pollutants in urban waste water and sewage sludge - annexes

Appendix A

Pollutants in Urban Waste Water and Sewage Sludge 232

APPENDIX AURBAN WASTEWATER TREATMENT SYSTEMS (WWTS) AND SEWAGE SLUDGE TREATMENT (SST)-REGIONAL ASPECTS

Figure A.1 Water and pollutant sources and pathways in urban catchments[after Ellis, 1986, note that this figure could be extended to include sludge output from the WWTS andalso other potential inputs such as from urban use of pesticides* a gully pot (also known as catchbasin) is a chamber or well, usually built at the kerb side, for theadmission of surface water to a sewer or sub-drain. It has a sediment sump at its base to trap grit anddetritus below the point of overflow.]

Appendix A


TREATMENT PROCESS OUTLINE:

Urban wastewater and sewage treatment is comprised of unit operations to separate,modify, remove and destroy objectionable, hazardous and pathogenic substances carried bywastewater in solution or suspension in order to render water fit and safe for discharge andintended uses. Stringent water quality and effluent standards have been developed thatrequire reduction in suspended solids, biochemical oxygen demand (BOD, related tobiodegradable organic compounds), COD (chemical oxygen demand) and to some extentcoliform organisms (indicators of faecal pollution), control of pH as well as theconcentrations of certain organic compounds, together with some potentially toxic elementsand non-metals.

Sewage sludge consists of residues originating from mechanical, biological, chemical andphysical treatment of wastewater in sewage plants. The quantity and nature of the arisingsewage sludge are subjected to strong fluctuations depending on the wastewatercomposition, the kind of wastewater purification process and the purification degree. Twodifferent sewage sludge types can mainly be distinguished:

• Primary sludge: becomes physically or chemically separated from wastewater inprimary treatment

• Secondary sludge: arises from the biological step (surplus activated sludge, sewagesludge from trickling filters) and tertiary treatment (often nutrient removal).

Primary and secondary sludges are usually combined to create a composite sludge, whichoften goes for further treatment in sludge digestion and dewatering. Residues resulting fromscreening in preliminary treatment are not considered as sludge, consisting mainly of coarsesolid particles, grits, sands and grease [Magoarou, 1998].

Although the ‘nitrate’ and ‘phosphate’ ions in sewage are beyond the realm of this project, ithas to be noted that pollutants such as potentially toxic elements, organics, sulphides andresiduals, can form insoluble phosphates in the course of treatment processes. These havegreat propensity for sedimentation in all stages of the sewage treatment process, thusbecoming part of the sewage sludge that has to be managed.Figure A.2 shows the schematics of urban wastewater and sewage sludge treatment.

Figure A.2 Schematic Urban Wastewater and Sewage Sludge Treatment

Prelim

inaryT

reatment

Prim

aryT

reatmen

t

Secon

dary T

reatmen

t

Ad

vanced

Tream

ent

Sceening,

Girt R

emoval

& G

rease Trap

Physical/C

hemical

Liquid and S

olidS

eparation

Activated S

ludgeB

asin

Secondary

Settlem

ent

Nutrient R

emoval,

Colour R

emoval

PR

IMA

RY

SL

UD

GE

SE

CO

ND

AR

YS

LU

DG

E

RE

SID

UE

S

TE

RT

IAR

YS

LU

DG

E

Anaerobic/A

erobicM

esophilic/Therm

ophilicC

omposting

Stabilisation ponds

Advanced T

reatments

Sludge

Conditioning

Slu

dge D

igestion

Dew

ateringL

and Application

Appendix A


REGIONAL ASPECTS:

Protection of the receiving waters from pollution by harmful effluent is the primary goal forthe treatment of urban wastewaters at WWTS. Urban wastewater is defined by the CouncilDirective 91/271/EEC of 21 May 1991 concerning urban wastewater treatment (and asamended by Commission Directive 98/15/EC of 27 February 1998) as, domestic wastewateror the mixture of domestic wastewater with industrial wastewater and/or run-off rainwater.The figures for water supply, consumption and treated wastewater are very variable acrossthe European Union. The water supply (litres/inhabitant/day) fluctuates greatly accross theEuropean urban areas (EUROSTAT data,1998-2000, Ginés, 1997). Not all collectedwastewater is treated; the percentage of urban wastewater not receiving treatment rangesfrom 3% in Germany, up to 77% in Greece. This may include unplanned wastewatercollection, such as septic systems or leakage of UWW collection systems. Cities such asMilan and Brussels do not yet have a centralised WWTS.

Table A.1 Population and household access to sewerage and wastewater treatmentfacilities

Percentage of population with access to sewerage and public WWTfacilities

Access tosewerage

No treatment P P + S P + S +T

Country Population(1998)

thousands

(%) (%) (%) (%) (%)

Year

Austria 8,075 76 1 1 39 35 1995Belgium 10,192 78 37 1997Denmark 5,295 87 18 1996Finland 5,147 78 0 7 71 1997France 58,727 81 4 0 0 77 1994

Germany 82,057 92 >31 >47 1995Greece 10,511 70 16 0 0 54 1996Ireland 3,694 68 32 23 12 1 1995

Italy 57,563 84 16 3 38 26 1996Luxembourg 424 88 0 19 57 11 1995Netherlands 15,654 98 2 0 68 28 1994

Portugal 9,957 55 34 9 11 0 1990Spain 39,348 62 13 11 34 3 1995

Sweden 8,848 86 0 0 5 81 1995UK 59,090 96 9 9 64 14 1996

- England &Wales

- 96 10 0 0 86 1995

-N. Ireland - 83 1996-Scotland - 94 1996

TOTAL EU 374,582 84 - - - 48 -

[after OECD Report, 1999, EUROSTAT, 1998-2000] P=primary, S= secondary, T=tertiarytreatment

Table A.1 shows the data in EU15 for the total population, population access to UWWcollecting systems and to urban wastewater treatment facilities. The EU15 average showsthat 84 % of the households have access to UWW collecting systems, whereas only 48 % ofthe urban wastewater is treated in primary + secondary + tertiary treatment facilities.

According to the European Waste Water Group (1997) report on urban wastewatertreatment in the EU and accession countries, there are marked differences between variousEuropean regions in terms of primary, secondary and tertiary treatment as shown in FigureA.3. The four represented groups of countries are: EU10 (all EU countries minus Austria,Belgium, Denmark, Ireland and Sweden), EU south (France, Greece, Italy, Portugal, Spain),EU north (Germany, Finland, Netherlands, Luxembourg and United Kingdom) and AC10(accession countries, Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Lithuania, Latvia, Poland,Romania, Slovenia, Slovakia).

Appendix A


The percentage of population not connected to the UWW collecting systems (considered"rural") increases in the order:

EU north (4%) < EU south (18%) < AC10 (40%)

The percentage of untreated urban wastewater increases in the order:

EU north (7%) < AC10 (18%) <EU south (18%)

In terms of primary, secondary and nutrient removal treatment the order is:

EU north (57%) > EU south (3%) > AC10 (2%)

These differences show a north-south and an west-east divide and point towards the needfor greater investment in the urban wastewater treatment in the southern region and theaccession countries.

Figure A.3 Urban wastewater treatment in EU and accession countries (minus Cyprus)[after EEA, 1999, chapter 3.5 Water Stress]

Appendix A


Northern region (Sweden, Denmark, Finland and Norway):Environmental awareness in this region is high compared to many other countries in Europe(Germany and the Netherlands being the major exceptions to this). This is in part due to theenvironmental damage experienced in the past decades in this region from trans-boundaryacid deposition due to the burning of high sulphur fossil fuels. A number of national pollutionevents, such as mercury poisoning of fish due to discharges from chloralkali plants alsoincreased awareness of the damage emissions can cause.

This led to increased recognition of the need for national and international agreements tolimit local and global environmental perturbations and has led Sweden and Norway inparticular to be among the most pro-active nations in terms of setting environmentalstandards and education amongst the general population.

Finland, Norway and Sweden have low population densities and there are similarities in thecommercial activities in these regions, for example the oil production, metals andengineering and paper manufacturing industries. Denmark has a higher population densitythan other countries in the Northern region and therefore more of an urban environment butalso has a high level of environmental concern about water pollution, although all thedrinking water in this region is from groundwater sources. This compares with the UK, forexample, where approximately one third of potable drinking water is abstracted from surfacewater sources that receive effluent from wastewater treatment.

The Central Region (Germany, Austria and CEE countries):

In addition to Germany and Austria, data are gathered where available for Switzerland andfor Central and Eastern European countries (Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary,Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Slovakia, Slovenia), all associated EU countries. Environmentalawareness in the Central Region is high in Germany, Austria and Switzerland whereas theCEE countries experience a high level of environmental damage due to the long years ofneglect while part of the Soviet bloc. Transboundary pollution issues are very important inthe accession CEE countries and their neighbours. Very little data is available for the CEEcountries regarding the pollutants in UWW and SS. An inventory of organic pollutants in theenvironment in the CEE countries was done by a team at Brno University, the CzechRepublic. (Persistent, Bioaccumulative and Toxic Chemicals in Central and EasternEuropean Countries - State-of-the-art Report-TOCOEN REPORT No. 150, 1999). The mainorganic pollutants investigated are the PAHs, PCBs, PCDD/PCDFs and their ocurrence inthe urban environments in the CEE countries. Most data available is from the CzechRepublic, Poland, Slovakia and Hungary.

The Southern Region (Greece, Italy, Portugal and Spain):

The environmental awareness in the region is on the increase in the recent years. Waterresources are limited in the Southern Region and therefore recycling of treated waste waterand pollution reduction at source are important issues. Data regarding sources of pollutantsis less abundant in the 'Southern Region' especially regarding specific organic pollutants.The region has among the lowest percentage of population access to UWW collectingsystems in the EU (70% for Greece, 84% for Italy, 55% for Portugal and 62% for Spain). Thepercentage of non-treated wastewater is among the highest in the EU (16% for Greece andItaly, 34% for Portugal and 13% for Spain) [after OECD Report, 1999, EUROSTAT, 1998-2000].

Typically, the metal content of sewage sludge in Italy is low, according to the literature[Garcia-Delgado et al., 1994; Lang et al., 1988] suggesting that the sludge is mainly ofdomestic origin, with negligible contribution from urban and industrial wastewater. Data forSouthern Italy were gathered in a two years pilot campaign [Braguglia et al., 2000; Marani etal., 1998; Mininni et al., 1999].

Appendix A


Metal Concentration rangeSouthern Italy Literature

As 1.1-1.8 0.3-20Cd 3-23 1-50Co 1-4 5-30Cr 227-535 40-1500Cu 258-373 160-1600Hg 1.1-3.1 1-12Mn 80-109 240-600Ni 34-57 20-240Pb 95-137 80-850Zn 1650-4213 900-4200

Table A.2. Metal concentrations in sewage sludge (mg/kg of DS)

Wastewater treatment systems in Italy may treat 'non domestic' wastewater if the followingrequirements are fulfilled:

- the plant has a residual capacity of treatment;- wastewater meets the limits for discharge in UWW collecting systems;- wastewater derives from the same territorial area;- the same treatment tariff valid for the UWW discharge is applied.

In Spain, which is organised in 17 comunidades autonomas (autonomous communities)there are more than 300,000 point sources of water discharges (both to superficial and togroundwater) out of which 240,000 are to UWW collecting systems [Ministerio de MedioAmbiente, 1997]. However, the quantification of the pollutants discharged is very limited.Routine controls are generally limited to those established in Royal Decree 509/1996 andwhich must be published every two years: BOD5, COD, suspended solids, total phosphorusand total nitrogen in the case of treatment plants located in sensitive areas. However, thesecontrols are usually employed only for the discharges (not for the wastewater coming intothe treatment plant). As the discharges into the UWW collecting systems are under thecontrol of the local governments (municipalities), the limited information on levels ofpollutants in wastewater that exists comes from the enforcement inspection controls and isnot publicly available nor published in any form [Palerm and Singer, 2000].

There is almost no information on sources of pollutants and levels of pollutants in urbanwastewater and sewage sludge in Iberia [Palerm and Singer, 2000]. Water management inSpain is completely de-centralised and the discharges into the UWW collecting system areunder the competence of the municipal authorities, which must meet the establishedparameters for discharge into the public waterways.

There is very little information sources of pollutants and levels of pollutants in urbanwastewater and sewage sludge in Portugal [Palerm and Singer, 2000]. Most of theinformation that exists was obtained prior to designing the wastewater treatment plants, butthis information was gathered at a local level and is not publicly available.

Data are available in Greece for sewage sludge content of potentially toxic elements, andmore limited for pollutants in urban wastewater. The Hellenic Ministry for Environment,Physical Planning and Public works co-ordinates the data management in terms ofpollutants load in urban areas. The research studies tend to centre on the cities ofThessaloniki or Athens.

Appendix A


The Western Region (UK, Ireland, France and the Benelux countries, Belgium Netherlandsand Luxembourg):

In this region, wastewater treatment is among the most advanced in the EU. France hasover 160,000 km of sewers and 11,300 treatment plants. The WWTS are operated by publicor private bodies. The ownership of WWTS and sewers are always public, owned bymunicipalities or associations of municipalities. France is divided into six Water Agencies,mainly around hydrographic areas, Adour-Garonne, Artois-Picardie, Loire-Bretagne, Rhin-Meuse, Rhone-Méditéranée-Corse and Seine-Normandie. The municipalities operate thesewer systems and often, private companies run the plants [EWWG, 1997].

In the Netherlands, the municipalities are responsible for collection of sewage and disposalof sludge from sewers. The treatment of wastewater and disposal of effluent and sludge isthe responsibility of 27 waterboards. Sludge disposal is partially privatised. In Belgium, themunicipalities are responsible for the sewerage systems in both Vlanderen and Wallonie.Similarly, in Luxembourg, the 118 municipalities are responsible for the collection andtreatment of urban wastewater and sludge. The management of sludge is partially sharedwith operators of solid waste [EWWG, 1997].

In UK there are over 300,000 km sewers and 7,600 WWTS. The collection of sewage, itstreatment and disposal of effluent and sludge are the responsibility of privately-financedwater service companies in England and Wales (10), public water and sewerage authoritiesin Scotland (3), and the Water Service of the Department of Environment in Northern Ireland[EWWG, 1997]. In the Republic of Ireland, the urban wastewater collection and treatment isthe responsibility of local councils. Private-Public Partnerships (PPP) schemes are in placefor modernising and upgrading the WWTS [Dept. of Environment and Local Govt, Ireland,1999]

Appendix B

239

APPENDIX B Physical and chemical properties of selected pollutants

In order to understand the behaviour of organic pollutants in the urban environment theknowledge of their physical and chemical properties is very important. Vapour pressure,boiling-point, water solubility and distribution coefficients describe the distribution betweensolid, liquid and gaseous phase. The adsorption coefficient KOC is important for transitionsbetween soil or sewage sludge particles and water. The transition water/air is governed bythe Henry coefficient KAW. The distribution coefficient octane/water KOW is a measure for thelipophilic or lipophobic qualities of a chemical compound. For substances with similarphysical properties, their water solubility is a crucial factor for the liquid phase transport.

Anionic and Non-ionic Surfactants

A1. Linear Alkylbenzenesulphonate

Linear alkylbenzenesulphonate (LAS) is a synthetic compound utilized as surfactant indetergents, washing-up liquids and cleaning agents. The most important LAS qualities arerepresented in Table II.22 Figure B.1 shows the LAS structure formula.

Table B.1 LAS properties [Bürgermann 1988].Abbreviation Molecular

formulaMolar mass Colour Solubility Vapor

pressureDensityat 20°C

[g/mol] [g/l] [g/cm3]LAS C18H30O3S ca. 326 colourles

s1.1 extremely low 1

SO3-Na+

CH3-CH2-CH-(CH2)8-CH3

Figure B.1: LAS structure formula.

A2. NPEs or nonylphenol polyethoxylates and APEs alkylphenol ethoxylates

Polyethoxylated nonylphenols are important surfactants used comercially and in somehousehold products for many years, also as emulsifiers and solubilisers in industrialprocessing, as well as household cleaning products. They have the general formula:

R-C6H4-(OCH2-CH2)nOH, where R=C9H19 and n=6-18.

B. Polychlorinated Dibenzo-p-dioxins and Dibenzofurans (PCDD/PCDF)

PCCDs and PCDFs are tricyclic, aromatic, almost planar built ethers with comparablephysical, chemical and biological qualities. They differ from each other in the position andnumber of chlorine atoms and the symmetry of the basic structure. Figure B.2 shows thestructure formulas of the polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDD/F).

Appendix B

240

1

4

2

3

8

7

9

6Clx Cly

PCDD1

4

2

3

8

7

9

6Clx Cly

PCDFFigure B.2 PCDD/F structure formulas.

PCDD/F are extremely heavy-volatile components (high melting and boiling-points). Thevapour pressure drops with chlorine substitution, so that low-chlorinated dioxins and furansare quite volatile. Highly-chlorinated compounds are found in solid state adsorbed onparticles. The greatest mobility is in the air. In water, PCDD/F are almost completely boundto particles (high octane/water distribution coefficient). The affinity to organic carboncompounds is strongly pronounced (high adsorption coefficients). Due to their physico-chemical qualities PCDD/F are very firmly bound to soil and sediments.

PCDD/F do not react with acids and bases and are quite chemically inert. They are thermallystable at temperatures up to 600-800 °C. The extraordinary stability and the low photolyticreduction render them to be very persistent in the environment. Because of the long life timeand the lipophilic qualities PCDD/F can accumulate in organisms: they accumulatepredominantly in animal fatty substances [Mahnke, 1997].

C. Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs)

The polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) form a group of over 209 chlorinated, aromaticcompounds with the same structural features. They differ with the degree of chlorinesubstitution and with their structure. PCBs are substances with low electrical conductibility,high thermal and chemical stability and low water solubility. They are characterised by a highlipophilic character, so they accumulate in the food-chain. Their biological degradability inthe environment depends on the complexity and chlorination of each particular compound.Figure B.3 shows the PCBs structure formula. The physical-chemical qualities of selectedPCBs compounds are specified in Table B.2.

3

4

2

6Clx Cly5

2'

6'

3'

5'

4'

Figure B.3 PCBs structure formula.

Appendix B

241

Table B.2 Physical-chemical data of selected PCBs.Substance Henry

constantSolubility[g/m3]

Log KOW

2,4,4´-Trichlorbiphenyl n.a. 8.5E-02 5.74/5.692,5,2´,5´-Tetrachlorbiphenyl 4.9E-03 4.6E-02 6.26/6.093,4,3´,4´-Tetrachlorbiphenyl 3.1E-04 1.8E-01 6.52/5.622,4,5,2´,5´-Pentachlorbiphenyl 1.2E-0.3 3.1E-0.2 6.85/7.072,3,4,2´,4´,5´-Hexachlorbiphenyl 5.3E-04 n.a. n.a./7.442,4,5,2´,4´,5´-Hexachlorbiphenyl 6.9E-04 8.8E-03 7.44/7.752,3,4,5,2´,4´,5´-Heptachlorbiphenyl 1.3E-04 n.a. n.a./n.a.

(Kow distribution coefficient octane-water) [Bürgermann 1988].

D. Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons

The polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are of major public concern because of theirubiquitous occurrence and high carcinogenic potential. PAHs are multi-core aromatic ringsystems with 5 and 6 rings. They represent benzene condensation products. PAHs are solid,mostly colourless compounds. They have a strong lipophilic character and their watersolubility decreases with the increase of ring numbers. Low-molecular PAHs are relativelyvolatile. PAHs with a boiling-point below 400°C exist in the air in gaseous state. The higherboiling compounds are adsorbed to particles. The physico-chemical features of some PAHsare indicated in Table B.3 and Figure B.4 shows the structural formula of selected PAHs.The list of 16 USEPA PAHs is shown in Table B.5.

Table B.3 Physico-chemical data of selected PAHs [Bürgermann 1988].Name Chemical

formulaVapour

pressureSolubility KOW KOC Henry constant

[Pa] [mg/l] [cm3/g]

Benzo(k)fluoranthene C10H12 0.1E-07 0.68E-06 6.84 2843420 0.2E-05Benzo(a)anthracene C18H12 0.67E-06 0.12E-04 5.61 167433 0.54E-05

Benzo(a)pyrene C20H12 0.0 0.38E-05 6.04 450651 0.18E-07

(Kow distribution coefficient octane-water, Koc adsorption coefficient)

Appendix B

242

Indeno(1,2,3-cd)pyren Dibenzo(a,h)anthracen

Benzo(b)fluoranthen Benzo(g,h,i)perylen

Figure B.4: Structure formula of selected PAHs. [Bürgermann 1988]

Table B.4 List of 16 PAH group [USEPA, IARC]PAHs Vapour

pressure(Torr at 20°C)

Solubility inwater (mg.l-1)

Kow Carcinogenic potency

IARC/USEPA*

classificationAcenaphthene, Ace 10-3-10-2 3.4 at 25°C 21000Acenaphthylene, Acy 10-3-10-2 3.93 12000Fluorene, Flu 10-3-10-2 1.9 15000Naphtalene, Np 0.0492 32 2300Anthracene, An 2.10-4 0.05 – 0.07 at

25°C28000 3

Fluoranthene, Fl 10-6 to 10-4 0.26 at 25°C 340000 3Phenanthrene 6.8.10-4 1.0 to 1.3 at

25°C29000 3

Benzo[α] anthracene, B[α]An 5.10-9 0.01 at 25°C 4.105 2A/B2Benzo[ß]fluoranthene, B[ß]Fl 10-11 to 10-6 - 4.106 2B/B2Benzo[k]fluoranthene, B[k]Fl 9.6.10-7 - 7.106 2BChrysene, Chry 10-11 to 10-6 0.002 at 25°C 4.105 3/B2Pyrene 6.9.10-9 0.14 at 25°C 2.105 3Benzo[ghi]perylene, B[ghi]Pe ~10-10 0.00026 at

25°C107 3

Benzo[α]pyrene, B[α]Py 5.10-9 0.0038 at 25°C 106 2A/B2Dibenzo[α,h]anthracene, dB[α,h]An ~10-10 0.0005 at 25°C 106 2A/B2Indeno[1,2,3-cd]pyrene,I[1,2,3-cd]Py

~10-10 - 5.107 2B/B2

2A/B2:Probably carcinogenic to humans/Probable human carcinogen; 2B:Possibly carcinogenic tohumans; 3: Not classifiable as to human carcinogenicity; Blank:Not tested for human carcinogenicity.*IARC: International Agency for Research on Cancer; USEPA: US Environmental Protection Agency.

Appendix B

243

Di-(2-ethyhexyl)phthalate (DEHP)

Di-(2-ethyhexyl)phthalate (DEHP) appears at 25°C as a colourless, almost odourless, oilyliquid and is fat-soluble (lipophilic). It is transported almost exclusively with fatty substancesand accumulates in sediments. DEHP forms water-soluble complexes with humic and fulvicacids. Figure II.10 shows the DEHP structure formula. The more important physico-chemicalqualities of DEHP are represented in Table II.30.

C=O

O

CH2

HC-C2H5

C4H9

C-O-CH2-CH-C4H9

O C2H5

Figure B.5 DEHP structure formula.

Table B.5 Physical-chemical data of DEHP [Bürgermann 1988].Abbreviation Sum

formulaVaporpressure

Solubility KOW KOC Henryconstant

[Pa] [mg/l] [cm3/g]

DEHP C24H38O4 0.60E-05 0.23E-04 4.88 35,567 0.53E-05

(Kow distribution coefficient octane-water, Koc adsorption coefficient)

Polycyclic musk compoundsThree representatives of the polycyclic musk compounds with abbreviation name, tradename, chemical formula and molecular weight are shown in Table B.6.

Table B.6 Polyclyclic musk compounds.Abbreviation Trade name Chemical

formulaMolecularweight

HHCB Galaxolide C18H26O 258.40AHTN Tonalide C18H26O 258.40ADBI Celestolide C17H24O 244.38

Appendix B

244

Nitro-musk Compounds

Properties. Nitro-musk compounds are nitro aromatic bonds with a high stability to chemicaland biochemical reduction, high persistancy and lipophillic behaviour.Musk ambrette, musk xylene, musk ketone, musk tibetene and musk moskene belong to thenitro-musk compounds. Trade names and formulas of the nitro-musk compounds are listedin Table B7.

Table B7 Trade name and formula of the nitro-musk compounds.Trade name FormulaMusk ambrette 1-tert.-butyl-2-methoxy-4-methyl-3,5-

dinitrobenzeneMusk xylene 1-tert.-butyl-3,5-dimethyl-2,4,6-trinitrobenzeneMusk ketone 1-tert.-butyl-3,5-dimethyl-2,6-dinitro-4-

acetylbenzeneMusk tibetene 1-tert.-butyl-3,4,5-trimethyl-2,6-dinitrobenzeneMusk moskene 1,1,3,3,5-pentamethyl-4,6-dinitroindan

Musk Xylene and Musk Ketone

Properties. Musk xylene and musk ketone are nitrobenzene compounds. They arepersistent, lipophile and accumulate in the food chain. Musk xylene has a biologicalaccumulation factor (concentration in fatty tissues / concentration in the environment) of 4.1,Musk ketone of 1.1.

Section Eight - References

i

8 REFERENCES

8.1 Electronic databases searched (www and academically-networked)

American Chemical Society Pubs http://pubs.acs.org/ANTEnet Abstracts in New Technologies and Engineering http://www.antenet.co.ukAqualine academically-networkedASFA-Aquatic Sciences and Fisheries Abstracts http://www.csa1.co.uk/ (CSA)Biotechnology and Bioengineering Abstracts http://www.csa1.co.uk/ (CSA)CELEX (EU Legal database) http://europa.eu.int/celex/Chemical Engineering and Biotechnology Abstracts http://www.rsc.bids.ac.uk/CORDIS (EU database) http://www.cordis.lu/Current Contents http://wos.mimas.ac.uk/ccclogin.htmlEcology Abstracts http://www.csa1.co.uk/ (CSA)EIS-Environmental Impacts Statements http://www.csa1.co.uk/ (CSA)EMBASE (Medicine and Pharmacology) http://www.bids.ac.uk/Environment Abstracts academically-networkedEnvironmental Engineering Abstracts http://www.csa1.co.uk/ (CSA)Environmental Fate Database http://esc.syrres.com/efdb.htmESPM-Environmental Sciences and Pollution Mgmt. http://www.csa1.co.uk/ (CSA)Health and Safety Science Abstracts http://www.csa1.co.uk/ (CSA)International Civil Engineering Abstracts http://www.anbar.com/cgi-bin/ce/CEdbIndex to Scientific and Technical Proceedings http://wos.mimas.ac.uk/istpcgi/login.cgiIngenta Journals (bids) http://www.ingentajournals.bids.ac.uk/Medical Pharmaceutical Biotechnology Abstracts http://www.csa1.co.uk/ (CSA)MEDLINE http://www.csa1.co.uk/ (CSA)Ovid Biomedical Service http://biomed.niss.ac.uk/ovidweb/ovidweb.cgiPollution Abstracts http://www.csa1.co.uk/ (CSA)Risk Abstracts http://www.csa1.co.uk/ (CSA)Science Citation Index http://wos.mimas.ac.uk/Science Direct (integral articles database) http://www.sciencedirect.com/Toxicology Abstracts http://www.csa1.co.uk/ (CSA)Toxline http://www.csa1.co.uk/ (CSA)Wasteinfo academically-networkedWater Resources Abstracts http://www.csa1.co.uk/ (CSA)


ii

8.2 REFERENCES (PAPERS)

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pore waters , Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry , Volume 18, Issue 12 , Pages 2667-2673• Adamsson M, Dave G, Forsberg L, Geterstamm B (1998), Toxicology identification evaluation of

ammonia, nitrate and heavy metals at the Stensund wastewater•aquaculture plant, Sweden,Water.Sci.Tech, 38 (1998) 3 151-157

• Ahel, M; Giger, W; Koch, M (1994a) Behaviour of alkylphenol polyethoxylate surfactants in theaquatic environment. 1. Occurrence and transformation in sewage treatment, Water Res., vol. 28,no. 5, pp. 1131-1142

• Ahel, M; Giger, W; Schaffner, C (1994b) Behaviour of alkylphenol polyethoxylate surfactants inthe aquatic environment. 2. Occurrence and transformation in rivers, Water Research, vol. 28, no.5, pp. 1143-1152

• Aichberger, K., Reifenauer, D. (1984), Determination of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons inSewage Sludge, EC Report Eur 9129.

• Alberti, J. et al. (1987),Organische Schadstoffe in Klärschlämmen“, Wasser und Boden 8.• Alcock RE, Sweetman A, Jones KK (1998), Assessment of organic contaminant fate in waste

water treatment plants 1, Selected compounds and physiochemical properties, Chemosphere 39,10 2247-2262

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• Office fédéral de l'environnement des forêts et du paysage: Informations concernant la protectiondes eaux: les prescriptions de la Confédération en matière de boues d'épuration, Issue 14, Pages47, 1994.

• Öko-Institute. V, (1999) Waste Prevention and Minimisation – Final Report, Institute for AppliedEcology, Berlin, Germany

• Rapport / Naturvårdsverket (1999), Lead party report on combined municipal and industrialdischarges (Swedish), Baltic Sea Joint Comprehensive Environmental Action Programme ,Stockholm : Swedish Environmental Protection Agency.

• RNDE (1999): Les micropolluants dans les cours d'eau: 3 années d'observations 1995-97,.• RNDE (1999): Les principaux rejets d'eaux résiduaires industrielles: données 1997, Pages 1-36,

1999.• SFT-Norwegian Pollution Control Authority (1997a), 97:27, Sources of heavy metals in municipal

wastewater-smaller industry.• SFT-Norwegian Pollution Control Authority (1997b), 97:28, Sources of heavy metals in municipal

wastewater-households.• SFT-Norwegian Pollution Control Authority (1998a), 98:22, Sources of organic environmentally

hazardous substances in municipal wastewater- smaller industry.• SFT-Norwegian Pollution Control Authority (1998b), 98:23, Sources of organic environmentally

hazardous substances in municipal wastewater- households.• SFT-Norwegian Pollution Control Authority (1999), 99:11, Sources of heavy metals in municipal

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• Statistika centralbyrån Sweden (1998), Discharges to water and sludge production in 1998. Municipal waste water treatment plants and some coastal industry.

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8.5 Abbreviations

ADBI celestolide

ADP Antecedent Dry Period (dry/wet deposition)

AHTN tonalide

AOX Adsorbable Organohalogen (Organochlorine) Compounds

APEO Alkylphenolethoxylates

AT Austria

BE Belgium

BOD Biochemical Oxygen Demand

CDO Chemically Dissolved Oxygen

CEE Central and Eastern European countries

CEP 2-Chloroethanol phosphate

CH Switzerland

DBT Dibutyltin

DE Germany

DEHP Di (2-ethylhexyl) phthalate

DEP diethyl phthalate

DK Denmark

DMDTAR Dimethyl di-tallowammonium chloride

DO Dissolved Oxygen

DSDMAC Distearyl, dimethylammonium chloride

EI Ireland

EPA or USEPA, United States Environment Protection Agency

ES Spain

EU European Union

FI Finland

FR France

g/t grams per tonne

GR Greece

HGV Heavy Goods Vehicle

HHCB galaxolide

HM Heavy Metals

IKW Industry association personal hygiene and detergents (Frankfurt)

IT Italy

kg/t kilogram per ton

LAN Long-chain alkylnitriles

LAS Linear alkyl-(dodecyl-)benzenesulphonate

LU Luxembourg

LV Light Vehicle

MBAS Methylene Blue Adsorbable Substances

MBT Monobutyltin


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MCL Maximum Contaminant (Contamination) Level

NL Netherlands

NO Norway

NP Nonylphenol

NP1EO Nonylphenol monodiethoxylate

NP2EO Nonylphenol diethoxylate

NPE Nonylphenol ethoxylates

NPEC Nonylphenol carboxylic acids

OP Organic Pollutants

p.e. population equivalent

PAHs Poly aromatic hydrocarbons

PCBs Poly chlorinated biphenyls

PCDD Polychlorinated dibenzodioxines

PCDF Polychlorinated dibenzofurans

PEG Polyethylene glycol

PGM Platinum Group Metals

POPs Persistent Organic Pollutants

PPG Polypropylene glycol

PT Portugal

SE Sweden

SS Sewage Sludge

SSM Suspended Solid Matter

SST Sewage Sludge Treatment

t/a tonnes per year

TAMs Trialkylamines

TBP Tri-n-butyl phosphate

TBT Tributyltin

TCDD Tetrachlorine dibenzo-p-dioxin

TE Toxicity equivalent

UWW Urban Waste Water

WWTS Urban Waste Water Treatment Systems

WWTP Urban Waste Water Treatment Plant

VEC Vehicle Exhaust Catalysts

WHO World Health Organisation

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