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Polymer capacitor

This article is about the polymer electrolytic capacitors

with conducting polymer as electrolyte. For the poly-

mer capacitors with insulating polymer as dielectric,

seefilm capacitor.

A polymer capacitor, or more accurately a polymer

Rectangular-shaped polymer aluminum (black) and tantalum

(brown) electrolytic chip capacitors

Cylindrical (wound) polymer Al-caps

electrolytic capacitor, isan electrolytic capacitor (e-cap)

with a solid electrolytemade of a conductive polymer.

The three different types are:

PolymerTa-cap

PolymerAl-cap

Hybrid polymer/liquid e-cap

A fourth type, polymerniobium e-caps, are not in pro-

duction.

Polymer e-caps are available in rectangular surface-

mounted device (SMD) chip style or in cylindrical SMDs

(V-chips) style or as radial leaded versions (single-ended).

Polymer capacitors are characterized by low internal

equivalent series resistances(ESR) and high ripple cur-

rent ratings. Their electrical parameters have similar

temperature dependence, reliability and service life com-

pared to solid Ta-caps, but much better temperature inde-

pendence and a longer service life than Al-caps with liq-

uid electrolytes. In general polymer e-caps have a higher

leakage current rating than others.

Polymer e-caps are mainly used as power suppliesof in-

tegrated electronic circuits as buffer, bypass and decou-

pling capacitors, especially in devices with flat or com-

pact design. Thus they compete withmulti-layer ceramic

chip (MLCC)capacitors, with highercapacitancevalues.

They display nomicrophoniceffect.

1 History

Aluminum capacitors (Al-caps) with liquid electrolyteswere invented in 1896 byCharles Pollak.

Tantalum e-caps (Ta-caps) with solid manganese diox-

ide(MnO2) electrolytes were invented by Bell Labora-

toriesin the early 1950s, as a miniaturized and more re-

liable low-voltage support capacitor to complement the

newly invented transistor.[1][2] The first Ta-caps with solid

MnO2 electrolytes had 10 times betterconductivityand

a higher ripple current load than earlier types of liquid e-

caps. Additionally, unlike standard e-caps, theequivalent

series resistance (ESR) of Ta-caps is stable in varying

temperatures.

During the 1970s the increasing digitization of electroniccircuits came with decreasing operating voltages and in-

creasing switching frequencies and ripple current loads.

This had consequences for power supplies and their e-

caps. Capacitors with lowerESRand lowerequivalent

series inductance (ESL) for bypass and decoupling ca-

pacitors used in power supply lines were needed.[3]

A breakthrough came in 1973, with the discov-

ery by Heeger and Wudl of an organic conduc-

tor, the charge-transfer salt TCNQ.[4] TCNQ (7,7,8,8-

tetracyanoquinodimethane or N-n-butyl isoquinolinium

in combination with TTF (Tetrathiafulvalene)) is a chain

molecule of almost perfect one-dimensional structure thathas 10-fold better conductivity along the chains than does

MnO2and has 100-fold better conductivity than liquid

1

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manganese_dioxidehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tetrathiafulvalenehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/7,7,8,8-tetracyanoquinodimethanehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/7,7,8,8-tetracyanoquinodimethanehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alan_J._Heegerhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equivalent_series_inductancehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equivalent_series_inductancehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equivalent_series_resistancehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equivalent_series_resistancehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equivalent_series_resistancehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_resistivity_and_conductivityhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transistorhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bell_Laboratorieshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bell_Laboratorieshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manganese_dioxidehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manganese_dioxidehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tantalum_capacitorhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karol_Pollakhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrolytehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microphonicshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capacitancehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ceramic_capacitor#multilayer_ceramic_chip_capacitorshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ceramic_capacitor#multilayer_ceramic_chip_capacitorshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_supplyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equivalent_series_resistancehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niobium_capacitorhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aluminum_electrolytic_capacitorhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tantalum_capacitorhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conductive_polymerhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrolytehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrolytic_capacitorhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_capacitor

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2 2 APPLICATION BASICS

Conductivities of some electrolytes

electrolytes.

OS-CON capacitors with solid TCNQ electrolyte had a typical

lilac insulation sleeve

The first Al-cap to use TTF-TCNQ was the OS-CON

series offered in 1983 by Sanyo. These were wound,

cylindrical capacitors with 10x increased electrolyte con-

ductivity compared with MnO2.[5][6][7] These capaci-

tors were used in devices for applications that required

the lowest possible ESR or highest possible ripple cur-

rent. One OS-CON e-cap could replace three more

bulky wet e-caps or two Ta-caps. By 1995, the Sanyo

OS-CON became the preferred decoupling capacitor for

Pentium processor-based personal computers.

The Sanyo OS-CON e-cap product line was sold in 2010to Panasonic. Panasonic then replaced the TCNQ salt

with a conducting polymer under the same brand.

Conducting polymers were invented by Heeger,

MacDiarmid and Shirakawa in 1975,[8] including

polypyrrole(PPy) [9] orPEDOT.[10] These lowered ESR

by a factor of 100 to 500 versus TCNQ, approaching the

conductivity of metals.

In 1988 the first polymer electrolyte e-cap, APY-CAP with PPy polymer electrolyte, was launched by

Nitsuko.[11] The product was not successful, in part be-

cause it was not available in SMD configurations.

In 1991 Panasonic launched its SP-Cap,[12] a polymer

Al-cap. These used polymer electrolytes to achieve ESR

values that were directly comparable to ceramic multi-

layer capacitors (MLCCs). They were less expensive than

Ta-caps and with their flat design were useful in compact

devices such aslaptopsandcell phones.

Ta-caps with PPy polymer electrolyte followed three

years later. In 1993 NEC introduced its SMD de-

vices, called NeoCap. In 1997 Sanyo followed with itsPOSCAP polymer Ta-caps.

Kemet presented a new conductive polymer for poly-

mer Ta-caps at the 1999 Carts conference.[13] This ca-

pacitor used the conductive polymer PEDT (Poly(3,4-

ethylenedioxythiophene)), also known asPEDOT(trade

name Baytron).[14]

Two years later at the 2001 APEC Conference, Kemet

introduced PEDOT polymer Al-caps.[15] Its AO-Cap se-

ries included SMD capacitors with stacked anode in D

size with heights from 1.0 to 4.0 mm, competing with

Panasonic.

Around the millennium hybrid polymer capacitors were

developed, which add a liquid electrolyte to the polymer

electrolyte.[16][17] The liquid electrolyte provides oxygen

that allows self-healing processes to reduce the leakage

current in damaged devices. In 2001, NIC launched a

hybrid polymer e-cap at a lower price andwith lower leak-

age current. As of 2015 hybrid polymer capacitors were

available from multiple manufacturers.

2 Application basics

2.1 Role of ESR, ESL and capacitance

The predominant application set for e-caps and polymer

capacitors is power supplies. They cause behind the rec-

tifying smoothing of the rectified AC voltage or interfer-

ence suppression and buffer or stabilize the DC voltage at

a sudden power demand of the subsequent circuit. They

are called backup-, bypass- ordecoupling capacitors.[18]

In addition to the size, the capacitance, the impedance Z,

the ESR and the inductance ESL offer important electri-

cal characteristics.

The change to digital electronic equipment led to the de-velopment of switching power supplies with higher fre-

quencies and on-boardDC/DC converter, lower supply

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DC-to-DC_converterhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decoupling_capacitorhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PEDOThttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KEMET_Corporationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NEChttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_phonehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laptophttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ceramic_capacitorhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ceramic_capacitorhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PEDOThttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polypyrrolehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hideki_Shirakawahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alan_MacDiarmidhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conducting_polymerhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pentiumhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanyo

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3.1 Anodic oxidation 3

For a sudden power demand of a subsequent circuit, the supply

voltage drops by ESL, ESR and capacitance charge loss

voltages and higher supply currents. Decoupling capaci-

tors needed lower ESR values, which at that time could

only be realized with larger case sizes or much more ex-

pensive solid Ta-caps.

ESRs influence onintegrated circuitfunction is that un-

der a sudden power demand, the supply voltage drops:

U = ESR I

For example:[3]

Given a supply voltage of 3 V, with a tolerance of 10%

(200 mV) and supply current of a maximum of 10 A, a

sudden power demand drops the voltage by:

ESR = U / I = 0.3 V / 10 A = 30 milliohms.

This means that the ESR in aCPUpower supply must be

less than 30 m, otherwise the circuit malfunctions.

3 Electrolytic capacitors

Main article:Electrolytic capacitor

3.1 Anodic oxidation

Electrolytic capacitors use a chemical feature of some

special metals, earlier called valve metals that by anodic

oxidationform an insulating oxide layer. By applying a

positive voltage to the anode, an oxide barrier layer with

a thickness corresponding to the applied voltage forms.

This oxide layer acts as the dielectric in an e-cap. The

cathode must conform to the oxide surface. This is ac-

complished by the electrolyte, which acts as the cathode.The main difference between the polymer capacitor fam-

ilies is the anode material and its oxide:

Basic principle of anodic oxidation (forming), in which, by ap-

plying a voltage with a current source, an oxide layer is formed

on a metallic anode

Polymer Ta-caps use high purity sintered tantalum

powder as an anode with tantalum pentoxide

(Ta2O5) as the dielectric.

Polymer Al-caps use a high purity and electrochem-

ically roughened aluminum foil as an anode with

aluminum oxide(Al2O3) as the dielectric.

Conductive plates

Dielectric

dA

A dielectric material is placed between two conducting plates

(electrodes), each of areaA and with a separation ofd.

Every e-cap in principle forms a plate capacitor whose

capacitance is an increasing function of the electrode area

A, thepermittivity and the thinner the dielectric (d).

C = A

d

Capacitance is proportional to the product of the area of

one plate multiplied by the permittivity and divided by

the dielectric thickness.

This thickness is in the range of nanometers per volt.

Etched or sintered anodes have a higher surface area com-

pared to a smooth surface of the same areal dimension.

The capacitance value, depending on the rated voltage,increases by a factor of up to 200 for liquid Al-caps and

solid Ta-caps.[20][21][22]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meterhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Permittivityhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aluminum_oxidehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aluminumhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tantalum_pentoxidehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tantalumhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxidationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anodizinghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrolytic_capacitorhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CPUhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrated_circuit

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4 3 ELECTROLYTIC CAPACITORS

Because the forming voltage defines the oxide thickness,

the voltage proof can be produced simply for the desired

rated value. Therefore, the volume of a capacitor is de-

fined by the product of capacitance and voltage, the so-

called CV product.

Comparing the dielectric constants of tantalum and alu-minum oxides, Ta2O5 has permittivity approximately 3-

fold higher than Al2O3. Ta-caps therefore theoretically

can be smaller than Al-caps with the same capacitance

and rated voltage. Ta-cap oxide layers are much thicker

than the rated voltage requires. This is done for safety

reasons to avoid shorts from field crystallization,[23] but

reduces the size advantage.

3.2 Electrolytes

The most important electrical property of an electrolyte

is its electrical conductivity. The electrolyte forms thecounter electrode of thee-cap, thecathode. The rough-

ened structures of the anode surface continue in the struc-

ture of the oxide layer, the dielectric. The cathode must

adapt precisely to the roughened structure. With a liq-

uid, as in the conventional wet e-caps this is easy to

achieve. In polymer e-caps in which a solid conductive

polymer forms the electrolyte, this is much more difficult

to achieve, because its conductivity comes by a chemi-

cal process of polymerization. However, the benefits of

a solid polymer electrolyte, the significantly lower ESR

and the low temperature dependence of the electrical pa-

rameters, in many cases justify the additional productionsteps and higher costs.

3.2.1 Conducting salt TCNQ electrolyte

The original Samsung TCNQ e-caps with TCNQ as elec-

trolyte were not polymer capacitors, unlike the modified

Panasonic devices marketed under the same name[24] that

use a conductive polymer electrolyte (PPy).[25]

3.2.2 Polymer electrolyte

Polymers are formed by a chemical reaction,

polymerization. In this reactionmonomersare continu-

ously attached to a growing polymer strand.[26] Usually

polymers are electrical insulators or semiconductors. In

e-caps,conductivepolymers are employed. Conductivity

is provided byconjugated double bondsthat permit free

movement of charge carriers in the doped state. The

charge carriers areelectron holes. Conducting polymer

conductivity is nearly comparable with metallic conduc-

tors. The polymers must be oxidatively or reductively

doped.

A polymer electrolyte must be able to penetrate the an-odes finest crevices to form a complete, homogeneous

layer, because only anode oxide sections covered by the

Structural formula of TCNQ

electrolyte contribute capacitance. The precursors of the

polymer must consist of small base materials that can

penetrate the smallest pores. The size of the precursors

implicitly limit the size of the pores in the aluminum

anode foils or tantalum powder. The rate of polymer-

ization must be controlled for capacitor manufacturing.

Too rapid polymerization does not lead to complete an-

ode coverage, while too slow polymerization increases

production costs. The oxide must not chemically or me-

chanically attack either the precursors, the polymer or its

residues. The electrolyte must have high stability over a

wide temperature range and a long interval. The polymer

film is the capacitors counter electrode and protects the

dielectric against external influences such as direct con-

tact with graphite in the cathode.

Polymer e-caps employ either polypyrrole (PPy)[27] or

polythiophene(PEDOTor PEDT).[28][29]

3.2.3 Polypyrrole PPy

Polypyrrole(PPy) is a conducting polymer formed by

oxidative polymerization ofpyrrole. A suitable oxidiz-

ing agent isiron (III) chloride(FeCl3). Water, methanol,ethanol, acetonitrile and other polar solvents may be used

for PPy synthesis.[31] As a solid conducting polymer elec-

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron_(III)_chloridehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyrrolehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxidationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polypyrrolehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polythiophenehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polypyrrolehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electron_holehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doping_(semiconductor)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charge_carrierhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conjugated_systemhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_resistivity_and_conductivityhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monomershttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polymerizationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_reactionhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anodehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cathodehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrolytic_capacitorhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_resistivity_and_conductivityhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrolyte

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3.2 Electrolytes 5

Structural formula ofpolypyrrole, doped withp-Toluenesulfonic

acid

Pyrrole can be polymerized electrochemically to control the rate

of polymerizion.[30]

trolyte it achieves conductivity up to 100S/m. Polypyr-

role was the first conductive polymer used in polymer e-

caps and the first in polymer Al-caps, followed by poly-

mer Ta-caps.

In situ polymerization of PPy features a slow rate of poly-

merization. When pyrrole is mixed with the desired oxi-

dizing agents at room temperature, polymerization begins

immediately. Thus polypyrrole begins to form before the

chemical solution enters the anodes pores. The poly-merization rate can be controlled by cryogenic cooling or

electrochemical polymerization. The cooling method is

delicate and is unfavorable for mass production. In elec-

trochemical polymerization an auxiliary electrode layer

has to be applied on the dielectric and connected to the

anode.[29] For this purpose, ionic dopants are added to

the polymer, forming a conductive surface layer during

the first impregnation. During subsequent impregnations,

the in-situ polymerization can be time-controlled by the

current flow after applying a voltage between the anode

and cathode.[32] Both methods are complex and require

repetitive polymerization steps that increase manufactur-ing costs.

The polypyrrole electrolyte has two fundamental disad-

vantages. It is toxic and becomes unstable at the temper-

atures required for lead-free soldering.[29]

3.2.4 Polythiopene PEDOT and PEDOT:PSS

Poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene), abbreviated PEDOT

or PEDT[28] is a conducting polymer based on 3,4-

ethylenedioxythiophene or EDOT monomer. PEDOT

is polarized by the oxidation of EDOT with catalyticamounts of iron (III) sulfate. The re-oxidation of iron is

given bySodium persulfate.[33] Its advantages areoptical

Structural formula of PEDOT

Structural formula of PEDOT:PSS

transparency in its conducting state, non-toxicity, stability

up to 280 C and conductivity up to 500S/m.[29] Its heat

resistance allows polymer capacitors to be manufacturedthat withstand the higher temperatures required for lead-

free soldering. These capacitors also have better ESR

values.[29]

Pre-polymerized dispersions of PEDOT allow the anodes

to be dipped and dried at room temperature. Sodium

polystyrene sulfonate (PSS) is dissolved in water with

PEDOT precursors.[34] The complete polymer layer is

then composed of pre-polymerized particles from the dis-

persion. These dispersions are known as PEDOT: PSS

(trade names Baytron P[35] and Clevius),[36] protecting

PEDOTs valuable properties.[37][38]

PEDOT:PSS dispersions are available in different vari-ants. High capacitance capacitors with roughened alu-

minum anode foils or fine-grained tantalum powders can

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polystyrene_sulfonatehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodiumhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siemens_(unit)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_conductionhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transparency_and_translucencyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transparency_and_translucencyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transparency_and_translucencyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transparency_and_translucencyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium_persulfatehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thiophenehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thiophenehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PEDThttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PEDOThttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siemens_(unit)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P-Toluenesulfonic_acidhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P-Toluenesulfonic_acidhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polypyrrole

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6 5 PACKAGING

use small particle sizes. The average size of these parti-

cles is about 30 nm, small enough to penetrate the finest

anode capillaries. Another variant offers larger particles

leading to a relatively thick polymer layer to envelop and

protect rectangular Ta and Al polymer capacitors against

mechanical and electrical stress.[29][36]

PEDOT:PSS polymer Al-caps reach voltages of 200 V[39]

and 250 V.[40] Leakage current values are significantly

lower than for polymer capacitors having in-situ poly-

merized layers. This approach offers better ESR values,

higher temperature stability, lower leakage current and

ease of manufacture, requiring only three immersions,[34]

significantly reducing costs.

3.2.5 Hybrid electrolyte

Hybrid polymer Al-caps coat the anode with a conduc-

tive polymer and add a liquid electrolyte. The liquid con-nects the polymer layers covering the dielectric and the

cathode. The liquid electrolyte supplies oxygen for self-

healing processes, which restores the oxide layer and re-

duces the leakage current, so that values common to con-

ventional wet e-caps can be achieved. The safety mar-

gin for the oxide thickness for a desired rated voltage can

be reduced.

The detrimental effects of the liquid electrolyte on ESR

and temperature characteristics are relatively minor. Ap-

propriate organic electrolytes and good sealing allow a

long service life.[17][41]

4 Types

Based on the used anode metal and the combination of a

polymer electrolyte together with a liquid electrolyte, the

three different types are:

PolymerTa-cap

PolymerAl-cap

Hybrid polymer Al-cap

These types or families are produced in two different

styles:

Rectangular SMD chip, usually molded with a plas-

tic case, available with sintered tantalum anode or

with stacked aluminum anode foils and

SMD cylinder with a wound cell in a metal case, ei-

ther V-chips style or radial leaded versions (single-

ended)

Styles of polymer electrolytic capacitors

Rectangular

Cylindrical

5 Packaging

5.1 Rectangular style

In the early 1990s polymer Ta-caps coincided with the

emergence of flat devices such as mobile phones and lap-tops using SMD assembly technology. The rectangu-

lar base surface achieves the maximum mounting space,

which is not possible with round base surfaces. The sin-

tered cell can be manufactured so that the finished com-

ponent has a desired height, typically the height of other

components. Typical heights range from about 0.8 to 4

mm.

5.1.1 Ta-caps

Polymer Ta-caps are Ta-caps in which the electrolyte

is a conductive polymer instead of MnO2. Ta-caps aremanufactured from a powder of relatively pure elemental

tantalummetal.[42][43][44]

The powder is compressed around a tantalum wire, the

anode connection, to form a pellet. This pellet/wire

combination is vacuum sintered at 1200 to 1800 C, mak-

ing it mechanically strong. During sintering, the powder

takes on a sponge-like structure, with all the particles con-

necting as a monolithic spatial lattice. The result is highly

porous, offering a large surface area.

The dielectric layer is formed covering the tantalum parti-

cle surfaces viaanodizationor forming. The pellet is sub-

merged into a weak solution of acid and DC voltage is ap-

plied, creating theoxide layer. After theoxide layer is im-

pregnated with the polymer precursors, they are polymer-

ized. This polymerized pellet now is successively dipped

into conductinggraphiteand thensilverto provide a good

connection to the conducting polymer. These layers form

the cathode connection. The capacitive cell then is gen-

erally molded by a synthetic resin.

Basic construction of a polymer tantalum capacitor

Layer structure of a polymer tantalumcapacitor with

graphit/silver cathode connection

Basic cross-section of a rectangular polymer tanta-

lum chip capacitor

Rectangular polymer tantalum chip capacitor

Next multiple anode blocks are connected in parallel in

one case, to further reduce the ESR value and lower

ESL. Polymer Ta-caps have ESR values approximately

1/10 that of MnO2 Ta-caps. Three parallel capacitors

with an ESR of 60 m each have a resulting ESR of 20

m.[45][46] In this construction up to six anodes in one de-vice are connected. Multi-anode polymer Ta-caps have

ESR values in the single-digit milliohm range.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silverhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graphitehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anodizinghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dielectrichttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinteringhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tantalumhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tantalum_capacitorhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aluminum_electrolytic_capacitorhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tantalum_capacitor

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5.2 Cylindrical (radial) style 7

The disadvantage of polymer Ta-caps is the higher leak-

age current, higher by a factor of 10 higher compared to

MnO2 Ta-caps. Polymer SMD Ta-caps are available up

to a size of 7.3 x 4.3 x 4.3 mm (length x width x height)

with a capacity of 1000 F at 2.5 V. They cover temper-

ature ranges from 55 C to +125 C and are available in

rated voltage values from 2.5 to 63 V.

5.1.2 Lowering ESR and ESL

Multi-anode construction: sintered tantalum anodes are con-

nected in parallel, reducing both ESR and ESL.

Lowering ESR and ESL remains a major research and de-

velopment objective. Directions include low ohmic poly-

mer electrolytes and parallel connection of conventional

capacitor cells in one case.

ESL can be reduced by shortening the internal leads, by

asymmetric sintering of the anode lead since ESL is a

positive function of the lead length. This technique iscalled face-down construction. The lower ESL shifts

the resonance to higher frequencies, which handle the

faster load changes of digital circuits with higher switch-

ing frequencies.[47]

Face-down construction: the internal current path is shortened,which reduces parasitic impedance, shifting the resonance to

higher frequencies.

.

These enhancements bring Ta-caps ever closer to MLCC

capacitors.

5.1.3 Al-caps

Rectangular polymer Al-caps have one or more layered

aluminum anode foils and a conductive polymer elec-

trolyte. The layered anode foils are at one side contact

each other. After the dielectric is created and polymer-

ized, it is successively dipped into conducting graphite

and thensilverto connect to the conducting polymer and

then to the cathode. The capacitive cell then generally is

molded by a synthetic resin.

Basic construction of a polymer aluminum capacitor

with layered anode stripes

Layer structure

Cross-section

Assembled device

The layered anode foils are parallel-connected single ca-

pacitors, reducing ESR and ESL and allowing them to

operate at higher frequencies.

These Al-caps are available in the D"-case form factor

with 7,3x4,3 mm and heights of 24 mm. They provide

a competitive alternative to Ta-caps.[48]

Comparing the two chip capacitor types shows that thedifferent permittivities of aluminum oxide and tantalum

pentoxide have little impact onspecific capacitydue to

different safety margins in oxide layers. Ta-caps use an

oxide layer thickness that corresponds to approximately

four times the rated voltage, while the polymer Al-caps

have about twice the rated voltage.

5.2 Cylindrical (radial) style

Cylindrical polymer Al-caps use liquid electrolytes. They

are available only with aluminum as the anode material.They are intended for larger capacitance values compared

to rectangular polymer capacitors. Due to their design,

they may vary in height on a given surface mounting area

so that larger capacitance values can be achieved by a

taller case without increasing the mounting surface. This

is primarily useful for printed circuit boards without a

height limit.

Cylindrical capacitors are made of two rolled up alu-

minum foils, an etched and formed anode and a cath-

ode foil that are mechanically separated by a separator

and wound together. The winding is impregnated with

the polymer precursors, which are then polymerized toform the conductive polymer as a layer between the di-

electric and the cathode foil, electrically connecting both

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8 6 COMPARISON

layers. The winding is built into an aluminum case and

sealed with rubber. For the SMD version (Vertical chip=

V-chip) the case is provided with a bottom plate.

5.2.1 Polymer aluminum

These capacitors use a solid polymer electrolyte as the

dielectric. They are less expensive than polymer Ta-caps

for a given CV. They are available up to a size of 10x13

mm (diameter x height) with a CV value of 3900 F/2.5

V[49] They can cover temperature ranges from 55 C to

+125 C and are available in nominal voltage values from

2.5 to 200 V.[39]

Unlike wet Al e-caps the cases of polymer Al capacitors

dont have a vent (notch) in the bottom of the case, since

a short circuit does not form gas, which would increase

pressure in the case.

Design principles of cylindrical polymer aluminum

capacitors

Winding of an aluminum electrolytic capacitor

Cross-sectional view of a wound polymer aluminum

capacitor

Cylindrical polymer aluminum capacitors with

wound cell in cylindrical metal case, in radial leaded

(single-ended) and SMD style (V-chip)

5.2.2 Hybrid polymer Al-caps

Cross-sectional view

Hybrid polymer capacitors are available only in the cylin-

drical style. The anode and cathode foils are separated

by a spacer, leaded in the radial (single-ended) design or

with a base plate in the SMD version (V-chip). The sepa-

rator is impregnated with a liquid electrolyte as in a con-

ventional wet Al-cap. The liquid electrolyte delivers the

oxygen that is necessary for defect self-healing.The current that flows through a defect results in selective

heating, which normally destroys the overlying polymer

film, isolating, but not healing, the defect. In hybrid poly-

mer capacitors liquid can flow to the defect, delivering

oxygen and healing the dielectric by generating new ox-

ides, decreasing the leakage current. Hybrid polymer Al

capacitors have a much lower leakage current than non-

hybrids.

6 Comparison

6.1 Benchmarks

The polymer electrolyte, the anode materials, together

with design differences led to multiple polymer e-cap

families with different specifications.

(As of April 2015)

6.2 Electrical parameters

Electrical properties of polymer capacitors can best be

compared, using consistent capacitance, rated voltage

and dimensions. The leakage current is significant, be-

cause it is higher than that of e-caps with non-polymer

electrolytes. The respective values of Ta-caps with MnO2electrolyte and wet Al e-caps are included.

1) Manufacturer, Series, Capacitance/Rated voltage, 2)

rectangular style (Chip), 3) cylindrical style, 4) Leakage

current, calculated for a capacitor with 100 F/10 V,

(As of June 2015)

6.3 Advantages and disadvantages

Advantages against wet e-caps:

articulately lower ESR values.

articulately higher ripple current capability

articulately lower temperature depending character-

istics

no evaporation of electrolyte, longer service life

no burning or exploding in case of shorts

Disadvantages against wet e-caps:

more expensive

higher leakage current

damageable by transients and higher voltages spikes

Advantages of hybrid polymer Al-caps:

less expensive

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7.3 Rated and category voltage 9

lower leakage current

impassible against transients

Disadvantage of hybrid polymer e-caps:

limited service life due to evaporation

Advantages against MLCCs:

no voltage dependent capacitance

no microphonic

higher capacitance values

7 Electrical characteristics

7.1 Series-equivalent circuit

R leakage

C

R ESR L ESL

Series-equivalent circuit model of an electrolytic capacitor

Capacitor electrical characteristics are harmonized by the

international generic specification IEC 60384-1. In this

standard, characteristics are described by an idealized

series-equivalent circuit with electrical components that

model all ohmic losses, capacitive and inductive param-

eters:

C, capacitance

RESR, the equivalent series resistancewhich sum-marizes all ohmic losses, usually abbreviated as

ESR

LESL, the equivalent series inductance which is

the effective self-inductance, usually abbreviated as

ESL.

R, the resistance representing theleakage current

7.2 Rated capacitance, standard values

and tolerances

Capacitance depends on frequency and temperature.

Electrolytic capacitors with liquid electrolytes show

Typical capacitance capacitor as a function of temperature for

a polymer Al e-cap and two liquid Al e-caps

a broader variability over frequency and temperature

ranges than polymer capacitors.

The standardized measuring condition for polymer Al-

caps is an AC measuring method with 0.5 V at a fre-

quency of 100/120 Hz and a temperature of 20 C. For

polymer Ta-caps a DC bias voltage of 1.1 to 1.5 V for

types with a rated voltage 2.5 V, or 2.1 to 2.5 V for

types with a rated voltage of >2.5 V, may be applied dur-

ing the measurement to avoid reverse voltage.

The capacitance measured at the frequency of 1 kHz is

about 10% less than the 100/120 Hz value. Therefore,

the capacitance values are not directly comparable and

differ from those of film capacitors or ceramic capacitors,whose capacitance is measured at 1 kHz or higher.

The basic unit of capacitance is themicrofarad(F). The

value specified in manufacturer data sheets is called the

rated capacitance CR or nominal capacitance CN. It is

given according to IEC 60063 in values corresponding to

theE series. These values are specified with a tolerance

in accordance with IEC 60062, preventing overlaps.

The actual measured capacitance value must be within the

tolerance limits.

7.3 Rated and category voltage

Referring to IEC 60384-1, the allowed operating voltage

for polymer e-caps is called the rated voltage UR". The

rated voltage UR is the maximum DC voltage or peak

pulse voltage that may be applied continuously at any tem-

perature within the rated temperature range TR.

The voltage proof of e-caps decreases with increasing

temperature. Some applications require a higher tem-

perature range. Lowering the voltage applied at a higher

temperature maintains safety margins. For some capac-

itor types, IEC specifies a temperature derated voltage

for a higher temperature, the category voltage UC". Thecategory voltage is the maximum DC voltage or peak

pulse voltage that may be applied continuously to a capac-

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preferred_numberhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faradhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ceramic_capacitorhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_capacitorhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leakage_(electronics)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equivalent_series_inductancehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equivalent_series_resistance

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10 7 ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS

Relation between rated voltage UR and category voltage UC and

rated temperature TR and category temperature TC

itor at any temperature within the category temperaturerange TC. The relation between voltage and temperature

is given in the figure at right.

Applying a higher than specified voltage may destroy an

e-cap. Applying a lower voltage may have a positive in-

fluence. A lower applied voltage can extend hybrid Al-

caps lifetimes.[20] Lowering the voltage applied increases

the reliability and reduces the expected failure rate of Ta-

caps.[50]

7.4 Rated and category temperature

The relation between rated temperature TR and rated

voltage UR as well as higher category temperature TC and

derated category voltage UC is given in figure at right.

7.5 Surge voltage

Polymer e-cap oxid layers are formed for safety reasons

at higher than the rated voltage, called a surge voltage, for

a limited number of cycles.

The surge voltage indicates the maximum peak voltage

value that may be applied to capacitors for a limited num-

ber of cycles.[20] The surge voltage is standardized in IEC

60384-1.

For polymer Al-caps the surge voltage is 1.15 times the

rated voltage. For Ta-caps the surge voltage can be 1.3

times the rated voltage, rounded off to the nearest volt.

The surge voltage may influence the capacitors failure

rate.[51][52][53]

7.6 Transient voltage

Transients are fast, high voltage spikes. Al-caps and

Ta-caps cannot withstand transients or peak voltages

higher than surge voltage. Transients may destroy the

components.[51][52]

Hybrid Al-caps are relatively insensitive to short-term,

transient voltages higher than surge voltage, if the fre-

quency and the energy content of the transients are

low.

[17][41]

This ability depends on rated voltage and com-ponent size. Low energy transient voltages lead to a volt-

age limitation similar to azener diode.[54] An unambigu-

ous and general specification of tolerable transients or

peak voltages is not possible. Transient voltage use cases

must be individually assessed.

7.7 Reverse voltage

Polymer e-caps are polarized and generally require the

anode voltage to be positive relative to the cathode volt-

age. Nevertheless, they can withstand a reverse voltage

for limited cycles.[55][56] A reverse voltage applied for too

long leads to short-circuit and destruction.

7.8 Impedance and ESR

See also: Electrolytic capacitor Impedance, and

Electrolytic capacitor ESR and dissipation factor tan

Theimpedanceis thecomplex ratioof the voltage to the

current in anAC circuitand expresses asAC resistance

both magnitude andphase at a particular frequency. Indata sheets only the impedance magnitude |Z| is specified.

Regarding the IEC 60384-1 standard, the impedance val-

ues are measured and specified at 100 kHz.

In the special case ofresonance, in which the both reac-

tiveresistances XCand XL have thesame value(XC=XL),

impedance will be determined by only ESR, which totals

all resistive losses. At 100 kHz impedance and ESR have

nearly the same value for polymer e-caps with capaci-

tance values in the F range. With frequencies above the

resonance, impedance increases again due to ESL, turn-

ing the capacitor into an inductor.

Impedance and ESR, as shown in the curves, depends onthe electrolyte. The curves show the progressively lower

impedance and ESR values of wet Al, MnO2 tantalum,

Al /TCNQ and tantalum polymer e-caps. The curve of

a ceramic Class 2 MLCC capacitor, with still lower Z

and ESR values is also shown, but whose capacitance is

voltage-dependent.

An advantage of polymer over Al-caps with liquid elec-

trolyte is low temperature dependence and almost linear

ESR curve over the specified temperature range. This

applies to all three polymer e-cap types. Impedance and

ESR are also dependent on design and materials. Cylin-

drical e-caps have higher inductance resonant frequencythan rectangular e-caps. This effect is amplified by multi-

anode construction, in which individual inductances are

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resonancehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phase_(waves)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_resistancehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_circuithttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alternating_currenthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ratiohttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complex_numberhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_impedancehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrolytic_capacitor#ESR_and_dissipation_factor_tan_%CE%B4https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrolytic_capacitor#Impedancehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zener_diodehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltage_spikehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transient_(oscillation)

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7.10 Current surge, peak or pulse current 11

Typical impedance characteristics over the frequency range for

100 F e-caps compared with a 100 F ceramic Class 2 -MLCC

- capacitor.

Typical curve of the ESR as a function of temperature for poly-

mer capacitors and wet Al e-caps

reduced by their parallel connection[45][46] and the face-

down technique.[47]

7.9 Ripple current

The superimposed (DC biased) AC ripple current flow across the

smoothing capacitor C1 of a power supply causes internal heat

generation corresponding to the capacitorsESR.

A ripple current is theroot mean square(RMS) value

of a superimposed AC current of any frequency and any

waveformof the current curve for continuous operation

within the specified temperature range. It arises mainly inpower supplies (including switched-mode power supplies)

after rectifying an AC voltage and flows as charge and

discharge current through the decoupling or smoothing

capacitor.[57]

Ripple currents generates heat inside the capacitor body.

This dissipation power loss PL is caused by ESR and is

the squared value of the effective (RMS) ripple current

IR.

PL =I2

R ESR

This internally generated heat, above the ambient temper-

ature and other external heat sources, leads to a tempera-

ture differential of Tover the ambient. This heat has to

be distributed as thermal losses Pth over the capacitors

surfaceAagainst the thermal resistanceto the ambient.

Pth = T A

This heat is distributed bythermal radiation,convectionandthermal conduction. The temperature must not ex-

ceed the maximum specified temperature.

The ripple current for polymer e-caps is specified as an

effective value at 100 kHz at upper category temper-

ature. Polymer capacitors ESR stability over the fre-

quency range allows the 100 kHz-value to apply across

the frequency range. Typically, the specified value for

maximum ripple current in datasheets is calculated for a

core temperature differential of 20 C. Use of polymer

capacitors at higher temperature reduces the ripple cur-

rent.

Non-sinusoidal ripple currents have to be analyzed and

separated into their individual sinusoidal frequencies by

means ofFourier analysis and summarized by squared

addition.[58]

IR =

i12

+ i22

+ i32

+ in2

In polymer Ta-caps the heat generated by the ripple

current influences reliability.[59][60][61][62] Exceeding the

limit can result in catastrophic failures with short circuits

and burning components.

Ripple current heat affects the lifetimes of all three poly-mer e-cap types.[57][63]

7.10 Current surge, peak or pulse current

Polymer Ta-caps are sensitive to peak or pulse

currents.[51][52] Solid Ta-caps that are exposed to

surge, peak or pulse currents, for example, in highly

inductive circuits, require voltage derating. If possible

the voltage profile should be a ramp turn-on, as this

reduces the peak current.

Polymer Al-caps have no restrictions on current surge,peak or pulse currents. However, the summarized cur-

rents must not exceed the specified ripple current.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fourier_analysishttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermal_conductionhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convectionhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermal_radiationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Switched-mode_power_supplyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waveformhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Root_mean_squarehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multi-Layer_Ceramic_Capacitor

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12 8 RELIABILITY AND LIFETIME

7.11 Leakage current

The general leakage current behavior of electrolytic capacitors

depend on the kind of electrolyte

TheDC leakage current (DCL) is a unique characteris-

tic for e-caps. It is theDCcurrent that flows when a DC

voltage of correct polarity is applied. This current is rep-

resented by the resistorRleakin parallel with the capac-

itor in the series-equivalent circuit of e-caps. The main

causes of DCL for solid polymer capacitors are points of

electrical dielectric breakdown after soldering, unwanted

conductive paths due to impurities or to poor anodization

and for rectangular types, dielectric bypass due to excess

MnO2, due to moisture paths or cathode conductors (car-

bon, silver).[64]

Datasheet leakage current specification is given by multi-

plication of the rated capacitance valueCRwith the value

of the rated voltage UR together with an added figure,

measured after 2 or 5 minutes:

ILeak = 0.01 A

V F UR CR+ 3A

Leakage current in solid polymer e-caps generally drops

fast but then remains steady. The value depends on the

voltage applied, temperature, measuring time and mois-

ture allowed by case sealing conditions.Polymer e-caps have relatively high leakage current val-

ues. In solid polymer e-caps this cannot be reduced by

healing in the sense of generating new oxide, because

under normal conditions solid electrolytes cannot deliver

oxygen for forming processes. Annealing of dielectric

defects can only be carried out through local overheat-

ing and polymer evaporation. The leakage current values

for polymer e-caps are between0.2 CRURto0.04 CRUR.

Thus the value of the leakage current for polymer capac-

itors is higher than for wet aluminum and MnO2 Ta-

caps.

This higher leakage current disadvantage is avoided byhybrid Al-caps. Their liquid electrolyte provides the oxy-

gen that is necessary for the reforming of oxide defects,

so that the hybrids achieve the same values as wet Al or

Ta-caps.[17][57]

7.12 Dielectric absorption (soakage)

Main article:Dielectric absorption

Dielectric absorption occurs when a capacitor charged

for a long time discharges only incompletely. Although

an ideal capacitor would reach zero volts after discharge,

real capacitors develop a small voltage from time-delayed

dipole discharging, a phenomenon that is also called

dielectric relaxation, soakage or battery action.

No figures for dielectric absorption are available for poly-

mer capacitors.

8 Reliability and lifetime

8.1 Reliability (failure rate)

Main article:Reliability engineering

Reliabilityis a property that indicates how consistently

Bathtub curvewith times of early failures, random failures

and wear-out failures. The time of random failures is the time

of constant failure rate

a component performs its function over a time interval.

It is subject to astochastic processand can be describedqualitatively and quantitatively, but is not directly mea-

surable. Eurance testsreveal thefailure rate. Reliability

normally is shown as abathtub curvean(figure on right)

d is divided into three areas: early failures, constant ran-

dom failures and wear out failures. Failure rates are the

sum of short circuit, open circuit and degradation failures

(exceeding electrical parameters). For Ta-caps the fail-

ure rate is influenced by the circuit series resistor, which

is not required for Al-caps.

Billions of test unit-hours are needed to verify acceptable

failure rates. This requires about a million units tested

over a long period.[65] Test failure rates are often com-plemented with feedback from large users (field failure

rate), which mostly lowers failure rate estimates.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bathtub_curvehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Failure_ratehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endurance_testhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stochastic_processhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bathtub_curvehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reliability_engineeringhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reliability_engineeringhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dielectric_relaxationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dielectric_absorptionhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct_currenthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leakage_(electronics)

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8.2 Lifetime, service life 13

For historical reasons the failure rate units of Ta-caps and

Al-caps are different. For Al-caps thereliabilitypredic-

tion is generally expressed in afailure rate, with the unit

Failures In Time (FIT) at standard operating conditions

40 C and 0.5 UR during the period of constant random

failures. This is the number of failures that can be ex-

pected in one billion (109) component-hours of operation(e.g., 1000 components for 1 million hours, or 1 million

components for 1000 hours which is 1 ppm/1000 hours)

at standard operating conditions. This failure rate model

implicitly assumes that failures are random. Individual

components fail at random times but at a predictable rate.

The reciprocal value of FIT is Mean Time Between Fail-

ure (MTBF).

For Ta-caps the failure rate FT" is specified with the

unit n % failures per 1000 hours at 85 C, U = UR and

a circuit resistance of 0.1 /V. This is the failure percent-

age that can be expected in 1000 hours of operation at

much more demanding operational conditions comparedwith the FIT model. The failure rates "" and FT" de-

pend on operating conditions including temperature, volt-

age applied and environmental factors such as humidity,

shocks or vibrations and capacitance.[50] Failure rates are

an increasing function of temperature and applied volt-

age.

Solid tantalum and wet Al-caps failure rates can be

recalculated with acceleration factors standardized for

industrial[66] or military[67] contexts. The latter is estab-

lished in industry and often used for industrial applica-

tions. However, for polymer aluminum and Ta-caps no

acceleration factors had been published as of 2015. Anexample of a recalculation from a Ta-cap failure rate FTa

into a failure rate therefore only can be given by com-

paring standard capacitors. Example:

A failure rate FTa= 0.1%/1000 h at 85 C and U= UR

shall be recalculated into a failure rate at 40 C andU

= 0,5UR.

The following acceleration factors from MIL-HDBK

217F are used:

FU = voltage acceleration factor, for U= 0,5

URisFU= 0.1FT= temperature acceleration factor, forT=

40 C isFT= 0.1

FR = acceleration factor for the series resis-

tanceRV, at the same value it is = 1

It follows

= FTa x FU x FT x FR

= (0.001/1000 h) x 0.1 x 0.1 x 1 =

0.00001/1000 h = 1109/h = 1 FIT

As of 2015 the published failure rate figures for polymer

tantalum and polymer Al-caps are in the range of 0.5

to 20 FIT. These reliability levels are comparable with

other electronic components and achieve safe operation

for decades under normal conditions.

8.2 Lifetime, service life

The lifetime,service life, load life or useful life of e-caps

is a special characteristic of liquid e-caps, especially liq-

uid Al-caps whose liquid electrolyte can evaporate, lead-

ing to wear-out failures. MnO2Ta-caps have no wear-out

mechanism so that the failure rate is constant up to the

point all capacitors have failed. They dont have a life-

time specification like liquid Al-caps.

Polymer Ta-caps and Al-caps do have a lifetime specifica-

tion. The polymer electrolyte has a small conductivity de-

terioration by thermal polymer degradation. The electri-

cal conductivity decreases as a function of time, in agree-

ment with a granular metal type structure, in which agingis due to polymer grain shrinkage.[63]

The useful life (load life, service life) is tested with a

time accelerating endurance test according to IEC 60384-

24/25/26[68] with rated voltage at the upper category

temperature. Passing the test requires no total failures

(short circuit, open circuit) and degradation failures and

capacitance loss by less than 20% and increased ESR and

impedance by more than a factor of 2 compared to the ini-

tial value. These limits for degradation failures are much

closer than for wet Al-caps. That means that lifetime be-

havior is much more stable than for wet Al-caps.

The lifetime for maximum voltage and temperature isspecified in similar terms to the liquid electrolytic e-caps,

but uses less stressful operational conditions that lead to

much longer operational lifetimes.[69][70][71] Polymer ca-

pacitor lifetimes for different operational conditions can

be estimated by:

Lx =LSpec 10T0TA

20

Lx= lifetime to be estimated

LSpec= specified lifetime

T0= upper category temperature

TA= temperature of the e-cap case or ambient tem-

perature near the capacitor

This rule characterizes the change of thermic polymer re-

action speeds within the specified degradation limits. Ac-

cording to this formula the theoretical expected service

life of a 2000 h/105 C polymer capacitor, operated at

65 C, can be calculated (estimated) with 200,000 hours

or more than 20 years.

For liquid hybrids, the 20-degree rule does not apply. Theexpected life of these hybrid e-caps can be calculated us-

ing the10-degree rule.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aluminum_electrolytic_capacitorhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_resistivity_and_conductivityhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Service_lifehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mean_Time_Between_Failureshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lambdahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Failure_ratehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reliability_engineering

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14 10 COMMERCIAL INFORMATION

8.2.1 Field crystallization

Polymer capacitors are reliable at the same level as other

electronic components with low failure rates. How-

ever, all Ta-caps have a unique failure mode called field

crystallization.[72] Field crystallization is the major rea-son for degradation and catastrophic failures of solid Ta-

caps.[73] More than 90% of (rare) Ta-cap failures are

caused by short circuits or leakage current due to this fail-

ure mode.[74]

The oxide film must be formed in an amorphous struc-

ture. Changing the amorphous structure into a crys-

tallized structure increases conductivity reportedly 1000

times along with an enlarged oxide volume.[23][75]

After application of a voltage at weakened spots in the oxide a

localized higher leakage current is formed, which leads to a local

heating of the polymer, whereby the polymer either oxidized and

becomes highly resistive or evaporates.

Field crystallization followed by adielectric breakdownis

characterized by a sudden rise in leakage current, within

a few milliseconds, from nano-ampere to ampere mag-

nitude in low-impedance circuits. Increasing current

flow can produce an avalanche effect, rapidly spread-ing through the metal/oxide. This can result in damage

ranging from small, burned areas on the oxide to zigzag

burned streaks covering large areas of the pellet or com-

plete oxidation of the metal.[76][77] If the current source is

unlimited, field crystallization may cause a short circuit.

However, if the current source is limited, in Ta-caps with

solid MnO2electrolyte a self-healing process takes place,

reoxidizing MnO2into insulating Mn2O.

In polymer Ta-caps combustion is not a risk. Field crys-

tallization may occur, but the polymer layer is selectively

heated and burned away by the leakage current, so that

the faulty point is isolated. Without the polymer mate-rial, the leakage current cant accelerate. The faulty area

no longer contributes to the capacitance.

8.2.2 Self-healing

Polymer Al-caps exhibit the same self-healing mecha-

nism as polymer Ta-caps. After application of a voltage

at weakened spots in the oxide a localized higher leakage

current is formed, which leads to localized polymer heat-

ing, whereby the polymer either oxidizes and becomeshighly resistive or evaporates. Hybrids show this self-

healing mechanism. Faulty spots not covered with a poly-

mer film allow liquid electrolyte to deliver oxygen to build

up new oxide.

9 Standards

Electronic componentand related technology standard-

ization follow rules given by the International Elec-

trotechnical Commission (IEC),[79] a non-profit, non-

governmental internationalstandards organization.[80][81]

The definition of the characteristics and the procedure

of the test methods for capacitorsfor use in electronic

equipment are set out in the generic specification:

IEC/EN 60384-1Fixed capacitors for use in elec-

tronic equipment

The tests and requirements to be met by aluminum and

Ta-caps for use in electronic equipment for approval as

standardized types are set out in the sectional specifica-

tions:

IEC/EN 60384-24Surface mount fixed Ta-caps

with conductive polymer solid electrolyte

IEC/EN 60384-25Surface mount fixed aluminium

e-caps with conductive polymer solid electrolyte

IEC/EN 60384-26Fixed aluminium e-caps with

conductive polymer solid electrolytec

10 Commercial information

10.1 Capacitor symbol

Electrolytic capacitor symbols

10.2 Polarity marking

Polarity marking

10.3 Imprinted markings

Polymer e-caps, given sufficient space, have coded im-

printed markings to indicate:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capacitorhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standards_organizationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-profit_organizationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Electrotechnical_Commissionhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Electrotechnical_Commissionhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_componenthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dielectric_breakdown

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15

manufacturers name or trademark

manufacturers type designation

polarity

rated capacitance

tolerance on rated capacitance

rated voltage

climatic category or rated temperature

year and month (or week) of manufacture

For small capacitors no marking is possible.

The code of the markings vary by manufacturer.

10.4 Technological competition

ESR and ESL characteristics are converging to those of

MLCC capacitors. Conversely, the specific capacitance

of Class 2-MLCC capacitors is approaching that of tan-

talum chip capacitors.[82][83] Other characteristics favor

one or another type.[84][85] e.g., Al-Polymer e-caps versus

MLCC: Panasonic,[86] MLCC versus Polymer and wet

e-caps:Murata,[87][88] Al-Polymer e-caps versus wet e-

caps: NCC[18] NIC[16] andTa-Polymer e-caps against

standard solid Ta-MnO2 e-caps: |publisher=Kemet[89]

10.5 Manufacturers and products

As of July 2015

11 See also

Aluminum electrolytic capacitor

Electrolytic capacitor

Niobium capacitor

SAL electrolytic capacitor

Tantalum capacitor

Capacitor types

12 References

[1] Taylor, R. L.; Haring, H. E. (November 1956). A metal

semi-conductor capacitor. J. Electrochem. Soc. 103 611.

[2] McLean, D. A.; Power, F. S. (1956). Proc. Inst. Radio

Engrs. p. 872.

[3] Mosley, Larry E. (2006-04-03). Capacitor Impedance

Needs For Future Microprocessors. Orlando, FL: Intel

Corporation CARTS USA.

[4] Wudl, F. (1984). From organic metals to super-

conductors: managing conduction electrons in organic

solids.Accounts of Chemical Research17(6): 227232.

doi:10.1021/ar00102a005.

[5] Niwa, Shinichi; Taketani, Yutaka (June 1996).

Development of new series of aluminium solid

capacitors with organic Semiconductive electrolyte

(OS-CON)". Journal of Power Sources60 (2): 165171.

[6] Kuch. Investigation of charge transfer complexes:

TCNQ-TTF"(PDF).

[7] OS-CON Technical Book Ver. 15(PDF). Sanyo. 2007.

[8] About the Nobel Prize in Chemistry 2000, Advanced In-

formation(PDF). October 10, 2000.

[9] Zhang, Y. K.; Lin, J.; Chen, Y. Polymer Aluminum

Electrolytic Capacitors with Chemically-Polymerized

Polypyrrole (PPy) as Cathode Materials Part I. Effect of

Monomer Concentration and Oxidant on Electrical Prop-

erties of the Capacitors(PDF).

[10] Merker, U.; Wussow, K.; Lvenich, W.; Starck, H. C.

New Conducting Polymer Dispersions for Solid Elec-

trolyte Capacitors(PDF).

[11] APYCAP Series, Function Polymer Capacitor. Nit-

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13 External links

http://www.evox-rifa.com/kemet/web/homepage/kfbk3.nsf/vaFeedbackFAQ/F0B2667A13FEB75A85257225006AC85C/$file/1999%2520CARTS%2520Replacing%2520MnO2%2520with%2520Polymer.pdfhttp://www.evox-rifa.com/kemet/web/homepage/kfbk3.nsf/vaFeedbackFAQ/F0B2667A13FEB75A85257225006AC85C/$file/1999%2520CARTS%2520Replacing%2520MnO2%2520with%2520Polymer.pdfhttp://www.mouser.com/pdfdocs/MurataECASPolymerFAQ3.pdfhttp://www.tecnoimprese.it/user/file/PLENARIA_IPE/MURATA.PDFhttp://www.ndb.com.tw/files/panasonic/others/ENG04_SP-ALvsMLCC0301.pdfhttp://www.ndb.com.tw/files/panasonic/others/ENG04_SP-ALvsMLCC0301.pdfhttp://www.ndb.com.tw/files/panasonic/others/ENG04_SP-ALvsMLCC0301.pdfhttp://www.analog.com/static/imported-files/application_notes/AN-1099.pdfhttp://www.analog.com/static/imported-files/application_notes/AN-1099.pdfhttp://www.kemet.com/kemet/web/homepage/kfbk3.nsf/vaFeedbackFAQ/0CBE2E5238A759A385256A8700515CCD?OpenDocumenthttp://www.kemet.com/kemet/web/homepage/kfbk3.nsf/vaFeedbackFAQ/0CBE2E5238A759A385256A8700515CCD?OpenDocumenthttp://www.kemet.com/kemet/web/homepage/kfbk3.nsf/vaFeedbackFAQ/0CBE2E5238A759A385256A8700515CCD?OpenDocumenthttp://www.kemet.com/kemet/web/homepage/kfbk3.nsf/vaFeedbackFAQ/0CBE2E5238A759A385256A8700515CCD?OpenDocumenthttp://www.kemet.com/Lists/TechnicalArticles/Attachments/57/2007%2520CARTS-Europe%2520The%2520Battle%2520for%2520Max%2520CV%2520-%2520Part%25202.pdfhttp://www.kemet.com/Lists/TechnicalArticles/Attachments/57/2007%2520CARTS-Europe%2520The%2520Battle%2520for%2520Max%2520CV%2520-%2520Part%25202.pdfhttp://www.kemet.com/Lists/TechnicalArticles/Attachments/57/2007%2520CARTS-Europe%2520The%2520Battle%2520for%2520Max%2520CV%2520-%2520Part%25202.pdfhttp://www.kemet.com/Lists/TechnicalArticles/Attachments/58/2007%2520CARTS-Europe%2520The%2520Battle%2520for%2520Max%2520CV%2520-%2520Part%25201.pdfhttp://www.kemet.com/Lists/TechnicalArticles/Attachments/58/2007%2520CARTS-Europe%2520The%2520Battle%2520for%2520Max%2520CV%2520-%2520Part%25201.pdfhttp://www.kemet.com/Lists/TechnicalArticles/Attachments/58/2007%2520CARTS-Europe%2520The%2520Battle%2520for%2520Max%2520CV%2520-%2520Part%25201.pdfhttp://www.beuth.de/de/http://webstore.iec.ch/?ref=menuhttp://www.iec.ch/http://www.iec.ch/http://www.eetimes.com/document.asp?doc_id=1279739http://www.eetimes.com/document.asp?doc_id=1279739http://www.avx.com/docs/techinfo/voltaged.pdfhttp://www.avx.com/docs/techinfo/voltaged.pdfhttp://www.vishay.com/docs/49268/tn0003.pdfhttps://nepp.nasa.gov/files/21705/11_005_gsfc_Liu_Failure_Modes_in_Capacitors.pdfhttps://nepp.nasa.gov/files/21705/11_005_gsfc_Liu_Failure_Modes_in_Capacitors.pdfhttps://nepp.nasa.gov/files/21705/11_005_gsfc_Liu_Failure_Modes_in_Capacitors.pdfhttp://www.elna-america.com/tech_tan_failurerates.phphttp://old.passivecomponentmagazine.com/files/archives/2005/PCI_05_01Jan-Feb.pdfhttp://old.passivecomponentmagazine.com/files/archives/2005/PCI_05_01Jan-Feb.pdfhttp://www.jourlib.org/paper/2327093http://www.jourlib.org/paper/2327093http://www.low-esr.com/endurance.asphttp://bbs.dianyuan.com/bbs/u/68/1111231219375672.pdfhttp://www.nichicon.co.jp/english/products/pdf/2012fpcap_catalog_05.pdfhttp://www.beuth.de/en/http://www.everyspec.com/MIL-HDBK/MIL-HDBK-0200-0299/MIL-HDBK-217F_NOTICE-2_14590/http://www.everyspec.com/MIL-HDBK/MIL-HDBK-0200-0299/MIL-HDBK-217F_NOTICE-2_14590/http://www.niccomp.com/Products/smt/NTCRel-FR71399.pdfhttp://www.interstatemarketing.com/Papers/TechArticles/Tant-Niobium/leakage.pdfhttp://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1566119908001791http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1566119908001791http://www.newark.com/pdfs/techarticles/kemet/Ripple-Current-Capabilities-Technical-Update.pdfhttp://www.vishay.com/docs/40031/apprippl.pdfhttp://www.vishay.com/docs/40031/apprippl.pdfhttp://www.avx.com/docs/techinfo/ripptant.pdfhttp://www.avx.com/docs/techinfo/ripptant.pdfhttp://www.avx.com/docs/techinfo/thrmtant.pdfhttp://www.avx.com/docs/techinfo/thrmtant.pdfhttp://www.vishay.com/docs/28356/alucapsintroduction.pdfhttp://www.vishay.com/docs/28356/alucapsintroduction.pdf

7/26/2019 Polymer Capacitor

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18 14 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

14 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

14.1 Text

Polymer capacitor Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polymer_capacitor?oldid=722858451 Contributors: Pol098, Bgwhite, Gaius

Cornelius, Chris the speller, Lfstevens, KenShirriff, Mild Bill Hiccup, Niceguyedc, Elcap, Addbot, Yobot, AnomieBOT, VladislavPogorelov, Ripchip Bot, John of Reading, Checkingfax, Access Denied, Sbmeirow, NTox, Mikhail Ryazanov, Frietjes, BG19bot, Bat-

tyBot, ChrisGualtieri, RuiGSa, Ceramic123, Monkbot, JamesP, Bel017, OUYALING and Anonymous: 14

14.2 Images

File:Al-Elkos-OSCON-Wiki-P1040347-07-02-18.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b6/

Al-Elkos-OSCON-Wiki-P1040347-07-02-18.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Elcap JensBoth

File:Anodic_oxidation.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/83/Anodic_oxidation.jpg License: CC0 Con-

tributors:Own workOriginal artist:Elcap

File:Commons-logo.svgSource:https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svgLicense:CC-BY-SA-3.0Contribu-tors:? Original artist:?

File:E-cap-capacitance_versus_temperature.jpgSource: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3b/E-cap-capacitance_

versus_temperature.jpgLicense:CC0 Contributors:Own workOriginal artist:Elcap

File:E-cap-construction-principle-3-hybrid-polymer.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9b/E-cap-construction-principle-3-hybrid-polymer.png License:CC0 Contributors:Own work Original artist:Elcap

File:ESR-comparison-Wet_e-cap-Polymer.tif Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/be/

ESR-comparison-Wet_e-cap-Polymer.tif License:CC0 Contributors:Ow