population and growth bangkok -...

Population Change and Growth of Bangkok

Chatchai PONGPRAY00N*

I. Justification

Thailand, one of the dynamic, developing coun-tries on mainland South-east Asia, has recentlyoverleaped in its economic development andsocial change. The burgeoning expansion of thecountry's economy has evidently stamped animpact on its population growth and en-vironmental degradation and hosts of other unex-pected side-effects. Due to the rise of the stand-ard of living, improving health-care and otheramenities, the population has steadily increasedand the average life expectancy of the Thai peopleextends beyond sixty. Moreover, the basic struc-ture of the population has gradually altered froma predominantly agrarian society to the urban-oriented one. This is mainly due to its alterationof the economic structure. From agricultural,sedentary society, the Thai people gradually beginto move out of their birth-place in order to adjustto the new life. Consequently, the migratoryprocess has been triggered after 1950 and con-tinued up to the present time. Almost everyprovincial administrative center has naturallybecome a centrifugal force to attract the ruralmigrants. Particularly, Bangkok the capital cityof the country outpaced other urban areas be-cause of its comparative advantages. Right at thebeginning of the migration process, Bangkok hassteadily attracted more migrants than any of itsrivals, resulting in a primacy status in everyaspect, such as population, economic status as

well as environmental problems.The notorious primacy of Bangkok, for one

reason or another, has undoubtedly called atten-tion among academics and field researchers toinvestigate the problems closely. Early in the1950s, Bangkok and Thon Buri were systemati-cally studied for the purpose of future planningby the American planning teams (Litchfield, Whi-ting, Bowne and Associates, 1960). The burgeon-ing growth of Bangkok-Thon Buri at that timewas perceived as a threat to the country's well-being unless some drastic measures were adopted.

The final report of the consultant team is knownas Greater Bangkok Plan 2533. "Greater Bang-kok" as conceived by the American plannersshould be borne out of Bangkok and Thon Buribecause both cities would constitute a single,large metropolitan area of Thailand. For the sakeof planning and administration, one contiguousspatial area could be more efficiently handled thanthe fragmented one because both cities faced sim-ilar problems, especially the rapid growth of pop-ulation from in-migration and the deteriorationof the natural environment.

The importance of Bangkok has been recog-nized in the text-book named Five Faces of Thai-land. An Economic Geography. Professor WolfDonner (1978), the author of the book, regardedBangkok as a region equally significant as theNorth, the Northeast, the Central and the Southof Thailand. Even though Bangkok containedless than 1 percent of the land and 10 percent ofthe population of the country, it contained morethan 56 percent of the nation's urban residents inthe early 1970s. Besides, according to Romm'sreport (1972), metropolitan Bangkok is one ofthe most dominant primate cities in the world. Ithad overwhelmingly more than its share of allfacilities, infrastructures, motor vehicles registra-tion, business taxes, commercial bank depositsand construction investment.

The rapid population growth and areal expan-sion of metropolitan Bangkok is often cited as anexample of excess growth beyond control in de-veloping countries. Such kind of desperate devel-opment is counted as one of the most criticalfactors that have accelerated the local en-vironmental change. Bangkok is a case in point.Through its 2W year long history of development,only the last 50 years are more significant to anunderstanding of its urbanization and relationswith its surrounding hinterland. This researcherhas intently followed the predecessors to look intothe population change and its impact on the en-vironmental problems of the Bangkok metropolisin the 1990s.

* Professor of Geography, Faculty of Arts, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok.

-1-

Regional Views No. 9 1996

II. Historical Background of Bangkok

The development of metropolitan Bangkok is

one manifestation of population growth and en-

vironmental disruption in Thailand. When KingRama I founded the city as the capital of Siam in1782, it held an inconsiderable number of approx-

imately 50,000 souls. On the bend of the Chao

Phraya River, the city originally functioned as a

defense as well as the home of the royal familyand the seat of religious authority. After digginga canal on the eastern side, the site of the citybecame an island surrounded by flat, swampy

landscape. From the curve of the river, the city'sarea has expanded slowly across the flat plain

during the reign of King Rama II and Rama III.Prior to the nineteenth century, the city grew veryslowly. It gathered momentum at the turn of the

twentieth century and has soared since then. Asgovernmental functions increased, its areal ex-

pansion became also a necessity when a series ofsuccessive canals were dug outward from the

original core while on the west bank, Thon Buri,a former capital, was also growing slowly and

became an independent city. Eventually, a den-

sely populated commercial district grew up adja-

cent to the zone of administrative center. Bang-

kok had become the only gateway to the outside

world when it first contacted with Chinese mer-

chants and western traders in the early nineteenth

century. During the reign of King Rama V ( 1868-

1910), Bangkok was hastily westerntzed especial-

ly in the area of administrative functions as wellas physical growth and planning. Practically, itpaved the way for the ensuing modernization.

However, before 1900 Bangkok had no officialrecord of population nor statistics of its atealgrowth. The population and area of the city was

estimated by eyewitnesses of foreign dignitaries,adventurers, missionaries and some foreign resi-

Table 1. Areal Expansion and

dents in Bangkok (Sternstein, 1982). There were

about 300,000 residents within the urbanized area

of Bangkok at the turn of this century. The

clearer record of population and areal extent ofthe capital city appeared after that. The registra-

tions by various government agencies had coun-

ted the population of administrative areas, priorto the first modern decennial census conducted by

the National Statistical Office in 1960. The popu-

lation of the city reached one million in the 1950s

with an area about 96 square kilometers (Litch-field, Whiting, Bowne and Associates, 1960). Bythat time, the city of Thon Buri contained more

than 200,000 inhabitants. None of the otherprovincial cities had reached comparable size orimportance. If Chiang Mai was considered as the

second-most populous center, it was much smaller

than Thon Buri and thus made the primacy ofBangkok even magnified as the most notoriouscase in the world (Sternstein, 1982).

The growth of modern Bangkok has indicatedthat the suburban character is the essence of the

contemporary capital city. Since 1937, when the

municipality of Bangkok was first established, ithas expanded the municipal boundaries and ad-justed its administrative units more than 6 times.

Consequently, from the urbanized area of 43.1

square kilometers with total population of890,453 in 1937 , the city has expanded its area to1,568 square kilometers with a population of5,832,843 in 1993 (Table 1).

According to Sternstein's estimation, the rate

of population growth in Bangkok had been the

same as that of the country before the nineteenth

century. It began to outpace the country afterthat mainly due to the in-migration (Sternstein,

1982). The accelerated increase of populationwas manifested in the quickening physical expan-

sion of the capital. From the original site of a

little more than a fortress, the city's area ex-

panded to 43.1 square kilometers in 1937 but it

Population Growth of Bangkok

Year Area(km2) Population Density (person/k-')

1937

1953

1958

1960

1970

1980

1990

1993

43.1

66。 7

96.3

173

290

1,568.73

1,568。 73

1,568。 73

890,453

1,171,654

1,622,461

1,703,346

2,495,312

5,153,402

5,546,937

5,832,843

20,660

17,566

16,848

9,845

3,961

3,221

3,536

3,718

Sources: Goldstein ( 1972) and National Census Reports.

一- 2 -一

Population Change and Growth of Bangkok (Chatchai)

took almost 150 years to do that.However, due to the natural increase of popula-

tion as a consequence of rapidly declining mortal-ity coupled with more or less sustained high fertil-ity, the population of the capital increased atroughly twice the already remarkably rapid rateof population growth of the country. In Thai-land, Bangkok was the first city equipped withgood medical service and health care. For exam-ple, chemotherapy came first to Bangkok in thelate 1930s.

After the Second World War, Thailand adopt-ed pronatalism as a national population policy. Alarge family with numerous offspring was highlypraised. Consequently, in the early 1950s, thepopulation of the capital city reached one millionfor the first time in its history followed by thedecades of tremendous population increase in the1960s and 1970s.

According to Goldstein ( 1972), the death ratein Thailand remained fairly constant at about 20per 1,000 during most of the first half of thetwentieth century. The end of the Second WorldWar witnessed a dramatic change as the deathrate declined to below 20 per 1,000 by the mid1950s and to a low of 1l by the mid 1960s. As aresult of rapid adoption of modern medical tech-nologies and expansion of health facilitiesthroughout the country, it reflected in a drasticreduction in mortality. The fertility did not expe-rience a similar decline. The high rate of anaverage 45 per 1,000 had persisted for the first sixdecades of the twentieth century. After that itstarted to decline mainly due to the family plann-ing practice.

Beside the natural increase, the fantastic rate ofpopulation growth in Bangkok stemmed from themigration process. According to the 1960 censusreport, more than one quarter of all the residentsin the metropolitan area had been born up coun-try. The metropolitan population had grown byan average of 6.2 percent over that last decade(195f1960) and more than half of the increasehad been migrants (Romm, 1972). After 1960the rate of increase was still very high above thenational level as indicated by Sternstein (1982).According to the 1990 census report, about 34.8percent of the metropolitan residents were bornup country. It is indicated that since 1960 theprocess of rural-urban migration has still persist-ed all the way.

In order to maintain the growth of the city inan orderly manner, Bangkok has occasionally re-adjusted its administrative boundaries. The pop-

ulation change and e,vironmental disruption

during the past decades therefore renected the

government responses to the increasing popula―

tion densities and expectations as well as IIligrato¨

ry movement and natural inCreaSes within partic‐

ular areas. Details of adnlinistrative units and

municipal syste=is of Thailand will be described

in the following section.

IIIo AdⅡlinistrative and Municipal System

ln「Fhailand an urban place is closely associated

with the adnlinistrative systenl of the countryo ln

order to understand one systerlll,one must know

the other system as wello For the purpose of

analyzing the data and direrentiating urban and

rural areas, the adlninistrative division of the

country should be clarined。

Thailand is divided into provinces(c力 α“g″αr)

which make up the prilnary territorial units of

governmente Each province is further broken

down into districts(α ″ 力οθ),ranging in numberfrom three to fourteene The district・ is again

subdivided into half a dozen or more coIIlinuneS

(ra“ bο4)Within each of which there are groups

of villagese The individual villages comprise the

basic adnlinistrative units. As of December 1993

there were 75 provinces,709 districts,7,157 com‐

munes and 65,277 villages.

From the adnlinistrative viewpoint, Thailand

has a strong centralized government. AdΠ linis‐

trative policies are forlnulated in the capital and

forwarded to other provinces. ]Each provincc has

its own provincial seat which,in most cases,is the

district containing the largest town in the prov―

ince. The next largest town in the province is

ordinarily the seat of the nrst district, and so

forth. Generally,the provincial seat is larger than

the diStrict centero Accordingly the urban popu‐

lation in'Thailand is adlninistratively distributed

into threc hierarchical groups according to size;

the provincial seat,the district seat and the coln‐

munal seat respectively。

The urban centers are organized within the

built‐up areas under the Act of Municipality,

which directly controls urban development in

Thailand。「rhe intrOduction of rnunicipal govern‐

ment system began in 1891 with the issue of a

Royal lDecree, establishing the Bangkok Health

Adnlinistration. This new adnlinistrative organi‐

zation concerned only the people in the FnuniCipal

area. The practice of separating the area of

heavily concentrated population from that of

sparse population was followed by a few prov‐

-3-

inces such as Chiang Mai and Nakhon Ratcha-

sima. Within an area recognized as urban, a localself government was set up. In 1953, the munic-ipal statute of urban area was formulated. Ac-cording to the Royal Decree of the Municipal Actof that year, three levels of municipality were set

up as follows:1) City municipality (Nakhon). This place

must have a total population of 50,000 ormore and the average density of the popu-

lation must not be less than 3,000 persons

per square kilometer. At the same timethe place must have adequate resources

and revenues for the compulsory functionsprescribed by the law such as water works,electricity, drainage and sewage systems.

2) Town municipality (Muang). This mustbe either provincial headquarters regard-

less of size or an area with 10,000 or moreinhabitants with an average density of notless than 3,000 persons per square kilome-ter. It must have adequate revenues forcompulsory functions.

3) Commune municipality (Tambon). This


may be established in any area regardless

of the number of inhabitants or density ofpopulation that has sufficient revenue topromote its own welfare. Practically, a

place of 2,500 or more persons is taken

into consideration as the breaking point.

The status of a municipality may be changed fromone class to another on these bases. Below a

commune municipality is a settlement of semi-

urban character designated as a sanitary districtwhich can be raised to a commune status anytimewhen qualified.

In sum, the urban area is defined as a settle-

ment that bears the governmental designation ofmunicipality. All municipal areas have some

characteristics generally regarded as urban al-

though some of them are geographically extensive

with a population more rural than urban (Gold-stein, 1972). From the administrative viewpoint,the municipality is considered as a type of localself government unit similar to that of the provin-cial authority. These government units make up

the system of devolution through which the cen-

tralgovernment transfers the political and admin-

PT''I, X T H A il I

r o r, --

,rri

o t $ t1* o'o"t'

?Rltrs

Figure 1. Bangkok Metropolis and its Neighboring Provinces

4


PHRA NAKHON

POM PRAP

SAMPHANTHA

W0

KHLONG SAN

THON BUR!

BANGKOK YA!

7.BANGKOK NOI

8. DuS!T

9。 PHAYA THAl

10. HUA! KHWANG

ll. PATUM WAN

12. BANG RAK

13. YANNAWA

Ｎ

ｌ

Л

劇

、

ｌ

Ｐ

Ｉ

Ｉ

Ｉ

Ｉ

Ｉ

1 5 10 km

BA‖ G XH[‖

t0ll 0cil0r

‖:‖ BUR!

BA‖ G KAPlTA Ll‖ GC‖ A‖

二T KRAIハ

‖GPHRA KHA‖ 016

超l sI crttoet

1‖ A[‖

BA16 K‖ U‖ TH:A‖

BURA‖ A

Ftture 2。 Districts of Bangkok Metropolis in 1970

istrative power to local people to govern them-selves (Pratan Kongridhisuksakorn, n.d.).

Bangkok has a unique history of administra-tion. In December 197l, Bangkok and ThonBuri, which had been an independent and sepa-

rate city, were administratively consolidated intoa single city known as Bangkok Metropolis(Figure 1). In terms of arcal unit, BangkokMetropolis consisted of 24 administrative dis-tricts, 15 of which were in Bangkok and the restin Thon Buri (Figure 2).

Later in 1975, the Bangkok Metropolitan Ad-ministration (BMA) was established by the Bang-kok Metropolitan Administrative ManagementAct B.E. 2518, which made Bangkok entirelydifferent from other provinces. The provincialstatus of former Bangkok and Thon Buri wasdissolved. Former amphoe became khet, andtambon was replaced by khwaeng. Although a

large tract of land in the outlyin g area was semi-rural and rural in character, the BMA expandedits administrative boundaries to the previous pro-vincial boundaries with adjustment of its khetboundaries and establishment of many new khet.

In 1989, on the Bangkok side, 25 khet were cre-ated out of the original 15 khet, while on the ThonBuri side two new khet were added to the old 9

khet. In 1992 and 1993 two more khet werecarved out of the old khet. As of 1995, the BMAconsists of 38 khet, 2l of which are located on theBangkok side and 11 on the Thon Buri side(Figure 3). This has resulted in a new urbanstructure and spatial arrangement of the BMA.

IV. Suburbanization in Bangkok

In the early 1980s, Bangkok was in the lime-light when it was selected as a study area for anintegrated ecological study under the theoreticalguidance and financial support of UNESCO.The research project is known as The IntegratedEcological Studies of Changes in the SuburbanArea North of Bangkok Metropofts (Twesukdi Pi-yakarnchana et al., 1986). It was undertaken as acollaborative study among the Institute of Envi-ronmental Research, Institute of PopulationStudies and many departments of ChulalongkornUniversity. The main purpose of the research

-5-


Table 2。 Population Distribution of Bang Khen District in 1966

1。 RAT CHATAVEE

2. D:N DAENG

3. SATHON

4. BANG K‖ OLAEM

5。 KHLONG TOE:

6. SUAN LUANG

7. PRAVET

8.` BANG SuE

9。 CHATuCHAK

lo. 00N MUANG

ll. LAT PHRA0

12. BUNG KHUM

13. BANG PHLAT

14. CHOM THONG

N

1 5 10km

Figure 3。 New Districts of Bangkok Metropolis in 1993

Subdistrict Area (km') Population Density (person,/k-t)

Talat Bang KhenLat YaoKhlong ThanonAnusawariSi GunTung Song HongTha RaengSai MaiO-Ngoen

20.5

32.8

12.0

11.7

23.7

13。 7

17.3

24.8

12.5

19,865

49,472

14,573

6,706

9,923

5,491

3,800

4,026

1,544

969

1504

1214

563

418

佃

219

162

123

Total 169。0 115,400 682.84

Source: UN ECAFE (1967), National Capital of Bangkok.

project was an investigation of the ecological

situation in Bangkok especially around the urban-rural fringe where the rapid growth complicatedenvironmental problems. The research topic cov-ered such aspects as the demographic and socio-

cultural characteristics of the inhabitants, settle-

ments, and land uses, environmental quality and

energy flow in the inner fringe.Khet Bang Khen, or Bang Khen District, one

of the 38 districts of the BMA at present, located

to the north of the city about 30 kilometers fromthe city center, was selected as a sample area.

Owing to its proximity to the Don Muang airportand its good accessibility from the city center, the

area has been under the influence of the city'sexpansion since it was targeted as a future subur-

ban area in the Litchfield plan.

Bang Khen in the early 1950s was pre-

-6-


S｀｀

~…….

1″´́ ´́ 蠣ヽ、

‖ ｀｀

′ヽ _二 ″ "‐ ‐´‐‐

ノメ~s´

、tS■

ヽ、

・ヽ‐、、」／．、、、

ヽ｀

｀

ヽ ′一″‐~′ ′`′■、、

、ミぃヽ

__ ′′′́ ″′

′

ミト)|:L´‐́́ ~́~‐´

r

、ヽ、、メし́・́ ヽ

、ヽ

ふ｀▲ヽおギ〕ヽ｀ J

R AT,tIB｀ヽ,「 1_ HA

N

1 5 10km

Figure 4e Subdistricts of Bang】Khen】 District in 1994

dominantly rural, consisting of 9 subdistrictsnamely: Talat Bang Khen, Lat Yao, Tung Song

Hong, Khlong Thanon, Si Gun, Anusawari, Sai

Mai, Tha Raeng and O-Ngoen. The district hadan extensive undeveloped area of about 169square kilometers with a population of about70,000. The urban growth toward Bang Khencame rapidly along Phahonyothin Road, themajor urban highway cutting through the districttoward the Don Muang Airport. Talat BangKhen and Anusawari subdistricts were felt to be

under urban encroachment in the early 1960s and

were contiguous to the built-up area of the city(Table 2).

After 1960, a strip of development from inside

the municipal area toward Bang Khen occurredalong Phahonyothin Road and main canalsamidst the rural environment. Along the lanes

branching off the main arterial roads, modernshop houses crowded next to the run downshacks. Many private home development firmsoriginally influenced the growth of Bang Khendistrict. Along the fringe of Bang Khen District,its physical la.nd uses were well exposed. Agricul-

-7-


tural land use gave way to new development.

Incongruous land uses spread as swiftly as urbanfringe advanced toward the seemingly no-manland zone. Large farm lands turned to otherchaotic land uses like garbage dumping ground,man-made ponds, golf courses, slaughter houses,

water purifier plants and housing estates. Theleftover rice fields got smaller and smaller and thecultivation was quite extensive. The land ownershad speculated in land investment.

When the BMA was created in 197l, BangKhen District was one of the original constituentsthough predominantly rural. However, fouryears later the whole area of the district was putunder the new administration. It was classified as

an urbanized area because it was put under a

specialized arca of the BMA. Finally, in Novem-ber 1989, the original Bang Khen District was

administratively divided into three smaller khetnamely, Bang Khen, Don Muang and Chatuchak.Bang Khen District took over only 7 6.61 squarekilometers and consisted of only five subdistricts(Figure 4). Table 3 shows the population distri-bution and areal extent of subdistricts in BangKhen District in December 1993.

The latest development within Bang Khen Dis-trict is apparently its compactness by ceding alarge part of its area to two contiguous districts;Don Muang to the west and northwest, and Cha-tuchak to the southwest. With less area andpopulation, Bang Khen seems to adjust better tothe new development. Whole district is under themunicipal jurisdiction, thus administratively urb-anized. Its previous suburbanized characteristicsfaded out. Its earlier ecological imbalance interms of physical disadvantage such as floodirg,lack of infrastructure and far-away location dis-appeared completely. The new urban develop-ment is springing up along Phahoyothin andRamintra Roads, while other minor roads haveaccommodated housing projects and industrialventures of various scales. Rural settlements and

land uses were rapidly absorbed by modernizationof all sorts. Another stage of development has

arrived at Bang Khen, although indiscriminategrowth continues and will reduce the advantagesto be gained from integrated planned develop-ment.

The growth of the BMA could be described as

natural, unplanned and uncontrolled as manifest-ed by its areal expansion and boundary adjust-ment of the districts. When the suburban area was

amalgamated by the BMA, it inherited tremen-dous problems of areal development. An exten-sion of the municipal boundaries was easy toexecute but coping with the new problem wasanother matter. According to Lasserve (1980),rapid development occurred from 1965 onward,changing land uses far away from the central city.In the wake of population exodus from ruralareas all over the country, suburban settlementappeared along the rural-urban fringe. Everymonth of the year, waves and waves of in-migrants moved into the suburbs since the popu-lation movement in Thailand is rather a naturalprocess and the government paid no attention toit. Consequently the new arrivals constituted thesuburban population.

The migrants plus the indigenous inhabitantscompletely overran the housing provision by thegovernment agencies (Kammeier, 1984). Theroles of realtors in the process of suburbanizationcannot be ignored because they have spawned thegrass-root problems to the suburbs. They hadappeared on the urban scene before the establish-ment of the National Housing Authority in 1973.The rapid increase of the housing estates ignoredbasic infrastructures and the standard width ofthe main roads or lanes. All kinds of publicservices such as fire protection, garbage collec-tion, running water or even public safety weregenerally not available. Those who could notafford a new house in the housing estate gotcheaper housing units in the form of a duplex, an

Table 3. Area and Population of Bang Khen in 1993

Subdistrict Area (kmt) Population Density (person,/k-t)

AnusawariKhlong ThanonSai MaiTha RaengO-Ngoen

18。 40

13.41

14.17

17.12

13.51

66,045

108,859

34,215

27,581

4,911

3589.40

8117.74

2414.60

1611.03

363.50

Total 76.61 241,611

-8-

3153.77

Source: Bang Khen District Office (1994), Data of Khet Bang Khen.


"ノ/́/1

IJ*.

5 10km:

・ｂ∝（‐柚釧剤ヨふ訂一̈ψ〕▲（一″″

Rarnintra Rd.

Figure 5. Road System of Bang Khen District in 1994

apartment, a row house, or built instant units onthe available public land. Private residential es-

tates were developed side by side with slum anddilapidated housing.

As a result the changing natural landscape tocultural one is quite ubiquitous. Damage to phys-ical features by heavy machinery has led to thedestruction of hills and dales, swamps or inacces-sible spots. Hard surface roads and housing

estates have replaced the tracks, trails or ricefields. All natural vegetation has been removedand replaced by nurseries and potted plants. Nat-ural drainage and canals have been completelyaltered. The overall transformed physicallandscape has undoubtedly damaged the en-vironmental feature of the suburb an area. Need-less to s&y, the slum and squatter areas in thesuburbs have suffered most from the serious effect

9

of environmental degradation.

V. Discussion

Bangkok Metropolis is still growing and morecrowded than ever. Both the inhabitants and itsurban built-up area have been incessantly expand-ing. All assorted urban problems have been emi-nent, particularly those which are associated withrapid population growth and in-migration. Theworst growth impact has fallen on the en-vironmental conditions. The crowded situationcaused high density pattern of residential areasand traffic congestion. Inevitably, air and noisepollution enveloped the city. The successive con-version of green rural farm land around the urbanfringe to urban land uses has further aggravatedthe balance of urban environments.

While the physical environmental change canbe noticeably observed in the field, however, theeconomic and social composition of the new pop-ulation in the district lacks details thus beingincomprehensible. For example, the idea of seg-

regation among urban inhabitants is unknown inThailand. But there is a tendency that migrantsfrom the same village tend to stay near theirrelatives or friends. Spatial areas of particularmigrants from the same province or region havenaturally developed in various districts of theBMA.

The changing composition of the populationcan be directly observed from various age-groupsand the economic and social status of the newcomers. Their lifestyle has been reflected in theselection of housing which in turn reflected theireconomic status and social patterns. Suburbancommunity has shown specific housing pattern,rent structure, income and occupation distribu-tion. Generally, suburban growth has sharedmany of the BMA's social, economic, political,environment, and transport problem. Details ofthese characteristics can be analyzed from a case

study.


Reference

Bang Khen District Office, 1994. Information onBang Khen District. Mimeograph.

Goldstein, Sidney, 1972. Urbanization in Thai-land, 1947-1967. Institute of Population Stud-ies, Chulalongkorn University ResearchReport No.2.

-t 1972. The Demography of Bangkok. A Case

Study of Differentials between Big City andRural Populations. Institute of PopulationStudies, Chulalongkorn University ResearchReport No.7.

Donner, Wolf, 1978. Five Faces of Thailand, anEconomic Geography. Brisbane: QueenslandUniversity Press.

Kammeier, H. Detlef, 1984. A Review of Develop-

ment and Land Use Problems in Bangkok.Human Settlements Division, Asian Instituteof Technology, Bangkok.

Lasserve, Durand Allain, 1980. Speculation on

Urban Land. Land Development and HousingDevelopment in Bangkok. Mimeograph.

Litchfield, Whiting, Bowne and Associates, 1960.

Greater Bangkok Plan 2533. Bangkok: Kan-chana Chang Press.

Ministry of Interior, 1991. Bangkok Metropolis,33-34, Annual Report. Bangkok: Secretary ofthe Ministries Press.

Pratan Kongridhisuksakorn, n.d. Local Govern-ment in Thailand. Bangkok: Thanasuan Print-ers Ltd.

Romm, Jeff, 1972. Urbanization in Thailand. AnInternational Urbanization Surt ey Report to

the Ford Foundation.Sternstein, Larry, 1982. Portrait of Bangkok.

Bangkok : Allied Printer Ltd.Twesukdi Piyakarnchana et al. 1986. Changes in

Suburban Area North of Bangkok Metropolis.An Integrated Ecological Study. Institute ofEnvironmental Research, Chulalongkorn Uni-versity, Bangkok.

- 10-

population and growth bangkok -...

Documents