Political Organization of Space in Advanced Placement Human Geography

Alexander B. Murphy

A B S T R A C T

The political geography section of the course offers the opportunity to introduce students to one of the most important ways in which humans have divided up the surface of the Earth for purposes of management and control. By challenging students to consider what lies behind the patterns on politi­cal maps, this segment of the course can encourage the development of a critical geographical perspective while enhancing student appreciation of the link between geography and current events.

Key Words: political geography, bound­aries, territoriality, sovereignty, nation-state

Alexander B. Murphy is Professor in the Department of Geography, University of Oregon, Eugene, Oregon 97403 USA.

The section of a n A d v a n c e d Placement (AP) h u m a n g e o g r a p h y class d e v o t e d to p o l i t i c a l geography can be one of the m o s t engag ing a n d t h o u g h t - p r o v o k i n g parts of the course. D a i l y newspapers are f i l l e d w i t h stories of geopol i t i ca l m a n e u v e r i n g s o n the p a r t of state g o v e r n m e n t a l leaders, e t h n o - n a t i o n a l confl icts i n every p a r t of the w o r l d , reg ional i n t e g r a t i o n i n i t i a t i v e s i n ma jor w o r l d regions, a n d questions about p o l i t ­ical representat ion at h o m e a n d abroad. N o n e of these issues can be u n d e r s t o o d w i t h o u t reference to the p o l i t i c a l o r g a n i z a t i o n of space—a f u n d a m e n t a l concern i n this segment of the course.

I t is i m p o r t a n t to recognize u p - f r o n t tha t d r a w i n g connections b e t w e e n po l i t i c s a n d g e o g r a p h y is n o t s i m p l y a mat ter of p r o v i d i n g a loca t ional context for w o r l d affairs . Instead, the p o l i t i c a l g e o g r a p h y sec­tion of the course s h o u l d be r o o t e d i n a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the w a y s i n w h i c h p o l i t i c a l - t e r r i t o r i a l a r r a n g e m e n t s / u n d e r s t a n d i n g s b o t h reflect a n d in f luence geographica l arrangements . I n this r e g a r d the v e r y f a m i l ­i a r i t y of the w o r l d p o l i t i c a l m a p presents b o t h an o p p o r t u n i t y a n d a challenge. To suggest tha t the m a p is f a m i l i a r m i g h t seem to be a m i s ­take, since re la t ive ly f e w people k n o w exact ly w h e r e to f i n d Paraguay or S u d a n o n such a m a p . Yet the w o r l d p o l i t i c a l m a p is b r o a d l y f a m i l i a r i n a m o r e f u n d a m e n t a l sense because i f i n d i v i d u a l s have a n y g e o g r a p h ­ic image of the w o r l d at a l l , i t is l i k e l y to be of a w o r l d carved u p i n t o i n d e p e n d e n t countr ies , w i t h perhaps some capi ta l cities a n d a f e w major p h y s i c a l features s p r i n k l e d i n the m i d s t . A s a result , the w o r l d p o l i t i c a l m a p has a cer ta in taken- for -granted q u a l i t y that p r o v i d e s a n easily accessible f r a m e of reference for s tudents , b u t tha t also makes i t d i f f i c u l t for t h e m to ask questions about the p o l i t i c a l o r g a n i z a t i o n of space that go b e y o n d k n o w i n g w h e r e t h i n g s are.

I m a g i n e w a l k i n g i n t o a c lassroom, g i v i n g students a b l a n k o u t l i n e m a p of a cont inent such as Europe , a n d a s k i n g t h e m to d r a w s o m e t h i n g o n the m a p w i t h w h i c h they w e r e fami l ia r . Students m i g h t p r o d u c e a l l sorts of maps : ones of vege ta t ion patterns , ones s h o w i n g var iable p o p u ­l a t i o n densit ies, ones s h o w i n g the d i s t r i b u t i o n of c u l t u r a l t ra i ts , or ones d e p i c t i n g r e g i o n a l differences i n levels of socioeconomic w e l l - b e i n g . B u t i t w o u l d be the rare s tudent w h o w o u l d p r o d u c e a n y of these. Instead, the vast m a j o r i t y of the students w h o k n e w a n y t h i n g at a l l about the r e g i o n w o u l d h a n d back maps s h o w i n g the loca t ion of Europe 's ma jor countr ies . M o r e o v e r , th is o u t c o m e w o u l d h a r d l y be s u r p r i s i n g , g i v e n that the m a p of states is the one that u s u a l l y hangs o n the w a l l at homes a n d at school ; i t is the m a p that frames m u c h of o u r discourse a b o u t the w o r l d . I n d e e d , for every reference to d e v e l o p m e n t s i n the N o r t h E u r o -

Journal of Geography 99:120-131 ©2000 National Council for Geographic Education

Political Organization of Space 121

pean P l a i n , the D u o r o Paver Basin, or the E u r o p e a n i n d u s t r i a l core, there are thousands to P o l a n d , Ger­m a n y , the N e t h e r l a n d s , B e l g i u m , France, Spain , a n d P o r t u g a l .

The conceptual i m p a c t of th is state of affairs is to e x e m p t the p o l i t i c a l m a p f r o m the k i n d s of ana­l y t i c a l quest ions w e ask of most thematic maps (see A g n e w 1994). W h e n faced w i t h a m a p of p o p u l a ­t i o n densit ies, a s tudent m i g h t ask (at least after c o m p l e t i n g an A P h u m a n g e o g r a p h y course) w h y w e see h i g h densities i n some places b u t n o t i n o t h ­ers, or w h a t the i m p l i c a t i o n s m i g h t be of the v a r i ­able d i s t r i b u t i o n of p o p u l a t i o n for social interac­t i o n , economic d e v e l o p m e n t , a n d the l ike . Yet the tendency to treat p o l i t i c a l terr i tor ies as static con­tainers can lead students a w a y f r o m any careful cons idera t ion of h o w a n d w h y the u n i t s o n a p o l i t i ­cal m a p came i n t o b e i n g i n the p a r t i c u l a r spaces they occupy, h o w those u n i t s reflect a n d shape u n d e r s t a n d i n g s about the w o r l d , a n d h o w the pat ­t e r n of states relates to other patterns of s i g n i f i ­cance, be they economic , social , c u l t u r a l , or e n v i ­r o n m e n t a l .

A n o v e r a r c h i n g goal of the p o l i t i c a l g e o g r a p h y section of the A P h u m a n g e o g r a p h y course, t h e n , s h o u l d be to p r o m o t e at least a general ized u n d e r ­s t a n d i n g of the na ture a n d signif icance of the p o l i t i ­cal o r g a n i z a t i o n of t e r r i t o r y i n the c o n t e m p o r a r y w o r l d . I n p u r s u i t of tha t goa l , s tudents s h o u l d g a i n a sense of the basic w a y s i n w h i c h h u m a n s have d i v i d e d u p the p lanet f o r purposes of governance a n d c o n t r o l , as w e l l as the i m p l i c a t i o n s of that d i v i ­s ion for such f u n d a m e n t a l matters as the d e v e l o p ­m e n t of e thno-nat iona l confl ic ts , the emergence of reg iona l pol i t i ca l -economic blocs, a n d the struggles to deve lop c o o r d i n a t e d responses to extra -nat ional issues a n d p r o b l e m s (e.g., the accelerating loss of b i o d i v e r s i t y ) . I n a d d i t i o n , s tudents s h o u l d u n d e r ­s tand h o w a n d w h y the p o l i t i c a l - t e r r i t o r i a l n o r m s of the m o d e r n state sys tem are c h a n g i n g . F inal ly , they s h o u l d be aware tha t p o l i t i c a l geographic processes p l a y o u t at a v a r i e t y of scales, a n d tha t w h a t happens at one scale o f ten inf luences w h a t happens at other scales. The o u t l i n e for the p o l i t i c a l g e o g r a p h y section of the A P h u m a n geography course p r o v i d e s a p o t e n t i a l l y u s e f u l s t ructure for c o n v e y i n g these u n d e r s t a n d i n g s .

NATURE AND SIGNIFICANCE OF POLITICAL BOUNDARIES

G i v e n the i m p o r t a n c e of r a i s i n g geographica l questions about p o l i t i c a l - t e r r i t o r i a l arrangements , i t

can be u s e f u l to b e g i n the p o l i t i c a l g e o g r a p h y seg­m e n t w i t h a discuss ion of the n a t u r e a n d s i g n i f i ­cance of boundar ies . Po l i t i ca l b o u n d a r i e s exist at a v a r i e t y of scales a n d in f luence h o w goods a n d ser­vices are d i s t r i b u t e d , w h o gets represented a n d w h o does n o t , a n d h o w issues are c o n f r o n t e d . Since the b o u n d a r i e s b e t w e e n i n d e p e n d e n t countr ies receive the m o s t a t t e n t i o n , one m i g h t b e g i n b y con­s i d e r i n g the h i s tor i ca l a n d c o n t e m p o r a r y role of these b o u n d a r i e s a n d the degree to w h i c h they reflect the geographica l d i s t r i b u t i o n of other p h e ­n o m e n a . Students can be i n t r o d u c e d to the b o u n d ­aries i d e n t i f i e d i n the classical p o l i t i c a l g e o g r a p h y l i t e ra ture (e.g., antecedent, geometr ica l , s u p e r i m ­posed) , a n d they can be encouraged to consider the re la t ionsh ip of those p o l i t i c a l b o u n d a r i e s to social , economic , c u l t u r a l , a n d e n v i r o n m e n t a l b o u n d a r i e s . Th i s latter p o i n t p r o v i d e s a u s e f u l means of h i g h ­l i g h t i n g the d i s t i n c t p e c u l i a r i t y of the g l o b a l p o l i t i ­cal p a t t e r n . One can see some re lat ionships b e t w e e n maps of p r e c i p i t a t i o n pat terns a n d m a p s of p o p u l a ­t i o n density, or b e t w e e n m a p s of p o p u l a t i o n dens i ty a n d m a p s of p a r t i c u l a r types of economic act ivi t ies . B u t the w o r l d p o l i t i c a l m a p looks l i k e n o other the­m a t i c m a p .

The u n i q u e character of the p o l i t i c a l m a p does n o t render i t i n s i g n i f i c a n t , of course. Instead, the m a p of states frames the w a y w e u n d e r s t a n d a n d c o n f r o n t a w h o l e host o f issues, even issues w i t h a spat ia l character tha t bears n o re la t ionship to the p o l i t i c a l p a t t e r n . A i r p o l l u t i o n does n o t stop at state b o u n d a r i e s , b u t r e g u l a t o r y responses to air p o l l u ­t i o n p r o b l e m s are u n d e r t a k e n large ly o n a state-by-state basis. I n m a n y par ts of the w o r l d , peoples o n either side of i n t e r n a t i o n a l b o u n d a r i e s share socioe­conomic , a n d even e t h n o - c u l t u r a l , s imi lar i t i es , b u t c o o r d i n a t e d governance across these b o u n d a r i e s is the except ion rather t h a n the r u l e . E v e n o u r basic u n d e r s t a n d i n g s of h u m a n g r o u p i n g s a n d c u l t u r a l practices are a p r o d u c t of the m a p of states. The peoples l i v i n g i n C h i n a are c o m m o n l y t e r m e d the Chinese, even t h o u g h C h i n a is c o m p r i s e d of a m y r i ­a d of peoples i n c l u d i n g Tibetans, M o n g o l s , U y g u r s , Kazaks , a n d H u i . M o r e o v e r , w e refer to the d o m i ­n a n t language i n C h i n a as Chinese, even t h o u g h at least f i v e m u t u a l l y u n i n t e l l i g i b l e f o r m s of s p o k e n Chinese w o u l d l i k e l y be considered separate l a n ­guages i f the speakers of each h a d the i r o w n for ­m a l l y i n d e p e n d e n t state.

The p o i n t of r a i s i n g such matters is to encour­age students to t h i n k about the w a y s i n w h i c h p o l i t i c a l b o u n d a r i e s s t ructure h u m a n affairs a n d u n d e r s t a n d i n g s . I n u n d e r t a k i n g this task i t is

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i m p o r t a n t n o t jus t to stay at the scale of the state. Po l i t i ca l b o u n d a r i e s of s ignif icance exist b o t h " a b o v e " a n d " b e l o w " the state, a n d i n v i t i n g s t u ­dents to consider w h a t these are can encourage a m o r e d y n a m i c , n u a n c e d u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the p o l i t ­i ca l o r g a n i z a t i o n of space. L o o k i n g above the state, ins t ruc tors m i g h t take note of such b o u n d a r i e s as the f o r m e r I r o n C u r t a i n , the c u r r e n t b o u n d a r y b e t w e e n N A T O ( N o r t h A t l a n t i c Treaty O r g a n i z a ­t i o n ) a n d n o n - N A T O states, or the b o u n d a r i e s tha t have been d r a w n t h r o u g h the w o r l d ' s oceans to demarcate zones of c o n t r o l . B u t at the scale b e l o w the state, s tudents can appreciate the i m p a c t of the p o l i t i c a l o r g a n i z a t i o n of t e r r i t o r y o n the i r o w n d a i l y l ives . I n th is regard , i t is u s e f u l to m o v e b e y o n d the m o r e c o m m o n l y discussed b o u n d a r i e s d e l i n e a t i n g U.S. states a n d counties , or C a n a d i a n provinces , to consider m u n i c i p a l i t i e s , v o t i n g dis t r ic ts , special d is ­tr ic ts , a n d areas zoned for p a r t i c u l a r l a n d uses.

Focus ing a t t e n t i o n o n smaller-scale pol i t i ca l - ter ­r i t o r i a l u n i t s a l l o w s students to see h o w e v e r y t h i n g f r o m the d e l i v e r y of services to the reach of cer ta in l a w s is affected b y the p a r t i c u l a r c o n f i g u r a t i o n of p o l i t i c a l terr i tor ies . Schools that s tudents m a y a t t e n d ( w i t h o u t special w a i v e r s ) are d e t e r m i n e d b y the spat ia l character of school dis tr ic ts . Areas sub­ject to c i ty land-use regula t ions are d e t e r m i n e d n o t b y the area of c o n t i g u o u s sett lement, b u t b y the for ­m a l c i t y l i m i t s . E v e n places that p r i v a t e cit izens can use a n d enjoy (e.g., parks) are d e t e r m i n e d b y a pat ­t e r n of p u b l i c space that is created t h r o u g h the p o l i t i c a l / l e g a l process.

Perhaps the m o s t evocat ive example of p o l i t i c a l t e r r i t o r y at the local scale is the v o t i n g d is t r i c t , for i t is here tha t the s ignif icance of p o l i t i c a l b o u n d a r i e s f o r quest ions of representat ion can be m o s t c lear ly d e m o n s t r a t e d . I t is easy to s h o w that the spat ia l c o n f i g u r a t i o n of a v o t i n g d i s t r i c t can affect w h o gets represented a n d w h o does n o t , p a r t i c u l a r l y i f one b r i n g s i n the concept of g e r r y m a n d e r i n g . Examples of g e r r y m a n d e r i n g , such as that s h o w n i n F igure 1 , h i g h l i g h t the i m p o r t a n c e of t l v i n k i n g about t e r r i t o r y n o t s i m p l y i n loca t iona l t e rms , b u t as a d y n a m i c force i n h u m a n affairs . Such examples also a l l o w ins tructors to h i g h l i g h t a core concept i n p o l i t i c a l geography : h u m a n t e r r i t o r i a l i t y . Sack (1981, 55) defines human territoriality as " t h e a t t e m p t to affect, in f luence , or c o n t r o l actions a n d interact ions (of people , t h i n g s , a n d re la t ionships , etc.) b y asserting a n d a t t e m p t i n g to enforce c o n t r o l over a specific geographica l area." Th is concept is

f u n d a m e n t a l to a n y discuss ion of p o l i t i c a l geo­graphic arrangements , fo r these can a l l be traced to h u m a n t e r r i t o r i a l i t y as d e f i n e d b y Sack. For some students , the t e r m m a y evoke t h o u g h t s of c h i r p i n g b i r d s or u r i n a t i n g m a m m a l s s t a k i n g o u t t e r r i t o r y , b u t i t is i m p o r t a n t to d i s t i n g u i s h h u m a n t e r r i t o r i a l i ­t y f r o m a n i m a l t e r r i t o r i a l i t y . The f o r m e r takes o n m a n y di f ferent f o r m s d e p e n d i n g o n the c u l t u r a l a n d t e m p o r a l context , so i t s h o u l d n o t be treated as the sort of m s t i n c t u a l t e r r i t o r i a l i t y tha t w e associate w i t h animals . B u t r e c o g n i z i n g that p o l i t i c a l spaces are the p r o d u c t of h u m a n t e r r i t o r i a l strategies is necessary i f one is to treat p o l i t i c a l m a p s as some­t h i n g m o r e t h a n reference maps . I t is , i n fact, a n essential s tar t ing p o i n t f o r c o n s i d e r i n g the e v o l u ­t i o n of the c o n t e m p o r a r y p o l i t i c a l p a t t e r n a n d its c h a n g i n g signif icance i n h u m a n affairs .

EVOLUTION OF THE CONTEMPORARY POLITICAL PATTERN

I n the context of an i n t r o d u c t o r y h u m a n geog­r a p h y course, i t is imposs ib le to examine i n d e p t h the e v o l u t i o n of the m o d e r n state system. N o n e t h e ­less, s tudents s h o u l d come a w a y f r o m such a course w i t h a basic u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the processes tha t l e d to the c a r v i n g u p of the p lanet i n t o 200-odd " s o v e r e i g n " states a n d t o the p r i n c i p a l t e r r i t o r i a l ideas associated w i t h those processes. D e l v i n g i n t o these matters requires cons idera t ion of the d e v e l o p ­m e n t of the state idea i n Europe , the d i f f u s i o n o f that idea to m u c h of the rest of the w o r l d t h r o u g h c o l o n i a l i s m a n d i m p e r i a l i s m , a n d the c o m p l e x l i n k s tha t d e v e l o p e d b e t w e e n p o l i t i c a l a n d economic g l o b a l i z a t i o n . Moreover , i t requires e x a m i n a t i o n of t w o concepts of e x t r a o r d i n a r y i m p o r t a n c e to the m o d e r n t e r r i t o r i a l state system: sovere ignty a n d the idea of the nation-state .

Figure 1. Example of gerrymandering in North Carolina's Twelfth Congressional District, 1992-1998.

Political Organization of Space 123

Territorial Principles of the Modern State System

A u s e f u l s t a r t i n g p o i n t for an e x a m i n a t i o n of the t e r r i t o r i a l d y n a m i c s of the m o d e r n state sys tem is the p o l i t i c a l s i t u a t i o n i n Europe at the d a w n of the m o d e r n age (Figure 2). I n the s ixteenth to e i g h ­teenth centuries , the w e s t e r n / c e n t r a l E u r o p e a n p o l i t i c a l p a t t e r n w a s d o m i n a t e d b y t w o d is t inc t types of p o l i t i c a l - t e r r i t o r i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n (see M u r ­p h y 1996). O n e t y p e w a s f o u n d i n the west , w h e r e i n c i p i e n t n a t i o n a l states such as E n g l a n d , France, Spain, a n d P o r t u g a l h a d been b u i l t over centuries . The leaders of these states h a d m a n a g e d to exert an increasing l eve l of c o n t r o l over the i r d o m a i n s , a n d they exercised p o w e r i n a fash ion that w a s effec­t i v e l y free f r o m outs ide inf luence . This is n o t to i m p l y tha t there w e r e n o t e r r i t o r i a l confl icts w i t h ne ighbors ; there w e r e . B u t in terna l ly , these states operated w i t h a h i g h degree of a u t o n o m y , a n d the c o m m o n experiences of s igni f i cant segments of the i r p o p u l a t i o n s h e l p e d to p r o d u c e a g r o w i n g sense o f e t h n o - c u l t u r a l so l idar i ty .

The other s igni f i cant f o r m of p o l i t i c a l - t e r r i t o r i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n existed i n central a n d eastern E u r o p e , w h e r e empires h e l d sway. I n terms of in f luence o n the e v o l u t i o n of the state idea, the G e r m a n ( H o l y R o m a n ) E m p i r e w a s the m o s t s igni f i cant , f o r th is e m p i r e encompassed a w i d e range of t e r r i t o r i a l u n i t s tha t f i r s t became e m b r o i l e d i n the b l o o d y w a r s of r e l i g i o n of the s ixteenth a n d seventeenth centuries a n d t h e n entered i n t o an ar rangement to keep the peace that w a s of e n d u r i n g signif icance. T h a t arrangement , set f o r t h i n the Peace of West­p h a l i a (1648), h e l d tha t the pr ince of a n y r e a l m c o u l d d e t e r m i n e the r e l i g i o n of tha t r e a l m . This d i d n o t g ive the ru lers of G e r m a n states p o w e r over a l l affairs , b u t i t established the i r p o w e r i n one p a r t i c u ­l a r l y i m p o r t a n t matter , a n d i t d i d so as p a r t o f a n ar rangement tha t g o v e r n e d h o w t e r r i t o r i a l u n i t s i n a sys tem (the empire ) w o u l d relate to one another. A s such, i t gave b i r t h to a system based o n m u t u a l respect for the sovere ignty of other u n i t s i n the sys­t e m .

The significance of the sovere ignty p r i n c i p l e w a s to p r o v i d e a theoret ical f o u n d a t i o n for the carv-

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Figure 2. The political pattern of Europe in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.

124 Murphy

i n g u p of a l l t e r r i t o r y i n t o large ly a u t o n o m o u s g o v ­e r n m e n t a l u n i t s . This m e a n t that the exercise of p o w e r was n o longer seen i n h ierarchica l t e rms , b u t instead w a s to be exercised at a s ingle scale—that of the state. Yet the p o w e r a n d l e g i t i m a c y of the states m a k i n g u p this sys tem w e r e f ragi le as l o n g as a u t h o r i t y w a s vested i n absolut is t ru lers a n d i n s t i ­t u t i o n s . Hence , the other k e y i n g r e d i e n t to the f u t u r e of the E u r o p e a n state system w a s the doc­t r ine of n a t i o n a l i s m . G i v e n f o r m a l expression i n the French R e v o l u t i o n of 1789, b u t carr ied t h r o u g h o u t E u r o p e a n d b e y o n d i n the succeeding c e n t u r y a n d a hal f , th is d o c t r i n e w a s based o n the idea that each e t h n o - c u l t u r a l c o m m u n i t y (i.e., na t i on) h a d the r i g h t to c o n t r o l its o w n affairs a n d that the exercise of p o w e r u l t i m a t e l y rested w i t h the m e m b e r s of that c o m m u n i t y .

B e h i n d the seeming s i m p l i c i t y of the d o c t r i n e of n a t i o n a l i s m lies a host of complex i t ies , of course, because w h i c h peoples const i tute a n a t i o n — a n d w h i c h terr i tor ies they have the r i g h t to contro l—are a n y t h i n g b u t uncontested not ions . I n d e e d , i t is use­f u l fo r s tudents to u n d e r s t a n d that some E u r o p e a n nat ions w e r e the p r o d u c t of diverse peoples b e i n g k n i t together i n l o n g - s t a n d i n g centra l ized states (e.g., the E n g l i s h , the French, a n d the Spanish) , some w e r e the p r o d u c t of n ine teenth-century m o v e ­ments to u n i f y diverse peoples based o n some sense of c u l t u r a l c o n t i n u i t y (e.g., the Germans a n d the I ta l ians) , some w e r e the p r o d u c t of e a r l y - t w e n t i ­e th-century m o v e m e n t s to free a g r o u p f r o m d o m i ­nance b y another se l f -def ined n a t i o n (the I r i s h a n d the N o r w e g i a n s ) , a n d some w e r e the p r o d u c t of m o v e m e n t s to achieve s e l f - d e t e r m i n a t i o n i n the face of c r u m b l i n g empires (e.g., m a n y of the East E u r o ­p e a n nat ions) (see A n d e r s o n 1986). Yet w h a t e v e r the f o u n d a t i o n s o f the na t iona l i s t idea , the A g e of N a t i o n a l i s m i n Europe gave rise to the n o t i o n tha t the t e r r i t o r i a l u n i t s m a k i n g u p the system of states s h o u l d n o t o n l y be sovere ign, b u t s h o u l d be t r u e nation-states (i.e., states m a d e u p of a single e thno-n a t i o n a l g r o u p ) .

The nation-state i de a l has become a pervas ive n o t i o n u n d e r g i r d i n g the m o d e r n state system, so m u c h so that w e n o w t e n d to use the terms nation a n d state as i f t h e y w e r e s y n o n y m o u s . Yet i t is i m p o r t a n t that s tudents u n d e r s t a n d the gap b e t w e e n the nation-state i d e a l a n d the m u l t i c u l t u r a l rea l i ty tha t lies b e h i n d i t . N o mat ter w h a t a p p r o a c h one takes to d e n n i n g an e t h n o - n a t i o n a l c o m m u n i t y , there are at best a h a n d f u l of g o o d examples o f t rue nation-states i n the w o r l d today, w i t h I ce land b e i n g perhaps the best example (see M i k e s e l l 1983). Japan

a n d Korea (if i t w e r e n o t sp l i t i n t w o ) are the o n l y close a p p r o x i m a t i o n s i n A s i a . Oceania a n d A f r i c a are ent i re ly l a c k i n g i n g o o d examples , w i t h the pos­sible except ion of a N o r t h A f r i c a n case l i k e Tunis ia i f i t c o u l d be d i s t i n g u i s h e d f r o m its ne ighbors . The A m e r i c a s are also d e v o i d of g o o d examples , aga in w i t h the possible exceptions of places l i k e U r u g u a y a n d Costa Rica i f they c o u l d be d i s t i n g u i s h e d f r o m the i r ne ighbors . Hence , w e are le f t w i t h Europe , w h e r e the largest n u m b e r of close a p p r o x i m a t i o n s to the nation-state idea l can be f o u n d . Yet even here the closer cases have compl ica t ions . D e n m a r k encompasses G e r m a n speakers i n the s o u t h a n d a n u m b e r of southwest A s i a n guest w o r k e r s a n d Ba lkan refugees i n its cities. France contains Bre­tons , Basques, Alsat ians , a n d i m m i g r a n t s f r o m n o r t h e r n A f r i c a a n d s o u t h w e s t e r n A s i a . E v e n rela­tively h o m o g e n e o u s states such as P o l a n d a n d H u n g a r y i n c l u d e gypsies a n d recent i m m i g r a n t s — g r o u p s that have faced considerable d i s c r i m i n a t i o n i n a v a r i e t y of countr ies because they d o n o t " f i t " w i t h the d o m i n a n t n o t i o n of n a t i o n h o o d .

The larger p o i n t , of course, is tha t the vast m a j o r i t y of the countr ies of the w o r l d are n o t nation-states i n the o r i g i n a l m e a n i n g of tha t t e r m , a n d they can o n l y be considered as such i f w e oper­ate u n d e r the f i c t i o n that the states of the w o r l d are c o m p r i s e d of one, a n d o n l y one, e t h n o - n a t i o n a l g r o u p . Yet this is the f i c t i o n tha t d o m i n a t e s p u b l i c discourse, as revealed i n the use of the t e r m nation-state to refer to a l l countr ies s h o w n o n a p o l i t i c a l m a p of the w o r l d a n d i n the acceptance of the i l l u ­s ion tha t an o r g a n i z a t i o n cal led the U n i t e d N a t i o n s represents the nat ions of the w o r l d , even t h o u g h seats are n o t o p e n to K u r d s , I b o , or Tibetans. A t the same time, i t is a f i c t i o n u n d e r e x t r a o r d i n a r y stress, as a n excurs ion i n t o a n y serious n e w s p a p e r w i l l suggest. Such papers are f i l l e d w i t h reports of Rus­sians f i g h t i n g Chechens, Palestinians seeking the i r o w n state, Basque separatists d e m a n d i n g greater a u t o n o m y f r o m M a d r i d , Tamils a n d Singhalese f i g h t i n g one another i n Sri L a n k a , a n d m u c h m o r e . O n l y t h r o u g h an e x a m i n a t i o n of the geographica l realit ies h i d d e n b e h i n d the nat ion-state idea l can w e b e g i n to u n d e r s t a n d the nature a n d signif icance of these deve lopments .

Colonialism and Imperialism

A n analysis of the concepts of sovere ignty a n d the nation-state can h e l p e lucidate b o t h the charac­ter of the m o d e r n state system a n d i ts t e r r i t o r i a l expression i n Europe , b u t such an u n d e r s t a n d i n g

Political Organization of Space 125

says l i t t l e a b o u t the character or c o n f i g u r a t i o n of the p o l i t i c a l p a t t e r n i n other parts of the planet . To address that issue one m u s t devote a t t e n t i o n to the E u r o p e a n co lon ia l project , w h i c h began i n earnest i n the late f i f t e e n t h century. A u s e f u l p o i n t of e n t r y is to s h o w jus t h o w m u c h of the w o r l d owes i ts p o l i t i c a l - t e r r i t o r i a l c o n f i g u r a t i o n to E u r o p e a n colo­n i a l i s m . M a p s i n s tandard textbooks reveal the e x t r a o r d i n a r y spat ia l i m p a c t of c o l o n i a l i s m , a l l o w ­i n g students to appreciate the i m p o s s i b i l i t y of u n d e r s t a n d i n g the p o l i t i c a l o r g a n i z a t i o n of the p lanet w i t h o u t reference to the i n s t i t u t i o n s of colo­n i a l i s m a n d i m p e r i a l i s m .

I n d e l v i n g i n t o the g e o g r a p h y of c o l o n i a l i s m , i t is i m p o r t a n t for s tudents to u n d e r s t a n d some of the f u n d a m e n t a l differences b e t w e e n types of c o l o n i a l ­i s m at d i f f e r e n t t imes a n d i n d i f f e r e n t places. A l t h o u g h m a n y subtleties cannot be b r o u g h t i n t o a n i n t r o d u c t o r y course, b r o a d d is t inc t ions can p r o f ­i t a b l y be d r a w n b e t w e e n co lon ia l d y n a m i c s i n at least f o u r cases: L a t i n A m e r i c a , South/Southeas t A s i a , sub-Saharan A f r i c a , a n d the U n i t e d S t a t e s / C a n a d a / A u s t r a l i a (see general ly M e i n i g 1969). I n the L a t i n A m e r i c a n case, extensive c o l o n i a l inf luences date back far ther t h a n i n any of the other cases. A v a r i e t y of E u r o p e a n countr ies w e r e i n v o l v e d i n S o u t h A m e r i c a , b u t the p r i n c i p a l p l a y ­ers w e r e the Spanish a n d the Portuguese. B o t h Spanish a n d Portuguese c o l o n i a l i s m i n the A m e r i c ­as are associated w i t h d e c i m a t i o n of i n d i g e n o u s p o p u l a t i o n s , b u t i n the Spanish case i n par t i c u lar , considerable i n t e r m a r r i a g e w i t h i n d i g e n o u s peoples occurred . The Spanish set u p an a d m i n i s t r a t i v e sys­t e m i n South A m e r i c a tha t w a s a re f lec t ion of Spain's o w n system, a n d the a d m i n i s t r a t i v e u n i t s i t created (e.g., v iceroyalt ies) were constructed to faci l i tate a d m i n i s t r a t i o n of a vast " l a n d e m p i r e " ( M e i n i g ' s [1969] t e r m ) as w e l l as the extrac t ion of goods f r o m i t . A s such, the a d m i n i s t r a t i v e u n i t s bore some re la t ionship to the p h y s i c a l character of the r e g i o n , b u t none to the i n d i g e n o u s ethnic pat ­te rn . A n d these u n i t s , i n t u r n , became the basis for the m o d e r n p a t t e r n of states i n L a t i n A m e r i c a , w h i c h emerged i n the ear ly n ine teenth c e n t u r y at a t i m e w h e n Spain's d e c l i n i n g p o w e r co inc ide d w i t h the emergence of an increas ingly a u t o n o m o u s p o l i t ­i ca l class i n L a t i n A m e r i c a .

C o l o n i a l i s m i n s o u t h e r n a n d southeastern A s i a w a s q u i te d i f ferent . I n these regions , the E u r o p e a n colonists d i d n o t have the same d e m o g r a p h i c i m p a c t o n local peoples , n o r w e r e they i n a p o s i t i o n to construct ma jor l a n d empires i n the ear ly cen­tur ies of the co lon ia l project . Instead, the y set u p

k e y coastal bases, a n d the y d e v e l o p e d a h i g h l y elaborate extract ive n e t w o r k focused o n those bases. I n these "sea e m p i r e s " ( M e i n i g ' s [1969] t e r m ) , l i t t l e a ss imi la t io n w a s sought or achieved w i t h the locals, a n d the m o r e comprehens ive l a n d -based t e r r i t o r i a l - a d m i n i s t r a t i v e structures w e asso­ciate w i t h L a t i n A m e r i c a n c o l o n i a l i s m d i d n o t emerge u n t i l the lat ter p a r t of the n ine teenth centu­ry. These t w o structures p r o v i d e d the basis for the m o d e r n p o l i t i c a l p a t t e r n , b u t at least i n the case of Southeast A s i a , they w e r e no t c o m p l e t e l y d i scon­nected f r o m local e t h n o - p o l i t i c a l pat terns . Instead, the E u r o p e a n c o l o n i a l bases w e r e o f t e n focused o n m a j o r r i v e r basins w h e r e g r o u p s w i t h s igni f i cant c u l t u r a l cont inui t i es (Burmese, Vietnamese, etc.) a l ready existed. Hence , the states that emerged i n the m i d - t w e n t i e t h century, w h i l e encompass ing m a n y m i n o r i t i e s , o f t e n h a d a s ingle , large e thno-c u l t u r a l m a j o r i t y g r o u p , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n Southeast As ia . Yet the e t h n o - c u l t u r a l s i t u a t i o n w a s c o m p l i ­cated b y the E u r o p e a n c o l o n i a l practice of b r i n g i n g peoples f r o m one c o l o n y to h e l p a d m i n i s t e r another colony. This expla ins , f o r example , the large n u m ­ber of I n d i a n s i n cities such as R a n g o o n a n d K u a l a L u m p u r .

The A f r i c a n case represents ye t another m o d e l o f c o l o n i a l i s m , a n d one w i t h a m o r e recent h is tory . E u r o p e a n co lon ia l p o r t s h a d been established a l o n g v a r i o u s par ts of the A f r i c a n coast for centuries , b u t i t w a s n o t u n t i l the last t w o decades o f the n i n e ­teenth c e n t u r y — j u s t over 100 years a g o — t h a t the Europeans s o u g h t t o d i v i d e u p A f r i c a a m o n g t h e m ­selves. This occurred t h r o u g h a n unprecedented l a n d grab o n the p a r t o f a v a r i e t y of E u r o p e a n nat ional i s t states, w h i c h saw c o n t r o l over t e r r i t o r y as essential to the f u l f i l l m e n t of n a t i o n a l destinies. The ef for t to b u i l d w h a t M e i n i g (1969) has t e r m e d " n a t i o n a l i s t e m p i r e s " w a s s i m p l y a b o u t g e t t i n g the m o s t l a n d tha t c o u l d be got ten . The resul tant t e r r i ­t o r i a l p a t t e r n (Figure 3) ref lected the w i n n e r s i n th is game. I m p o r t a n t l y , the p o l i t i c a l p a t t e r n bore n o re la t ionship to i n d i g e n o u s ethnic pat terns , or to a n y other p a t t e r n . The u n i t s m a k i n g u p the A f r i c a n state system w e r e s i m p l y the p r o d u c t of p o w e r po l i t i c s exercised f r o m outs ide . The A f r i c a n colonies w e r e also the last to g a i n i n d e p e n d e n c e — m a n y as late as the 1960s. O f t e n r u l e d i n the interests of E u r o p e a n i n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n a n d n a t i o n a l a g g r a n d i z e m e n t , these states h a d l i t t l e a d m i n i s t r a t i v e / g o v e r n m e n t a l in f ras t ruc ture outs ide of that w h i c h h a d been i m p o s e d f r o m the outs ide , w i t h o b v i o u s conse­quences for the c o n d u c t o f po l i t i c s i n c o n t e m p o r a r y sub-Saharan A f r i c a .

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The cases o f the U n i t e d States, Canada, a n d A u s t r a l i a b e l o n g together because these are exam­ples of w h a t M e i n i g (1969) t e r m e d "sett ler e m p i r e s . " Despi te the presence of i n d i g e n o u s g r o u p s i n these cases, the settlers regarded these colonies as ef fect ively e m p t y areas, a n d the f u n d a ­m e n t a l c o l o n i a l d y n a m i c w a s to p r o v i d e a place w h e r e m i g r a n t s f r o m the h o m e c o u n t r y c o u l d m a k e a h o m e — w h i l e b e n e f i t i n g the c o l o n i a l p o w e r , of course. The t e r r i t o r i a l conf igura t ions of the c o u n ­tries tha t emerged f r o m these empires w e r e p r o d ­ucts of b o t h the expans ion of set t lement a n d the efforts of those w h o h a d m i g r a t e d to free t h e m ­selves f r o m c o l o n i a l r u l e . A s such, the i r terr i tor ies h a d a cer ta in coherence f r o m the perspect ive of the settlers, even t h o u g h they r a n r o u g h s h o d over i n d i g e n o u s pat terns a n d i n s t i t u t i o n s .

Trac ing the b r o a d out l ines of these f o u r types of c o l o n i a l i s m helps s tudents u n d e r s t a n d some of the p r i n c i p a l forces tha t l e d to the creat ion of p o l i t i c a l pat terns i n d i f f e r e n t parts of the w o r l d a n d to see the re la t ionship b e t w e e n the resul tant p o l i t i c a l pa t ­t e r n a n d geographies of c u l t u r e , economy, a n d soci­ety. Yet i t is also i m p o r t a n t to l i n k a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the patterns themselves to the core concepts o f

I 1 Spain I 1 Ottoman and British I I Historically Idependant from Colonial Rule

Figure 3. European colonies in Africa.

the m o d e r n state system. T h is necessitates consider­a t i o n of the role of ex-colonies i n the m o d e r n w o r l d , as w e l l as the role of neo-colonia l inf luences . D u r ­i n g the c o l o n i a l p e r i o d the E u r o p e a n p o w e r s treat­e d the i r colonies as u n i t s tha t h a d n o t ye t achieved a state of d e v e l o p m e n t that w o u l d a l l o w for the emergence of t rue nat ions or that w o u l d p e r m i t t h e m to f u n c t i o n as sovere ign u n i t s . W i t h i n d e p e n ­dence, h o w e v e r , these u n i t s entered a w o r l d p o l i t i ­cal system based, at least theoretical ly, o n the con­cepts of sovere ignty a n d the nation-state . These states f o u n d themselves caught b e t w e e n t w o w o r l d s . The economic dependencies tha t h a d d e v e l ­o p e d d u r i n g the co lon ia l p e r i o d w e r e d i f f i c u l t to shed because these states h a d come to o c c u p y p a r ­ticular subordinate niches i n the e m e r g i n g g l o b a l economy. A s such, the i r sovere ignty w a s o f t e n as m u c h a f i c t i o n as a reality. A t the same t i m e , the l e g i t i m a c y of state leaders w a s tied to the i r a b i l i t y to exert p o w e r i n the nam e of " n a t i o n s " — - i n the process creat ing another t y p e of f i c t i o n .

The discussion of such issues p r o v i d e s a g o o d o p p o r t u n i t y to l i n k the p o l i t i c a l g e o g r a p h y segment of the course to the segment focused o n g l o b a l eco­n o m i c patterns , for u n d e r s t a n d i n g the geographica l d y n a m i c s of the g l o b a l e c o n o m y p r o v i d e s i m p o r ­tant ins ights i n t o p o l i t i c a l t e r r i t o r i a l i t y i n the con­t e m p o r a r y w o r l d . A t the same t i m e , economics is n o t the o n l y issue. The g o v e r n i n g el i te i n m a n y for ­m e r colonies can trace its roots to c o l o n i a l social s tructures , a n d m a n y of the co lon ia l p o w e r s r e m a i n ac t ive ly i n v o l v e d w i t h the i r f o r m e r c o l o n i a l posses­sions, ei ther t h r o u g h f o r m a l associations of ex-colonies (e.g., the B r i t i s h C o m m o n w e a l t h ) or t h r o u g h m o r e i n f o r m a l mechanisms of in f luence a n d c o n t r o l . A t the same t i m e , large-scale g e o p o l i t i ­cal m a n e u v e r i n g s — m o s t o b v i o u s l y d u r i n g the C o l d W a r — l e d p o w e r f u l states to p l a y of f so-called T h i r d W o r l d states against one another, as w e l l as to s u p ­p o r t i n t e r n a l d e v e l o p m e n t s that f i t a geopol i t i ca l game p l a n , irrespect ive of the consequences at the loca l leve l . The i m p o r t a n c e of b r i n g i n g o u t these p o i n t s , of course, is to p r o m o t e a n awareness of the c o m p l i c a t e d economic a n d p o l i t i c a l inequal i t ies tha t l ie b e h i n d the veneer of theoret ical e q u a l i t y b e t w e e n states.

Internal Political Boundaries and Arrangements

A l t h o u g h an i n t r o d u c t o r y course is l i k e l y to focus p r i m a r i l y o n the i n t e r n a t i o n a l arena, i t is i m p o r t a n t that s tudents have a sense of the p r i n c i -

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p a l w a y s i n w h i c h p o l i t i c a l space is o r g a n i z e d in ter ­na l ly , as w e l l as the w a y s i n w h i c h geographica l inf luences can affect i n t e r n a l p o l i t i c a l i n t e g r a t i o n in i t ia t ives . A g o o d s t a r t i n g p o i n t can be to h i g h l i g h t the d i f fe rent approaches to t e r r i t o r i a l governance at p l a y i n federal a n d u n i t a r y systems. This , i n t u r n , can p r o m o t e cons iderat ion of hierarchies of p o l i t i ­ca l - t e r r i tor ia l o r g a n i z a t i o n , f r o m m u n i c i p a l i t i e s a n d special dis tr ic ts to counties , states, a n d provinces , to the state itself. I n each case i t is i m p o r t a n t to go b e y o n d the s i m p l e presence of p o l i t i c a l terr i tor ies to consider the w a y s the p o l i t i c a l o r g a n i z a t i o n of space inf luences w h a t a n d w h o gets a t tent ion . I t is also i m p o r t a n t to p o i n t to t e r r i t o r i a l arrangements that m a y n o t f i t w i t h i n the u s u a l h i e r a r c h y of p o l i t i ­ca l - t e r r i tor ia l governance, such as I n d i a n reserva­tions i n the U n i t e d States. Such t e r r i t o r i a l structures reflect the tens ion b e t w e e n the d o m i n a n t p o l i t i c a l p a t t e r n a n d inf luences tha t can be ant i thet ica l to i t .

The topic of i n t e r n a l p o l i t i c a l b o u n d a r i e s is also a g o o d place to consider a p a r t i c u l a r t y p e of p o l i t i ­cal m a p students are l i k e l y to have encountered: electoral maps . Electoral maps are w i d e l y used n o t jus t to s h o w w h o has w o n a n d lost elections, b u t pat terns of s u p p o r t for d i f f e r e n t candidates a n d issues (Archer a n d Shelley 1986). Such m a p s can be va luab le teaching tools , as they a l l o w students to consider re la t ionships a m o n g patterns . Students m i g h t be asked, for example , to construct an elec­t o r a l m a p at the state or n a t i o n a l l eve l , a n d to t h e n consider w h a t tha t m a p reflects about social , eco­n o m i c , or c u l t u r a l circumstances. Such an exercise can p e r m i t discuss ion o f broad-scale inf luences o n p o l i t i c a l o u t l o o k , w h i l e also p r o m o t i n g considera­tion of the p r o b l e m s of d r a w i n g general izat ions at large scales.

A s a c o m p l e m e n t to the discuss ion of f o r m a l p o l i t i c a l - t e r r i t o r i a l arrangements , s tudents s h o u l d also consider geographica l inf luences o n i n t e r n a l p o l i t i c a l i n t e g r a t i o n . Ef for ts to address this topic have t r a d i t i o n a l l y focused o n the impacts of the ter­r i t o r i a l shape a n d geographica l s i t u a t i o n of c o u n ­tries. Such matters are sometimes re levant ; there are, fo r example , special i n t e g r a t i o n challenges associated w i t h p a r t i c u l a r t e r r i t o r i a l c o n f i g u r a t i o n s (e.g., e longated , f r a g m e n t e d , or p r o m p t e d f o r m s ) or locations (e.g., a l a n d l o c k e d s i tuat ion) . H o w e v e r , i t is c r i t i ca l tha t s tudents u n d e r s t a n d that t e r r i t o r i a l shape a n d s i t u a t i o n are b u t one of m a n y inf luences , a n d tha t they need to be seen i n context . Some l a n d l o c k e d states (e.g., S w i t z e r l a n d ) are c o m p a r a ­tively w e l l o f f a n d stable, as are some e longated states (e.g., N o r w a y ) . A t the same time, compact ­

ness a n d a c o m p a r a t i v e l y advantageous s i t u a t i o n d o n o t translate i n t o s tab i l i ty a n d p o w e r for a c o u n ­t r y such as Sr i L a n k a .

To get at the m o s t s igni f icant inf luences o n p o l i t i c a l i n t e g r a t i o n , i t is necessary to consider such matters as the presence of sub-nat iona l ethnic m i n o r i t i e s i n states d o m i n a t e d b y a m a j o r i t y g r o u p w i t h an exc lus ionary e thno-nat ional i s t agenda, the presence of d r a m a t i c i n t e r r e g i o n a l socioeconomic polar i t ies w i t h i n states, the extent to w h i c h states have e n o u g h a u t o n o m y w i t h i n g l o b a l geopol i t i ca l a n d geoeconomic structures to p r i o r i t i z e i n t e r n a l mat ters , the degree to w h i c h the l e g i t i m a c y of g o v ­e r n m e n t a l leaders is tied to successful i n t e r n a l i n t e ­g r a t i o n in i t i a t ives , a n d the capacity of states to d e v e l o p a n d susta in w e l l - a r t i c u l a t e d t r a n s p o r t a t i o n a n d c o m m u n i c a t i o n n e t w o r k s . H i g h l i g h t i n g matters such as these a l l o w s students to u n d e r s t a n d the re la t ionship b e t w e e n g e o g r a p h y a n d p o l i t i c s , w h i l e p r o m o t i n g a sense of the relevance of geographica l s t u d y for u n d e r s t a n d i n g cr i t i ca l p r o b l e m s i n the m o d e r n w o r l d .

C H A L L E N G E S TO INHERITED POLITICAL-TERRITORIAL ARRANGEMENTS

Despite the c o n t i n u i n g signif icance of the m a p of states i n h u m a n affairs , g r o w i n g challenges to the na ture a n d signif icance of tha t m a p s h o u l d be b r o u g h t i n t o the p o l i t i c a l g e o g r a p h y segment of a n A P h u m a n g e o g r a p h y course. M o s t obvious ly , the concept of sovere ignty i tself is b e i n g quest ioned as d e v e l o p m e n t s at a v a r i e t y of d i f fe rent scales are u n d e r m i n i n g the s ta te- terr i tor ia l system. M a n y of these d e v e l o p m e n t s are economic i n n a t u r e , a n d they range f r o m the e x p a n d i n g scope o f m u l t i n a ­tional corporate a c t i v i t y to the i n a b i l i t y of some states to exert m u c h c o n t r o l over the domest ic econ­o m y i n the face of i n t e r n a t i o n a l debt p a y m e n t s a n d the need to sustain the p r o d u c t i o n of k e y cash crops for external c o n s u m p t i o n . I n these cases, considera­tion of th is top ic ties i n closely w i t h the g lobal iza­tion issues that are raised i n the economic segment of the course.

Challenges to the i n h e r i t e d p o l i t i c a l - t e r r i t o r i a l o r d e r d o n o t s i m p l y come i n spat ia l ly a m b i g u o u s economic f o r m s , h o w e v e r . There are concrete e x a m ­ples of f r a g m e n t a t i o n , u n i f i c a t i o n , a n d all iance tha t are a l t e r i n g the p o l i t i c a l geographic order. M o s t obvious ly , the g r o w t h of increas ingly p o w e r f u l r e g i o n a l po l i t i ca l -economic blocs u n d e r m i n e s the n o t i o n that the m a p of states is the o n l y m a p w e need to k n o w to u n d e r s t a n d the i n t e r n a t i o n a l order.

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I t is u s e f u l to i n t r o d u c e s tudents to some of the m o s t i m p o r t a n t of these blocs, i n c l u d i n g the O r g a ­n i z a t i o n of A f r i c a n U n i t y , the A r a b League, the Assoc ia t ion of Southeast A s i a n N a t i o n s , a n d the E u r o p e a n U n i o n ( f o r m e r l y E u r o p e a n C o m m u n i t y ) . The la t ter ' s p a r t i c u l a r i m p o r t a n c e der ives f r o m the fact tha t i t has gone m u c h far ther t h a n a n y other s u p r a n a t i o n a l reg iona l o r g a n i z a t i o n i n superceding the t r a d i t i o n a l sovere ign p o w e r s of i ts m e m b e r states. I t is an o r g a n i z a t i o n to w h i c h a vast m a j o r i t y of w e s t e r n a n d west -centra l E u r o p e a n countr ies b e l o n g , a n d to w h i c h m a n y other countr ies to the east w i s h to b e l o n g (see F igure 4). B e g i n n i n g w i t h the e l i m i n a t i o n of t rade barr iers a n d m o v i n g o n to a n expans ion of p o w e r s i n the social a n d p o l i t i c a l arenas a n d to the a d o p t i o n of a c o m m o n currency, the E u r o p e a n U n i o n (EU) has become an increas­i n g l y s igni f i cant force i n E u r o p e a n affairs . I n d e e d , the E U represents a n o v e l f o r m of p o l i t i c a l space i n the i n t e r n a t i o n a l arena, w i t h p o t e n t i a l l y far-reach­i n g consequences for the g l o b a l p o l i t i c a l order.

I n discussing the nature a n d m e a n i n g of the E u r o p e a n p o l i t i c a l - t e r r i t o r i a l exper iment , i t is i m p o r t a n t to p o i n t o u t tha t i t is n o t uncontested. There is considerable concern i n Europe t o d a y over the concentra t ion of p o w e r s i n w h a t some see as a r e l a t i v e l y unrespons ive centra l bureaucracy, a n d

^ • j j M European Union ^ H member stales

WMmm Slates in negotiations ^IBB for EU members hip

States that are neither members, nor in negotiations to become members ot the EU

Figure 4. The European Union present and future members.

n o t a l l m e m b e r states have even agreed to j o i n the c o m m o n currency area. Moreover , i t is i m p o r t a n t to note that the p o l i t i c a l - t e r r i t o r i a l s ignif icance of the E U is n o t just fe l t at the s u p r a n a t i o n a l scale. The E U has fac i l i ta ted the d e v e l o p m e n t of cross-border coopera t ion regions that are reshaping the spat ia l parameters of Europe 's p o l i t i c a l a n d social order (e.g., a l o n g the u p p e r Rhine b e t w e e n France a n d G e r m a n y ) . M o r e b r o a d l y , discussing the i m p e t u s b e h i n d E u r o p e a n i n t e g r a t i o n a n d the geographica l circumstances that fac i l i ta ted that i m p e t u s (e.g., economic complementar i t i es , c o m m o n a l i t i e s of p o l i t i c a l a n d economic systems, an i n f r a s t r u c t u r e a n d sett lement p a t t e r n f a c i l i t a t i n g in tegra t ion) a l l o w s students to u n d e r s t a n d the context of the E u r o p e a n i n t e g r a t i o n i n i t i a t i v e a n d to compare a n d contrast i t w i t h r e g i o n a l i n t e g r a t i o n in i t ia t ives i n other parts of the w o r l d .

Since reg iona l po l i t i ca l -economic blocs coexist w i t h other p o l i t i c a l - t e r r i t o r i a l entities a n d regimes o f i n t e r n a t i o n a l s ignif icance, s tudents s h o u l d be m a d e aware of a l ternat ive f o r m s of suprastate p o l i t ­i c a l - t e r r i t o r i a l i n t e g r a t i o n . I n i n t r o d u c i n g such alter­n a t i v e f o r m s , i t is u s e f u l to f a m i l i a r i z e s tudents w i t h some of the classic geopol i t i ca l doctr ines d i s ­cussed i n the m a j o r texts (e.g., M a c k i n d e r ' s heart­l a n d t h e o r y ) , fo r these are suggestive of the i m p e r a ­tives that d r i v e suprastate i n t e g r a t i o n . Students can t h e n be i n t r o d u c e d to c o n t e m p o r a r y alliances tha t b r i n g states together large ly for geopol i t i ca l ends (e.g., N A T O ) , as w e l l as to reg iona l geoeconomic i n t e g r a t i o n in i t ia t ives tha t are f a c i l i t a t i n g the in ter ­l i n k i n g of the economies of d i f f e rent states (e.g., the N o r t h A m e r i c a n Free Trade A g r e e m e n t a n d the O r g a n i z a t i o n of P e t r o l e u m E x p o r t i n g Countr ies ) . I n a d d i t i o n , s tudents can be m a d e aware of the ro le of g l o b a l organizat ions such as the U n i t e d N a t i o n s i n set t ing u p regimes for peace k e e p i n g , h u m a n r i g h t s m o n i t o r i n g , a n d m a n a g e m e n t of the w o r l d ' s oceans. Since the latter issue has b o t h clear spat ia l d i m e n s i o n s a n d far -reaching signif icance for the w a y s tha t h u m a n s use a s igni f i cant p o r t i o n of the Earth 's surface, s tudents s h o u l d become f a m i l i a r w i t h the w a y s i n w h i c h the i n t e r n a t i o n a l l a w of the seas treats coastal waters , Exclus ive Economic Zones , a n d the h i g h seas, as w e l l as the presence of (and reasons for ) j u r i s d i c t i o n a l confl icts i n such h i g h - p r o f i l e cases as the S o u t h C h i n a Sea.

I n c o n s i d e r i n g challenges to the i n h e r i t e d p o l i t i ­ca l - t e r r i t or ia l order i t is i m p o r t a n t to l o o k b e l o w the state, as w e l l as above the state, for the rise of sub-state nat ional i s t m o v e m e n t s i n m a n y par ts of the w o r l d represents an increas ingly s ign i f i cant d y n a m -

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ic i n w o r l d affairs . Sketching some of the better k n o w n cases of intrastate e thno-nat ional i s t conf l i c t p r o m o t e s cons idera t ion of the status of the n a t i o n -state idea l today. I t also facilitates cons idera t ion of the ro le of i n t e r n a l p o l i t i c a l - t e r r i t o r i a l arrangements i n e t h n o - n a t i o n a l struggles. The fact that French Canadians are concentrated i n a s ingle p r o v i n c e has o b v i o u s i m p l i c a t i o n s for the d e v e l o p m e n t of e t h n o -n a t i o n a l i s m i n Canada, jus t as the emergence of a set of terr i tor ies u n d e r the j u r i s d i c t i o n of the Pales­t i n i a n A u t h o r i t y has p r o f o u n d i m p l i c a t i o n s for the p o l i t i c a l - t e r r i t o r i a l m a p of the M i d d l e East. One m i g h t note tha t substate r e g i o n a l i s m is n o t a p h e ­n o m e n o n tha t is l i m i t e d to self-conscious e thno-n a t i o n a l m i n o r i t i e s . Regional is t m o v e m e n t s w i t h o u t a d i s t inc t ethnic character have d e v e l o p e d i n such diverse settings as s o u t h e r n Spain, eastern Russia, a n d n o r t h w e s t e r n A r g e n t i n a , suggest ing tha t peo­ples i n a v a r i e t y of settings are n o longer content to def ine the i r interests solely i n terms of the state i n w h i c h they are s i tuated.

U l t i m a t e l y , the v a r i e t y of deve lopments d i s ­cussed above h i g h l i g h t a v a r i e t y of d is junct ions tha t exist b e t w e e n f o r m a l p o l i t i c a l patterns o n the one h a n d a n d m o r e c o m p l i c a t e d patterns of e thnic i ty , economy, a n d e n v i r o n m e n t o n the other. One of the u l t i m a t e goals of th is segment of the course s h o u l d be to p r o m o t e s tudent awareness of this d i s j u n c t i o n a n d to i n v i t e cons idera t ion of its s ignif icance. I have a lready g i v e n a n u m b e r of examples of this p h e ­n o m e n o n i n the ethnic a n d economic arenas. The e n v i r o n m e n t a l arena, h o w e v e r , s h o u l d n o t be over­l o o k e d . I t is w e l l u n d e r s t o o d tha t e n v i r o n m e n t a l issues a n d p r o b l e m s d o n o t s top at state b o u n d ­aries, a n d that the d i v i s i o n of the w o r l d i n t o i n d i ­v i d u a l states impedes efforts to c o n f r o n t such p r o b ­lems. The var iable success of states i n d e a l i n g w i t h such diverse issues as the d e p l e t i o n of the ozone layer, loss of b i o d i v e r s i t y , a n d g l o b a l w a r m i n g p r o ­v ides i m p o r t a n t ins ights i n t o the t e r r i t o r i a l d y n a m ­ics of the state system a n d its l i m i t a t i o n s as a dec i ­s i o n - m a k i n g f r a m e w o r k . Effective ac t ion large ly occurs w h e r e the economic stakes are n o t h i g h (e.g., r e g u l a t i o n of ch lorof luorocarbons) , b u t i n other areas, state interests cont inue to d r i v e the regula to­r y process (e.g., s trategy for d e a l i n g w i t h carbon emissions u n d e r the K y o t o pro toco l ) .

The signif icance of b r i n g i n g e n v i r o n m e n t a l issues i n t o the p o l i t i c a l g e o g r a p h y segment of the course is n o t jus t to h i g h l i g h t the fate of d i f f e rent i n t e r n a t i o n a l e n v i r o n m e n t a l in i t i a t ives . A p o i n t to

stress is that some of the greatest pressures to over­come the r i g i d i t i e s of the m o d e r n t e r r i t o r i a l state system are f o u n d i n the e n v i r o n m e n t a l arena. The exp los ion of interest a n d concern over e n v i r o n m e n ­ta l matters has l e d to g r o w i n g pressure o n state structures a n d leaders to a d o p t progressive e n v i ­r o n m e n t a l postures , e v e n at the expense of t r a d i ­t i o n a l sovere ign arrangements . Such pressures are fac i l i ta ted b y the emergence of n e w coal i t ions across i n t e r n a t i o n a l b o u n d a r i e s that are b y p a s s i n g state structures i n their efforts to p r o m o t e e n v i r o n ­m e n t a l l y sustainable practices a n d i n s t i t u t i o n s . A l t h o u g h the i r success is s p o t t y at best, i t is increas­i n g l y d i f f i c u l t fo r a t r o p i c a l c o u n t r y to m a k e a dec i ­s ion about ra inforest h a r v e s t i n g , a E u r o p e a n c o u n ­t r y to m a k e a dec is ion a b o u t nuclear p o w e r d e v e l ­o p m e n t , or a Southeast A s i a n c o u n t r y to m a k e a dec is ion a b o u t d a m c o n s t r u c t i o n w i t h o u t s igni f i cant concern for the react ion of the i n t e r n a t i o n a l c o m ­m u n i t y or subgroups thereof. W h e n one considers tha t these same concerns are s o m e t i m e s — t h o u g h cer ta in ly n o t a l w a y s — a factor i n domest ic dec is ion m a k i n g o n e v e r y t h i n g f r o m w e a p o n s d e v e l o p m e n t to the t rea tment of m i n o r i t y p o p u l a t i o n s , i t becomes clear that w e are n o longer l i v i n g i n a w o r l d i n w h i c h most f u n d a m e n t a l h u m a n realities can be u n d e r s t o o d or addressed w i t h i n the t e r r i t o r i a l f r a m e w o r k of the m o d e r n state system.

A s i m p o r t a n t as th i s last p o i n t m i g h t be, i t is e q u a l l y i m p o r t a n t tha t s tudents u n d e r s t a n d tha t d e v e l o p m e n t s u n d e r m i n i n g the t r a d i t i o n a l w o r k ­ings of sovere ignty have b y n o means rendered the m o d e r n t e r r i t o r i a l state obsolete. M u c h can be said i n s u p p o r t of this , b u t a p a r t i c u l a r l y p o w e r f u l w a y of c o n v e y i n g its s ignif icance is to p o i n t o u t the c o n ­t i n u e d existence of m a j o r interstate t e r r i t o r i a l con­f l icts i n the c o n t e m p o r a r y w o r l d . There are dozens of active t e r r i t o r i a l d isputes b e t w e e n states: Ecuador versus Peru , Venezuela versus G u y a n a , T u r k e y versus Greece, E t h i o p i a versus Er i t rea , Pak­is tan versus I n d i a , C h i n a versus I n d i a , K a z a k h s t a n versus U z b e k i s t a n , to n a m e jus t a f e w tha t have f l a r e d u p i n recent years. I f c o n t r o l over t e r r i t o r y h a d lost its p o l i t i c a l / g e o p o l i t i c a l s ignif icance i n the m o d e m w o r l d , such conf l ic ts w o u l d n o t be an i m p o r t a n t d y n a m i c i n i n t e r n a t i o n a l relat ions. The p o i n t is that challenges are g r o w i n g to the d o m i ­n a n t p o l i t i c a l - t e r r i t o r i a l f r a m e w o r k of the m o d e m era, b u t tha t the m o d e r n state system cont inues to be the f r a m e of reference against w h i c h o p p o s i t i o n m o v e m e n t s are set, be they e thnic , social , economic , geopol i t i ca l , or e n v i r o n m e n t a l .

130 Murphy

CONCLUSION

Pol i t i ca l g e o g r a p h y is a n i n h e r e n t l y fasc inat ing subject, w i t h i m p o r t a n t i m p l i c a t i o n s for u n d e r ­s t a n d i n g the w o r l d i n w h i c h w e l i v e . To e x p l o i t that p o t e n t i a l i t is v i t a l l y i m p o r t a n t that s tudents come to t h i n k about the p o l i t i c a l o r g a n i z a t i o n of t e r r i t o r y as a d y n a m i c force i n h u m a n affairs , n o t jus t a back­d r o p to events a n d processes. P u r s i n g this e n d requires cons idera t ion of the c h a n g i n g character of sal ient p o l i t i c a l - t e r r i t o r i a l structures a n d the w a y s they b o t h reflect a n d inf luence ideas about t e r r i t o ­r y / space, geographica l arrangements , a n d the c h a n g i n g character of peoples a n d places. W h y d i d p a r t i c u l a r terr i tor ies d e v e l o p i n the spaces w h e r e they developed? W h a t ideas d o these terr i tor ies reflect a b o u t l eg i t imate approaches to t e r r i t o r i a l governance? H o w does the i r existence affect the w a y s i n w h i c h people t h i n k about themselves a n d about each other? H o w d o p a r t i c u l a r t e r r i t o r i a l spaces in f luence w h i c h p r o b l e m s get addressed, a n d h o w to address them? Quest ions such as these are at the heart of a p o l i t i c a l geographic perspect ive o n the w o r l d , a n d a n i n t r o d u c t o r y A P h u m a n geog­r a p h y class s h o u l d set s tudents o n a tra jectory tha t w i l l p r o m o t e u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the s ignif icance of

these questions, w h i l e p r o v i d i n g the t y p e of back­g r o u n d that w i l l a l l o w students to b e g i n a n s w e r i n g t h e m . I n the process, s tudents w i l l n o t o n l y prepare themselves for m o r e advanced c o u r s e w o r k i n geog­raphy, they w i l l b r o a d e n a n d deepen the i r u n d e r ­s t a n d i n g of the w o r l d i n w h i c h they l i v e .

R E F E R E N C E S

Agnew, J. A. 1994. The territorial trap: The geographical assump­tions of international relations theory. Review of International Political Economy 1:53-80.

Anderson, J. 1986. Nationalism and geography. In The Rise of the Modern State, ed., J. Anderson, pp. 115-142. Brighton, Sussex: Wheatsheaf Books.

Archer, J. C, and F. M. Shelley. 1986. American Electoral Mosaics. Resource Publications in Geography. Washington, D.C.: Association of American Geographers.

Meinig, D. W. 1969. A macrogeography of Western imperialism. In Settlement and Encounter, eds., F. Gale and G. H. Lawton, pp. 212-240. Melbourne: Oxford University Press.

Mikesell, M. W. 1983. The myth of the nation state. Journal of Geography 82:257-260.

Murphy, A. B. 1996. The sovereign state system as political-terri­torial ideal: Historical and contemporary considerations. In State Sovereignty as Social Construct, eds., T. J. Biersteker and C. Weber, pp. 81-120. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Sack, R. D. 1981. Territorial bases of power. In Political Studies from Spatial Perspectives, eds., A. D. Burnett and P. J. Taylor, pp. 53-71. New York: John Wiley and Sons.

Political Organization of Space

Appendix A. Internet and print resources for political geography.

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G E N E R A L P R I N T R E S O U R C E S

Anderson, E. W. 1993. An Atlas of World Political Flashpoints: A Sourcebook of Geopolitical Crisis. New York: Facts on File.

Short descriptive, historical and status reports on 80 global political conflicts. Emphasis is on geographical factors.

Boyd, A. 1998. An Atlas of World Affairs. Tenth edition. London and New York: Routledge.

Seventy-five brief profiles of "international issues and con­flicts... placed in their geographical context through the integration of a hundred maps."

Christopher, A. J. 1999. The Atlas of States: Global Change 1900-2000. New York: John Wiley and Sons.

A chronicle of events leading to changes in the world political map throughout the twentieth century. Up-to-date and includes a substantial number of maps.

Day, A. 1987. Border and Territorial Disputes. Second edition. Har­low, Essex, U.K.: Longman.

An extensive global survey of interstate and international border conflicts and territorial disputes, this substantial text provides good historical background but is in need of updating.

Gurr, T. 1996. Minorities at Risk: A Global View of Ethnopolitical Conflicts. Washington D.C: United States Institute of Peace.

This work identifies ethnic and religious minorities, details their connections and differences, sets them into a theoreti­cal framework, and provides several regional in-depth case studies.

Minahan, J. 1996. Nations without States: A Historical Dictionary of Contemporary National Movements. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press.

A survey of 210 nations - short articles highlighting the historical, political, social, and economic evolution of the many stateless nations that are now emerging to claim a role in the post-Cold War world order.

Smith, D., et al. 1997. The State of War and Peace Atlas. Third edi­tion. London and New York: Penguin Reference.

A collection of color maps of global and regional scales detailing political, military, economic and social aspects of warfare and peacekeeping efforts.

G E N E R A L W E B R E S O U R C E S

CIA Factbook - <http://www.odci.gov/cia/publications/ factbook/index.html>

Extensive country profiles with the following data cate­gories: geography, people, government, economy, commu­nications, transportation, military and transnational issues. Includes a limited map section.

Crisis Web - <http://www.crisisweb.org/> Home page of the International Crisis Group, a private, multinational organization. Features reports and briefings on a small number of on-going conflicts.

Ethnologue: Languages of the World - <http://www.sil.org/ ethnologue/>

Excellent source of language data.

International Boundaries Research Unit (IBRU) at the University of Durham - <http://www-ibru.dur.ac.uk/>

Features an International Boundaries Database and infor­mation on IBRU periodicals, conferences and workshops. Also has a good list of boundary-related links.

INCORE (Initiative on conflict resolution and ethnicity) -<http://www.incore.ulst.ac.uk/>

A joint initiative of the United Nations University and the University of Ulster. The Conflict Data Service is excellent and features annotated guides to internet sources on con­flict and ethnicity, peace agreements, and thematic issues. Also includes a researcher database.

Minorities at Risk Project - <http://www.bsos.umd.edu /cidcm/mar/>

A project of the Center for International Development and Conflict Management (CIDCM) at the University of Mary­land. "Minorities at Risk is an independent, university-based research project that monitors and analyzes the sta­tus and conflicts of politically-active communal groups in countries with a population of at least 500,000." Includes detailed overviews and chronologies of minority ethnic groups.

Perry-Castaneda Library Map Collection - University of Texas -<http://www.lib.utexas.edu/Libs/PCL/Map_collection/ Map_collection.html>

One of the most comprehensive on-line map libraries. Political Geography Specialty Group - <http://gamet.acns.fsu.

edu/~dpurcell/pgsgl.html> Official page of the AAG Political Geography Specialty Group. Primarily includes links to conferences and a limit­ed number of publications and resources.

Political Resources on the Net - <http://www.agora.stm.it/ politic/>

"Listings of political sites available on the Internet sorted by country, with links to Parties, Organizations, Govern­ments, Media and more from all around the world."

Relief Web - <http://www.reliefweb.int/w/rwb.nsf> A project of the United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (QCHA). Articles, reports and other information on worldwide humanitarian relief efforts. Includes a map section.

United States Information Agency - <http://www.usia.gov/> Official site of USIA.

United States State Department - <http://www.state.gov/> Official site of U.S. State Department

R E G I O N A L W E B R E S O U R C E S

Africa News Online - <http://www.africanews.org/> Extensive and up-to-date news on Africa.

Europa - <http://www.europa.eu.int/> Official site of the European Union.

Index on Africa - <http://www.africaindex.africainfo.no/> "A comprehensive guide to the continent".

LatinWorld - <http://www.latinworld.com/> "Premier search engine for Iberoamerica & the Caribbean."