia and Azerbaijan) withdrew from the CST in1999, joined GUAM. Then in 2005 it withdrew from GUAM andjoined the CSTO in 2006. On 28 June 2012, Uzbekistan suspendedits membership in the CSTO.[40]

North Atlantic Treaty Organization

Three former Soviet states are members of NATO: Estonia, Latviaand Lithuania. Georgia, where both public opinion and the rulinggovernment favor NATO membership, is in the Intensified Dialogueprogram with NATO. In Ukraine after the 2010 electoral victory ofViktor Yanukovych, the government officially declared neutralityand no longer seeks NATO membership, as it did after the Orangerevolution and the presidency of Viktor Yushchenko.

GUAM

Four member states, namely Georgia, Ukraine, Azerbaijan and

Moldova established the GUAM group that was largely seen as intending to counter Russian dominancein the region. Notably, these four nations do not participate in any of the other regional organizationsthat sprang up in the region since the dissolution of the Soviet Union (other than the CIS).

Union of Russia and Belarus

The Union of Russia and Belarus was originally formed on 2 April 1996 under the name Commonwealthof Russia and Belarus, before being tightened further on 8 December 1999. It was initiated by thepresident of Belarus, Alexander Lukashenko. On paper, the Union of Russia and Belarus intends furtherintegration, beyond the scope of mere cooperation, including the introduction of the ruble as a commoncurrency.

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Members of the Union

CIS members who haveshown interest in becomingmembers of the Union Other CIS members

Community of DemocraticChoice Economic Cooperation

Organization

Other regional organizations

Economic Cooperation Organization

The Economic Cooperation Organization was originally formed in1985 by Turkey, Iran and Pakistan but in 1992 the organization wasexpanded to include Afghanistan and the six primarily Muslimformer Soviet republics: Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan,Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan.

Community of Democratic Choice

The Community of Democratic Choice (CDC) was formed inDecember 2005 at the primary instigation of Ukraine and Georgia,and composed of six post­Soviet states (Ukraine, Georgia, Moldova,and the three Baltic states of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania) andthree other countries of Eastern and Central Europe (Slovenia,Romania and the Republic of Macedonia). The Black Sea Forum(BSF) is a closely related organization.

Just like GUAM before it, this forum is largely seen as intending tocounteract Russian influence in the area. This is the onlyinternational forum centered in the post­Soviet space in which theBaltic states also participate. In addition, the other three post­Sovietstates in it are all members of GUAM.

Shanghai Cooperation Organisation

The Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO), is composed ofChina and five post­Soviet states, namely Russia, Kazakhstan,Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan. The organization wasfounded in 2001, though its predecessor, the Shanghai Fivegrouping, has existed since 1996. Its aims revolve around security­related issues.

For economic cooperation

Central European Free Trade Agreement (CEFTA) with Moldova (it includes also non post­Sovietcountries of the former Yugoslavia; previously, also included other Central European countriesthat left CEFTA when joining the European Union ; CEFTA plays a role in Central Europe similarto what EFTA provides in Western Europe for non EU­members; this alliance an economicalorganization with strong cooperation with the European Union, for countries that do not want toparticipage in EurAsEC centered on Russia but that are seeking alliances to the West); even ifMoldova is the only CEFTA country that is still within a weakening CIS, it no longer participatesto the CSTO for most of the common security policy (but cannot join the EU because ofincompatibility with WEU stability rules and the unsolved problem of Transnistria) but can stillbenefit from the Free Trade Area notably with Romania and Bulgaria (in the EU).

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Shanghai CooperationOrganisation: Member state

Observer state

Dialogue partner

Black Sea Economic Cooperation (BSEC) with Russia,Georgia, Ukraine, Azerbaijan, Moldova, Turkey, Albania,Greece, Romania, Bulgaria, Serbia and Armenia (aneconomic organisation closely related to the SCO but morefocused regionally to include also Armenia; it also aims forthe harmonious development of democracy for increasing thecommerce in South­East Europe and includes some EUmembers, so it cannot be a regional free­trade union).The European Union (EU) with the three Baltic countries thatwere the first ones to declare independence from the formerUSSR and have never joined CIS after the collapse of USSR(it includes also now some post­communist countries inCentral Europe, that have left CEFTA when entering the EU :Poland, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, Romania,Bulgaria and Slovenia).

For political integration and security alliances

Stability Pact for South Eastern Europe (SPforSEE) with Moldova (similar in structure to CEFTA,but does not focus on economy but security, for those countries that are not NATO members );this organization largely cooperates with NATO, and is related to the group of observers atWestern European Union (WEU).The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), for Baltic countries, Poland, and CentralEuropean countries that have also joined the EU (the EU membership includes also WEUmembership because they follow the Common Foreign and Security Policy and European Securityand Defence Policy policies shared now by the EU, the WEU and all European NATO members).The other remaining countries are those part of the former Yugoslavia, but their recent conflictand political tensions still does not allow them to cooperate efficiently for their politicalintegration and for their mutual security; in addition, they still do not have full sovereignty in thisdomain (some of them are still under surveillance by EU or NATO, as mandated by UNO). Theystill need to find an internal stability and they can collaborate economically with the help of otherorganizations focusing on economy or political cooperation and development. However a morelimited cooperation for security is possible through their membership to the larger Organizationfor Security and Co­operation in Europe (OSCE).The only exception is Belarus (whose post­soviet democratic transition did not occur) that stillrejects political integration, and all security alliances with NATO, OSCE, WEU or other countriesin Europe other than Russia (which the process of reintegration of Belarus has been tightened inalmost all domains).

In other domains

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Southeast European Cooperation Process (SEECP) with Moldova (similar to SPforSEE, butfocuses on political integration than cooperation for security, and to CEFTA but does not focus ontrade).Southeast European Cooperative Initiative (SECI) with Moldova (closely related to SEECP).Central European Initiative (CEI) with Moldova, Ukraine and Belarus (and also Central andSouth­Western European countries in the European Union; it aims at helping Eastern Europeancountries to reach the EU standards and cooperate politically and find a better economicdevelopment and a strong, working but more democratic legal system); it is the only regionalorganization where Belarus is still a member (but the political cooperation with Belarus is almoststalled, as it is the only country of the former Communist block country that balances in favor ofstronger cooperation with Russia and against integration with EU and NATO ; however Belarusremains isolated and still does not cooperate too in the SCO group led by Russia and China).Black Sea Forum for Partnership and Dialogue (BSF) with Georgia, Ukraine, Azerbaijan,Moldova and Armenia (also non post­soviet countries that are NATO members, interested in theirmaintaining political stability and avoiding conflicts in the region: Romania, Bulgaria and Turkey,whose first two are also now EU and CEI members, using EU rules for their politicaldevelopment); however this organization does not focus on helping countries to join the EU, butreaching common standards and good governance and internal stability and democracy like in theCEI.(None of these organizations are incompatible with the policy required for accessing EUmembership in the domain of political cooperation and development).Merging the CEI and BSF is desired by Central European countries, that are members of both(often in addition to EU with stronger objectives) that would like to simplify the developmentprocess, and also members of the Council of Europe that federates (but at very slow pace) allEuropean efforts of political cooperation and development through the various regionalorganizations).Commonwealth of Unrecognized StatesCommunity for Democracy and Human Rights

Politics

Regarding political freedom in the former Soviet republics, Freedom House's 2013 report listed thefollowing:

Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania as "free" countries.Armenia, Georgia, Kyrgyzstan, Moldova, and Ukraine were listed as "partly free."Azerbaijan, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Russia, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan were listed as"not free."

Similarly, the Worldwide Press Freedom Index published by Reporters Without Borders, recorded thefollowing as regards press freedom:

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A good situation in Estonia, Latvia, and LithuaniaNoticeable problems in Armenia, Georgia, Moldova and TajikistanA difficult situation in Azerbaijan, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Russia, Ukraine andUzbekistanA very serious situation in Turkmenistan

It has been remarked that several post­Soviet states have not changed leadership since theirindependence, such as Nursultan Nazarbayev in Kazakhstan and Islam Karimov in Uzbekistan. All ofthese had originally more limited terms but through decrees or referendums prolonged their stay inoffice (a practice also followed by Presidents Alexander Lukashenko of Belarus, Emomalii Rahmon ofTajikistan and Dmitry Medvedev of Russia.[41]) Askar Akayev of Kyrgyzstan had likewise served asPresident since its independence until he was forced to resign as a result of the Kyrgyz revolution of2005. Saparmurat Niyazov in Turkmenistan ruled from independence until his death in 2006, creating apersonality cult around himself.

The issue of dynastical succession has been another element affecting the politics of some post­SovietStates. Heydar Aliyev, after constructing an extensive and ongoing cult of personality, handed thePresidency of Azerbaijan to his son, Ilham Aliyev. Theories about the children of other leaders inCentral Asia being groomed for succession abound.[42] The participation of Akayev's son and daughterin the 2005 Kyrgyz parliamentary elections boosted fears of dynastic succession being used inKyrgyzstan as well, and may have contributed to the anti­Akayev climate that led to his overthrow.

Separatist conflicts

Economic, political, national, military, and social problems have all been factors in separatism in thePost­Soviet space. In many cases, problems due to factors such as ethnic divisions existed before the fallof the Soviet Union, and upon the fall of the union were brought into the open.[43] Such territories andresulting military conflicts have so far been:

Current declared states

Abkhazia, which is de facto independent from Georgia. Tensions in the area broke out whenGeorgia sent in troops in 1992 to control groups who wanted separation. The troops and most ofthe Georgian and Mingrelian speaking population were forced out in 1993, and the regiondeclared independence in 1999. The 2008 war between Georgian forces and the separatist and

Russian forces led to Russia's recognition of Abkhazia's independence.[44]

Nagorno­Karabakh, which is de facto independent from Azerbaijan. Ethnic conflict betweenArmenians and Azerbaijanis began in 1988, and expanded into war which lasted till a ceasefire in1994. Sporadic attempts at negotiating a final peace and sporadic bursts of violence have

continued since then.[45]

Novorossiya, a confederation of two unrecognized states which declared independence fromUkraine in 2014:

Donetsk People's Republic Lugansk People's Republic

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South Ossetia, which is de facto independent from Georgia. The region declared its intent toseek independence in 1990, leading to a conflict which led to a ceasefire in 1992. Separatismbecame powerful after the election of Georgian President Mikhail Saakashvili in 2004, and areferendum in 2006 was in favour of declaring independence. The 2008 war between Georgianforces and the separatist and Russian forces led to Russia's recognition of South Ossetia's

independence.[46]

Transnistria, which is de facto independent from Moldova. It declared independence in 1990,due to its majority Russian­speaking population fearing union with Romania. A ceasefire betweenTransnistrian forces and Moldovan forces has been in place since 1992, enforced by the presence

of Russian forces in Transnistria.[47]

Former declared states

Gagauzia, declared itself the "Gagauz Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic" withinMoldova on 12 November 1989, and the "Gagauz Soviet Socialist Republic", independent ofMoldova but still within the Soviet Union, on 19 August 1990, but was reintegrated into Moldova

as an autonomous region on 23 December 1994.[48][49][50]

Chechen Republic of Ichkeria, where Dzhokhar Dudayev declared independence from Russiain 1991, leading to a violent war between local separatist forces and the Russian army. Russia firstinvaded in 1994, withdrawing after a deal for increased autonomy was granted in 1996. Tensionshave continued in the years since then, and the conflict has spilled over into neighbouring regionssuch as Dagestan, Ingushetia and North Ossetia–Alania. Russia claims that the situation in

Chechnya has normalised.[51]

Republic of Crimea. The entire Crimean Peninsula has been outside the control of Ukrainianauthorities since late February 2014, when Russian special forces and pro­Russian militias

occupied the region.[52][53][54][55] In March 2014, a popular referendum in favor of accession to

Russia was held in Crimea and Sevastopol, although Ukraine[56] and most of the internationalcommunity refused to recognize the vote. The next day, the Republic of Crimea declaredindependence, and within days Russia absorbed the peninsula. Ukraine continues to claim Crimeaas an integral part of its territory.

Civil wars

Civil wars unrelated to separatist movements have occurred twice in the region:

The Georgian Civil War between the forces of Zviad Gamsakhurdia and Eduard Shevardnadze.The war ended after Russian forces intervened in support of Shevardnadze's government, which inturn agreed to join the Commonwealth of Independent States.The Tajikistan Civil War that lasted between 1992 and 1997.

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Colour revolutions

Since 2003, a number of (largely) peaceful "colour revolutions" have happened in some post­Sovietstates after disputed elections, with popular protests bringing into power the former opposition.

The Rose Revolution in Georgia, leading to the fall from office of Eduard Shevardnadze.The Orange Revolution in Ukraine, bringing into power Viktor Yushchenko.The Tulip Revolution in Kyrgyzstan, leading to the resignation of Askar Akayev.

Russian population in post­Soviet states

There is a significant Russophone population in most of the post­Soviet states, whose political positionas an ethnic minority varies from country to country.[57] While Belarus, Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan, inaddition to Russia, have kept Russian as an official language, the language lost its status in other post­Soviet states after the end of the Soviet Union. It maintains semi­official status in all CIS member states,because it is the organisation's official working language, but in the three Baltic States, the Russianlanguage is not recognized in any official capacity. Georgia, since its independence from the CIS in2009, has begun operating its government almost exclusively in the Georgian language.

Religion

While the Soviet system placed severe restrictions on religious intellectual life, traditions continued tosurvive. After the dissolution of the Soviet Union, Islamic movements have emerged alongside ethnicand secular ones. Vitaly Naumkin gives the following assessment: "Throughout the time of change,Islam has served as a symbol of identity, a force for mobilization, and a pressure for democracy. This isone of the few social disasters that the church has survived, in which it was not the cause. But ifsuccessful politically, it faces economic challenges beyond its grasp."[58]

The Central Asian states (Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan), plusAzerbaijan, are Muslim, except for their dwindling Russian and other European minorities. The BalticStates are historically Western Christian (Protestant and Roman Catholic), which adds another layer ofpro­Western orientation to those countries, although the vast majority of what was the Protestantpopulation there is now irreligious. The dominant religion in the remaining former Soviet countries(Armenia, Belarus, Georgia, Moldova, Russia, and Ukraine) is Orthodox Christianity. In most countries,religiosity has increased since the Soviet collapse.

Post­Soviet nostalgia

Ever since the dissolution of the Soviet Union a certain number of people have expressed a longing forthe Soviet period and its values. The level of post­Soviet nostalgia varies across the former republics.Russia and the Caspian Sea countries are inclined to be pro­Soviet, whereas the Baltic States havetraditionally been the least nostalgic towards the Soviet Union.[59] Nevertheless, there are certain groupsof people even in the Baltic States who continue to blend the Soviet and post­Soviet experience in theirdaily lives..[60]

According to July 2012 polling in Ukraine by RATING, 42% of respondents supported the formation ofa unified state of Ukraine, Russia and Belarus; earlier in 2012 this support had been 48%.[61]

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Victory Day in Donetsk,Ukraine, 9 May 2010

See also

Eastern BlocEurasian UnionNear abroadOperation Provide HopeOrganization for Security and Co­operation in Europe statisticsRussificationRussophobiaRussophoneSecond World

References

1. ^http://belfercenter.ksg.harvard.edu/publication/1805/managing_conflict_in_the_former_soviet_union.html

2. ^ a b Van Elsuwege, Peter (2008). From Soviet Republics to EuMember States: A Legal and Political Assessment of the Baltic States'Accession to the EU. Studies in EU External Relations 1. BRILL.p. xxii. ISBN 9789004169456.

3. ^ Smith, David James (2001). Estonia (http://books.google.com/?id=lx­UmTnLJv0C&pg=PR20&dq). Routledge. p. 20. ISBN 0­415­26728­5.

4. ^ Transition: The First Ten Years – Analysis and Lessons for EasternEurope and the Former Soviet Union, The World Bank, Washington,DC, 2002, p. 4.

5. ^ GDP decline: transition and Great Depression compared(http://www.k­a.kg/?nid=5&value=6), Kalikova and Associates LawFirm, Kyrgyzstan. Retrieved 13 January 2009.

6. ^ Study Finds Poverty Deepening in Former Communist Countries(http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9C07E0D8163FF931A25753C1A9669C8B63), New York Times,October 12, 2000

7. ^ Death surge linked with mass privatisation(http://www.ox.ac.uk/media/news_stories/2009/090115.html).University of Oxford, 15 January 2009. Retrieved 28 June 2014.

8. ^ Privatisation 'raised death rate'(http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/7828901.stm). BBC, 15 January2009. Retrieved 19 November 2014.

9. ^ IMF online database(http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2006/01/data/dbcselm.cfm?G=2001)

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10. ^ World Bank data(http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.KD.ZG)

11. ^ https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the­world­factbook/fields/2195.html

12. ^ (nominal) GDP (official exchange rate)(https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the­world­factbook/fields/2195.html), The World Factbook, Central IntelligenceAgency, accessed on 19 March 2014. Population data obtained fromTotal Midyear Population(http://www.census.gov/ipc/www/idb/tables.html), U.S. CensusBureau, International Data Base, accessed on 19 March 2014. Note:Per capita values were obtained by dividing the GDP (official exchangerate) data by the population data. The figures were then rounded to thenearest hundred in typical Factbook fashion.

13. ^ https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the­world­factbook/fields/2001.html

14. ^ https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the­world­factbook/fields/2004.html

15. ^ a b Ratification status of CIS documents as of 15 January 2008(http://cis.minsk.by/sm.aspx?uid=11368) (Russian).

16. ^ Turkmenistan reduces CIS ties to "Associate Member"(http://www.rferl.org/content/article/1061002.html), Radio FreeEurope/Radio Liberty, 29 August 2005.

17. ^ Georgian parliament votes to withdraw from CIS(http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/7560100.stm) on BBC News, 14August 2008.

18. ^ Statement of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Georgia on Georgia'swithdrawal from CIS (http://www.mfa.gov.ge/index.php?lang_id=ENG&sec_id=36&info_id=7526), 18 August 2008.

19. ^ CIS Charter(http://www.therussiasite.org/legal/laws/CIScharter.html), 22 January1993 (unofficial English translation).

20. ^ Reuters (March 19, 2014). "Ukraine Says It Could Quit Russia­LedBloc" (http://www.reuters.com/article/2014/03/19/us­ukraine­crisis­cis­idUSBREA2I17F20140319). Reuters. Retrieved Jan 14, 2015.

21. ^ RFE/RL (Oct 19, 2011). "Most CIS Countries Sign Up To Free­Trade Zone" (http://www.rferl.org/content/cis_putin_free­trade_zone/24364420.html). RFE/RL. Retrieved Jan 14, 2015.

22. ^ Ian Carver (Jan 18, 2014). "Implications of CIS Free Trade ZoneExpansion in Central Asia" (http://journal­neo.org/2014/01/18/implications­of­cis­free­trade­zone­expansion­in­central­asia/). New Eastern Outlook. Retrieved Jan 14, 2015.

23. ^ [1] (http://en.rian.ru/russia/20051110/42053167.html)

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24. ^ Uzbekistan suspends Eurasec membership, Moscow unruffled(http://en.rian.ru/world/20081112/118264022.html)

25. ^ Eurasian Economic Community Leaders Sign Group AbolitionAgreement(http://sputniknews.com/politics/20141010/193931058.html),putniknews.com. Retrieved 13 January 2015.

26. ^ RIA Novosti report, 6 July 2010, "Customs Union of Russia,Belarus, Kazakhstan to become fully operational"(http://en.rian.ru/world/20100706/159703796.html), retrieved 22December 2010

27. ^ RIA Novosti report, 26 November 2010, "Ukraine eyes customsunion with Russia, Kazakhstan, Belarus"(http://en.rian.ru/world/20101126/161514325.html), retrieved 22December 2010

28. ^ Radio Liberty, 3 February 2014, "Gagauzia Voters Reject Closer EUTies For Moldova," retrieved 4 March 2014.(http://www.rferl.org/content/moldova­gagauz­referendum­counting/25251251.html)

29. ^ a b Ukraine cannot get observer status at Eurasian Econ Union due toAssociation Agreement with EU, Russia(http://www.ukrinform.ua/eng/news/ukraines_association_with_eu_rules_out_participation_in_customs_union___putin_aide_305195),Interfax­Ukraine (14 June 2013)

30. ^ Barron, Lisa (1 October 2013). "Belarus eases current account deficitwith Customs Union, Common Economic Space"(http://cistranfinance.com/news/belarus­eases­current­account­deficit­with­customs­union­common­economic­space/360/). Cistran Finance.Retrieved 25 October 2013.

31. ^ Евразийские комиссары получат статус федеральных министров(http://news.tut.by/politics/259307.html). Tut.By (in Russian). 17November 2011. Retrieved 19 November 2011.

32. ^ Договор о Евразийском экономическом союзе(http://economy.gov.ru/wps/wcm/connect/bb840de1­a37b­4e00­8c62­6e13a59485d1/%D0%94%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B0+%D0%BE+%D0%95%D0%B2%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BC+%D1%8D%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BC+%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%8E%D0%B7%D0%B5.docx?MOD=AJPERES&CACHEID=bb840de1­a37b­4e00­8c62­6e13a59485d1)

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33. ^ ДОГОВОР О ПРИСОЕДИНЕНИИ РЕСПУБЛИКИ АРМЕНИЯ КДОГОВОРУ О ЕВРАЗИЙСКОМ ЭКОНОМИЧЕСКОМ СОЮЗЕОТ 29 МАЯ 2014 ГОДА (http://www.customs­code.ru/pravovbaza/18429­dogovor­arm)

34. ^ Finalisation of ratification procedures on Armenia’s accession toEEU to be declared in Moscow today(http://www.armradio.am/en/2014/12/23/finalization­of­ratification­procedures­on­armenias­accession­to­eeu­to­be­declared­in­moscow­today/)

35. ^ "Kyrgyzstan, Armenia officially enter Eurasian Economic Union"(http://www.worldbulletin.net/news/151539/kyrgyzstan­armenia­officially­enter­eurasian­economic­union). World Bulletin. 24December 2014. Retrieved 26 December 2014. "Signed agreementopens up new possibilities for Kyrgyzstan and Armenia, starting from1st January 2015"

36. ^ "Putin said the accession of Kyrgyzstan to the EAEC"(http://lifenews.ru/news/147572) (in Russian). Life News. 23December 2014. Retrieved 26 December 2014. "Kyrgyzstan is amongthe member countries of the Eurasian Economic Union (EAEC).Kyrgyzstan will participate in the governing bodies of the EAEC sincethe start of the Union ­ from 1 January 2015."

37. ^ "EAEC: stillborn union?"(http://www.dw.de/%D0%B5%D0%B0%D1%8D%D1%81­%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B6%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B9­%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%8E%D0%B7/a­18148811) (inRussian). Deutsche Welle. Retrieved 26 December 2014. "EurasianEconomic Union added December 23 Armenia and Kyrgyzstan."

38. ^ Farchy, Jack (23 December 2014). "Eurasian unity under strain evenas bloc expands" (http://www.ft.com/intl/cms/s/0/b08c2e4e­8ab2­11e4­8e24­00144feabdc0.html#axzz3MvV5Evn1). The Financial Times.Retrieved 26 December 2014. "Kyrgyzstan on Tuesday a signed atreaty to join the Eurasian Economic Union, expanding the membershipof Moscow­led project to five even as its unity is strained by themarket turmoil gripping Russia."

39. ^ "Eurasian Economic Union to Launch on January 1"(http://www.thetrumpet.com/article/12307.19.0.0/eurasian­economic­union­to­launch­on­january­1). The Trumpet. 24 December 2014.Retrieved 26 December 2014. "Russia, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Armeniaand Kyrgyzstan agreed to a January 1 inauguration."

40. ^ "Uzbekistan Suspends Its Membership in CSTO"(http://www.satrapia.com/news/article/uzbekistan­suspends­its­membership­in­csto/). The Gazette of Central Asia. 29 June 2012.Retrieved 29 June 2012.

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41. ^ http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/russian/russia/newsid_7711000/7711394.stm42. ^ [2] (http://forumkz.addr.com/2004en/en_forum_09_08_04.htm)43. ^ http://www.colorado.edu/ibs/pec/johno/pub/PsgeTMR.pdf44. ^ "Regions and territories: Abkhazia"

(http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/3261059.stm). BBC News. 12March 2012.

45. ^ "Regions and territories: Nagorno­Karabakh"(http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/country_profiles/3658938.stm).BBC News. 10 January 2012.

46. ^ "Regions and territories: South Ossetia"(http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/country_profiles/3797729.stm).BBC News. 25 April 2012.

47. ^ "Trans­Dniester profile"(http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/country_profiles/3641826.stm).BBC News. 26 December 2011.

48. ^ Chinn, Jeff; Roper, Steven (1998). "Territorial autonomy inGagauzia"(http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00905999808408552).Nationalities Papers 26 (1). "But on 19 August 1990, the Gagauz elite,led by President Stepan Topal and Supreme Soviet Chairperson MihailKendighelean, quickly took the next step, declaring Gagauzia to beindependent of Moldova and subject only to central Soviet authority"

49. ^ Neukirch, Claus. "Autonomy And Conflict Transformation: TheCase Of The Gagauz Territorial Autonomy In The Republic OfMoldova"(http://leader.viitorul.org/public/513/en/Conflicttransform%20Neukirch.pdf). European Centre for Minority Issues. "On 12 November 1989, a“Gagauz Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic” was proclaimed by anassembly in Comrat ... In reaction to the Moldovan declaration ofsovereignty, on 19 August 1990 the Gagauz leadership proclaimed a“Gagauz Soviet Socialist Republic”, which would be independent fromMoldova, but part of the Soviet Union ... on 23 December 1994 theMoldovan Parliament passed the “Law on the Special Juridical Statusof Gagauzia (Gagauz­Yeri)”"

50. ^ Zabarah, Dareg (2012). "Opportunity structures and group buildingprocesses: An institutional analysis of the secession processes inPridnestrovie and Gagauzia between 1989 and 1991". Soviet andCommunist studies 45 (1­2). "According to the first point of itsdeclaration, the Gagauz Republic “is a sovereign, socialist, soviet andmultinational state"

51. ^ "Regions and territories: Chechnya"(http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/country_profiles/2565049.stm).BBC News. 22 November 2011.

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External links

Candid photos of the Eastern Bloc (http://www.4020.net/eastbloc/) September–December 1991, inthe last months of the USSRNew Directions Post­Independence

52. ^ Herszenhorn, David; Kramer, Andrew (19 March 2014). "UkrainePlans to Withdraw Troops From Russia­Occupied Crimea"(http://www.nytimes.com/2014/03/20/world/europe/crimea.html). NewYork Times. Retrieved 6 August 2014.

53. ^ "Putin acknowledges Russian military serviceman were in Crimea"(http://rt.com/news/crimea­defense­russian­soldiers­108/). RT. 17April 2014. Retrieved 13 August 2014.

54. ^ "Vladimir Putin in TV denial that Russian special forces are ineastern Ukraine"(http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/russia/10772235/Vladimir­Putin­in­TV­denial­that­Russian­special­forces­are­in­eastern­Ukraine.html). The Daily Telegraph. 17 April 2014. Retrieved13 August 2014.

55. ^ "Russian Special Forces Storm Crimea Base"(http://news.sky.com/story/1230212/russian­special­forces­storm­crimea­base). Sky News. 23 March 2014. Retrieved 13 August 2014.

56. ^ "Ukraine PM rejects Crimea referendum, vows to defend country"(http://www.cbc.ca/news/world/ukraine­pm­rejects­crimea­referendum­vows­to­defend­country­1.2561973). CBC News. 6 March 2014.Retrieved 6 August 2014.

57. ^ Robert Greenall, Russians left behind in Central Asia(http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia­pacific/4420922.stm), BBC News, 23November 2005.

58. ^ Naumkin, Vitaly (November 1992). "Islam in the States of theFormer USSR". Annals of the American Academy of Political andSocial Science 524: 131–142. doi:10.1177/0002716292524001011(https://dx.doi.org/10.1177%2F0002716292524001011).

59. ^ Восприятие населением и молодежью новых независимыхгосударств истории советского и постсоветского периодов(http://www.eurasiamonitor.org/rus/research/event­162.html)Евразийский монитор, 2009.

60. ^ See: Kaprans, M. (2009) Then and now: Comparing the Soviet andPost­Soviet experience in Latvian autobiographies(http://www.satori.lv/raksts/3114)Keywords 2.

61. ^ The language question, the results of recent research in 2012(http://ratinggroup.com.ua/en/products/politic/data/entry/14004/),RATING (25 May 2012)

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(http://repository.library.georgetown.edu/handle/10822/552518) from the Dean Peter KroghForeign Affairs Digital Archives (http://repository.library.georgetown.edu/handle/10822/552494)Post­Soviet Russia and its Neighbor States(http://repository.library.georgetown.edu/handle/10822/552656) from the Dean Peter KroghForeign Affairs Digital Archives (http://www.library.georgetown.edu/digital/krogh)Discovering The Centuries­Old State Tradition (http://folk.uio.no/palk/ch03History.htm),professor Pål Kolstø, University of OsloFormer Soviet war zones |The hazards of a long, hard freeze(http://www.economist.com/world/europe/displayStory.cfm?story_id=3110979), The Economist,19 August 20044 enclaves' post­Soviet fate in limbo(http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/html/nationworld/2003211792_caucasus20.html), The SeattleTimes, 20 August 2006Are Independence Referendums First Step Toward Kremlin's 'Historical Revanchism'?(http://www.rferl.org/featuresarticle/2006/09/BA6F0EF6­04A6­4D50­A114­486B978A1F54.html), Radio Free Europe, 15 September 2006

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