1

POPULATION PRESSURE AND RESPONSES

IN RELATION TO AGRICULTURAL POTENTIALS:

A STUDY IN ALMORA DISTRICT

THESIS

Submitted to

KUMAON UNIVERSITY, NAINITAL

For the Degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

In

GEOGRAPHY

Supervisor Submitted by Prof. S.K. Singh Arpana Kashyap Department of Geography Department of Geography Kumaon University Kumaon University S.S.J. Campus, Almora S.S.J. Campus, Almora

2011

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I wish to express my thanks and gratitude to the people, who helped

and guided me in the process and completion of this research work.

My gratitude is most especially extended to Prof. S. K. Singh,

Department of Geography, Kumaon University, S. S. J. Campus, Almora,

under whose scholarly and able guidance, it became possible for me to

present this research work. I feel highly obliged to him for his extraordinary

and timely guidance and supervision. My thanks and regards are also due to

Mrs Pushpa Singh for her loving and intellectual cooperation.

I am also obliged to Prof. D. C. Pandey, Head of the Department of

Geography, Kumaon University and Prof. A. K. Singh, Campus Head of the

Department of Geography, Kumaon University, S. S. J. Campus, Almora for

their valuable cooperation and instructions. My thanks and regards are due

to all the respected teachers of the Geography Department, Kumaon

University, Nainital.

I also express my sincere thanks to the government administrative and

revenue departments, offices and officials for their valuable support in

providing me with the necessary data and records and permitting me to visit

and survey the villages under their jurisdiction. I owe my obligations to all

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Preface

Many Years ago Malthus made some very astute and penetrating

observations about the relationship between food production and population.

The basic doctrine which he advanced was that population increases in a

geometrical progression, while food production increases arithmetically or at

a much slower rate. It must be recognized that this is only a part of Malthus’

theory and it is an injustice to state it in this restricted form. But this is the

basic consideration on which the following comments are based.

The theory was stated on the basis of observed conditions in a given

area at a given time. Given the situation existing at the time and certain

assumptions about limited land area and the technology of agriculture, the

basic theory leads to a logical conclusion of dire consequences. Since,

population will increase at a much more rapid rate than food production, a

balance can be established only by some drastic events like any calamity or

epidemic or a serious step taken on a large scale to restrict the increasing

population and increase the productivity of land. Present area studies of

India and other countries’ situations can be cited as examples of this

doctrine. The tremendous population increase and the meager increase in

food production seem to prove at least in part, the theory.

Thus, the relationship between population and agricultural land within

a region can be readily separated into three successive stages as the

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population grows. In the first stage, agricultural land is plentiful and much

good land awaits settlement and a farmer can expand the cultivated areas

through individual effort. In the second stage, marginal land is brought under

cultivation principally to cater to the growing needs of a growing population.

The third stage is reached when generally it is not economically possible to

expand the cultivated area and the acreage under cultivation begins to

decline. The soil becomes less fertile or exhausted; the settlements begin to

encroach upon the farmlands. The present study area, like most parts of the

country, is rapidly passing on from the second to the third stage.

With the increasing pressure of population on the land and the

growing need for food and raw materials, there has been a growing desire in

the recent years for the rationalization of our agriculture so that every piece

of ground could be properly utilized. This desire calls for the scientific study

of the utilization of the cultivated lands. In any plan, which aims at the use

of the land resources of a region in the most scientific, rational and

economic manner, the importance of land-use surveys cannot be overlooked.

The value of such a survey lies in the detailed information it provides

regarding the existing use and misuse of land, and this information, when

analysed, leads to a full appreciation of the rationality or irrationality of the

present use and of possibilities of its further improvement.

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At this juncture, although it is very much needed to appreciate some

of the notable works, but it would prove to be much space-occupying to

enlist all of them. Yet some exponents of the ideas in this area may be

mentioned here: Malthus, Boserup, Trewartha, Webb, Clark (Colin), Clark

(J I), Valdia, Seddon, Pande etc have contributed much in the field. Other

works have, however, been appreciated as and when relevant in the research

work.

The study region of Almora district possesses unique geographical

and cultural aspects, which has shaped its land-use patterns and agricultural

set up in particular. It is located in Kumaon Himalaya in the state of

Uttarakhand. Its unique physiographic characteristics, the hilly topography

covered by forests, patches of valley lands and water-divides make it an

interesting region to be studied.

All the research material has been organized into seven chapters. The

first chapter is of Conceptual Framework which includes the broad outline of

the concept, statement of the problem, relevance and objectives of the study,

methodology and review of literature as well as a brief study of the area. The

second chapter has a reference to the geographical settings of the Almora

district. It includes minute information about the location, topography,

geological structure, climate, natural vegetation, wildlife, drainage and soil

of the region. This chapter also refers to the socio-economic settings of the

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district, which covers the economic activities, mode of transportation and

communication, educational and health facilities as well as population

settlements in Almora district. The third chapter has got the assessment of

demographic structure of Almora district which includes different aspects of

population: growth, distribution and density, age and sex composition,

literacy, economic composition, fertility and mortality patterns, migration,

measures of family planning and language.

The fourth chapter deals with the aspect of measuring the population

pressure in terms of man-land ratio, carrying capacity of land, agricultural

holding and productivity etc. The fifth chapter studies the changing land-use

patterns. It also analyzes the constraints in terrace cultivation like slope,

altitude, climate and drainage and various aspects of terrace cultivation like

crop distribution, crop association, crop rotation, mode of cultivation etc.

The sixth chapter deals with the various responses towards population

pressure in terms of economic, socio-cultural, demographic and

environmental impacts. The seventh chapter discusses the role of terrace

culture in the development of the region and the problems and prospects of

terrace culture in the light of the population pressure. This chapter also refers

to some recommendations for development and further research and

experiments. At the end, summary and conclusions are drawn as concisely

and precisely as had been possible.

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To explain and further expand the factors, ideas and situations, some

maps and diagrams have been designed and prepared and exhibited at

respective places in the study.

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List of Tables Sr. No. Table No. Title Page

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

14

1.1

2.1

2.2

2.3

2.4

2.5

3.1

3.2

3.3

3.4

3.5

3.6

3.7

3.8

Block-wise Average Village Size acc. to

Population

Climatic Characteristics: Almora District

Block-wise Metalled Roads: Almora District

Block-wise Post Offices & Telephones:

Almora District

Health Care Facilities: Almora District

Block-wise Number of Commercial Banks:

Almora District

Population Growth: Almora Dist (1951-2011)

Growth & Distribution of Urban Population:

Almora District

Block-wise Population Density: Almora Dist.

Block-wise Sex-Ratio: Almora Dist. (2011)

Sex Ratio: Almora District (1951-2011)

Age & Sex Composition: Sample Population

% Distribution of Sample Population in Age

Groups

Sex Ratio of Sample Population

26

42

54

56

58

65

72

77

83

86

87

88

90

91

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15

16

17

18

19

20

21

22

23

24

25

26

27

3.9

3.10

3.11

3.12

3.13

3.14

3.15

3.16

3.17

3.18

3.19 (a)

3.19 (b)

3.20

Block-wise Literacy: Almora District (2011)

Workers & Non-Workers: Almora Dist (2011

Rural Occupational Structure (2010-11)

Number of Alive Children: Born btw 2009-10

Number of Deaths btw 2009-10

% of Child-Bearing Women by Age at

Marriage

Number of Birth & % of Child-Bearing

Women

Proportion of Births by Age of Mother during

Birth

Proportion of Births in btw Successive Birth

Orders by Length of Interval

Fertility & Mortality acc. to Age at Marriage

Fertility & Mortality acc. to Husbands’

Education

Fertility & Mortality acc. to Wives’

Education

Fertility & Mortality acc. to Women in

Different Landholdings Size Group

93

95

96

100

100

101

102

103

105

107

109

109

110

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28

29

30

31

32

33

34

35

36

37

38

39

40

41

3.21

3.22

3.23

3.24

3.25

3.26

3.27

4.1

4.2

4.3

4.4

4.5

4.6

4.7

Number & Percent of Migrants by Caste

Groups

% of Migrants by Duration of Staying

Outside

% of Migrants by Age Group

Educational Status of Migrants in %

Perceived Concepts regarding Population

Control

Response towards Measures of Birth Control

Religious Composition: Almora District

Block-wise Agricultural & Nutritional

Density

Block-wise Population Pressure

Per Capita Net Sown Area & Geographical

Area

Carrying Capacity of Land: Almora District

Size of Holding: Almora District, 2011

Level of Agricultural Productivity by Altitude

Level of Agricultural Productivity by Land

Coefficient

113

114

116

117

118

120

121

127

128

129

131

133

137

139

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42

43

44

45

46

47

48

49

50

51

52

53

54

4.8

4.9

4.10

4.11

5.1

5.2

5.3

5.4

5.5

5.6

6.1

6.2

6.3

Area & Per Hectare Production of Crops

Per hectare Production of Crops in Different

Countries

Distribution of Land-Use Efficiency: Almora

Livestock Resources: Almore District, 2011

Proportionate Change in Land-Use: Almora

District (2001-2011)

Types of Forests & Coverage: Almora Dist.

Block-wise Land-Use Pattern: Almora Dist.

Block-wise Area under Main Crops: Almora

District, 2011

Crop Combination Regions: Almora District

Block-wise Details of Irrigated Land: Almora

District, 2011

Perceived Events of Degradation in Agro-

Environment in General

Proportion of Farmers Adopting Prevention

Measures in Agro-Environment

Proportion of Farmers Undertaking Measures

to Maintain Soil Fertility

142

143

145

149

154

158

160

189

192

194

213

215

216

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List of Figures

Sr. No. Fig No. Title Page/After Page

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

1.1

2.1

2.2

2.3

2.4

2.5

2.6

2.7

2.8

2.9

2.10

2.11

2.12

3.1

3.2

3.3

3.4

4.1

Almora District: Sample Villages

Almora District: Location Map

Almora District: Geology

Almora District: Relief

Almora District: Physiographic Units

Almora District: Drainage Pattern

Almora District: Climatic Zones

Almora District: Climatic Characteristics

Almora District: Natural Vegetation

Almora District: Soil

Almora Dist: Roads & Communications

Length & Density of Roads (Bar Dgram)

% Electrified Villages (Block Diagram)

Population Growth (Bar Diagram)

Almora Dist: Population Distribution

Almora District: Population Density

Almora Dist: Occupational Structure

Almora Dist: Carrying Capacity of Land

26

32

34

36

36

38

40

42

44

46

52

54

64

73

78

82

96

130

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19

20

21

22

23

24

4.2

5.1

5.2

5.3

5.4

5.5

Almora District: Land-use Efficiency

Land-Use Pattern (Pie Diagram)

Almora District: General Land-Use

Almora District: Cropping Pattern

Major Crops (Pie Diagram)

Almora Dist: Crop Association Regions

146

154

160

166

168

192

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CONTENT Page No.

Preface i-v List of Tables vii-x List of Figures xi-xii Chapter I: Conceptual Framework 1-30

Introduction; Statement of the Problem; Relevance of the Study; Concept of Population Pressure and Agriculture; Process of Environmental Degradation; Socio-Cultural Heritage of the People; Communication of Technological Innovations; Objectives of the Study; Assumptions; Review of Literature; Methodology: Nature and Sources of Data, Sample Size, Collection of Data, Methods and Techniques of Analysis.

Chapter II: Geographical Settings 31-68

Physical Setting: Location and Extent; Geology; Physiography; Drainage; Climate; Natural Vegetation; Soil Socio-Economic Setting: Economic Activities; Transportation and Communication; Education and Health; Settlement; Organization; Institutional Intervention

Chapter III: General Demographic Structure 69-124

Introduction Growth and Distribution of Population: Rural and Urban Density of Population Age and Sex Composition Educational Status and Literacy Economic Composition: occupational structures Fertility and Mortality Pattern: Crude Birth and Death Rates; Age of Mother at Birth; Birth Spacing; Infant and Child Mortality; Differential Fertility and Mortality Patterns Migration: Volume; Duration & Purpose of Migration; Selective Migration Measures of Birth Control / Family Planning: Use of Contraceptives; Practice of Preventive Measures Language and Religion

Chapter IV: Population Pressure And Its Measurements 125-151

Man-Land Ratio; Carrying Capacity of Land.

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Agricultural Holding; Agricultural Productivity; Land-use Efficiency; Development of Agricultural Resource

Chapter V: Changing Land-Use Pattern And Cultivation Typology 152-196

Introduction Changing Land-Use Pattern: Agricultural Land; Forests; Pasture Land; Causes of Land-Use Change; Effects of Land-Use Change in Fragile Hill-slopes Specific Nature of Agriculture in Hills: Terrace Cultivation Constraints in Terrace Cultivation: Slope; Altitude; Drainage; Climate Terrace Cultivation: Distribution of Crops; Crop Association Regions; Mode of Cultivation; Rotation of Crops; Irrigation

Chapter VI: Population Pressure and Responses 197-219

Introduction Economic Responses to Population Pressure: Expansion of Cultivated Land; Intensification and Modernization of Agriculture; Marketing Socio-Cultural Responses to Population Pressure: Changes in Work Schedule; Emergence of Social Deprivation Demographic Responses to Population Pressure: Changes in Fertility Pattern; Migration Environmental Impact: Origin of Events of Environmental Deterioration; Perception towards Events of Environmental Deterioration; Prevention and Conservation of Resources; Maintenance of Terraces

Chapter VII: Agricultural Potentials And Population Pressure 220-252

The Issue of Experiences Problems in Agricultural Development in the Hills Prospects of Agricultural Development: Improvement in Field Crop Cultivation; Adoption of Alternatives Prerequisites for the Development The Role of Terrace Culture for Sustained Development Recommendations for Development

Summary and Conclusions 253-266 Appendix 267-278 Bibliography 279-287

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