Political Geography TERRITORY SHAPE

Shape Definition Advantages Disadvantages

Compact

Ideally “circular”; boundaries equidistant from center (capital/core) Ex: Kenya, Rwanda, Uganda, Poland, Bhutan

- Efficient communication and organization everywhere: easy to control

- Short boundaries to defend

- Not necessarily peaceful - Relatively small - can be easy to invade

Fragmented

Discontinuous pieces of territory separated by water or intervening state Ex: Indonesia, Tanzania/Zanzibar, Angola/Cabinda, Russia/Kaliningrad, Philippines

- harder to attack.? - more EEZ/potential water resource

- Hard to maintain national unity and communication

- Independence mvts. prevalent (devolution.)

Elongated

Long and narrow shape Ex: Chile, Malawi, Gambia, Vietnam

- Different ethnicities are able to live in different areas

- Different climatic zones in state (variety of agricultural opportunity)

- Poor internal comm. ; isolation from capital (extreme ends)

- Devolution father from core

Prorupt

A compact state that has a portion of territory that extends/protrudes beyond the rest Ex: Thailand

- Access to a resource that could not previously be reached

- May separate two other conflicting states (Afghanistan separates a direct border between Russia and Pakistan)

- Difficult to communicate with the isolated protrusion

Perforated

A state with “holes” or other countries inside them Ex: South Africa, Italy

- The enclaves have to depend on the exclaves for trade and contact with other countries

- separates 2 ethnicities so less tensions

- Very difficult to live inside the perforation, different ethnicities

[Ex. South Africa has many whites, making it difficult for Lesotho (with traditional African culture) to live in peace]

- disrupted trade and communication

Landlocked

A state with no (coastline) access to water, completely surrounded by other states Ex: Switzerland, Mongolia

- Easy to conquer - No maritime resource access - Must depend on other states to

access water ports, thus need to maintain good relations with neighbors at all times

Small State (Microstate)

A state with a small amount of land Ex: Liechtenstein, Andorra, San Marino, Monaco

- Easier to control/maintain, esp. in core

- Less borders to guard

- Can be overtaken easily - May have less resources than a

larger state(in non-core areas)

Large State A state with a large amount of land Ex: Russia

- More probability of resources - Glory

- More difficult to control land and borders

- Diverse population often=conflict

BOUNDARIES - limits of a state that mark divisions (internal boundaries) and separate people; above land (airspace) and below land (subsoil)

I. Basics A. Exclave- a bounded piece of territory that is part of a state that is separated from the mainland by another state (ex. Kaliningrad/Russia,

Nagorno-Karabagh/Armenia, Alaska-U.S.) B. Enclave- piece of territory that is surrounded by a political unit which is not part of its country (ex: Lesotho in S.Africa, Nagorno-Karabakh in

Azerbaijan) C. Frontier- a zone where no state exercises complete political control, many times used as a buffer between states in historical times (replaced by

boundaries, ex. Antarctica) D. Microstate- a state with a very small land area E. City-State- a state that evolves around the boundaries of a city [countryside, farmlands, etc.] (ex. Singapore, Vatican City) F. Nation-State

- a nation is not necessarily a state. States have their own government, while a nation does not necessarily have a government. Nations are just a body of people with the same culture/nation

- every state wants a nation-state because it is easiest to maintain control when every citizen is of the same history, religion, and speaks the same language

- no states can ever fully achieve this, the closest states are monolingual - DJPUPIL (Denmark, Japan, Portugal, Uruguay, Poland, Iceland, Lesotho)

G. Stateless Nation- a nationality (usually minority) that doesn’t have a state (ex. Palestine, Kurds)

II. Boundary Stages 1. Define- Legally deciding where a border should be placed 2. Delimit- Placing the boundaries on a map (by cartographers) 3. Demarcate- Placing physical markers along the border (ex. signs, a wall #trump)

III. Types of Boundaries

A. Physical-Political Boundaries- (natural-political) boundaries that coincide with physical features (ex. US/Mex [Rio Grande], Spain/France [Pyrenees]) a. Desert - deserts are usually sparse and hard to cross, and these boundaries are usually found in Africa or Asia (Sahara Desert) b. Mountain - very hard to cross, very sparse (Argentina/Chile @ Andes) c. Water - visible on a map or from an aerial view, invaders must transport by air or ship (East Africa)

B. Cultural boundaries- follow distribution of cultural characteristics (human set) a. Geometric Boundaries- established on treaty; straight (ex. 49 North US/Canada, Libya/Chad, N/S Korea) b. Ethnic Boundaries- mainly coincide w/ speakers of diff. languages or religion(ex. India/Pakistan, Portugal/Spain, Ireland/N.Ire/UK, also

demarcation of England/France/Portugal/Spain bc of language) a) ex. Cyprus’s “Green Line” between the Greeks and Turkish

(1) Cyprus has mostly Greeks (78%) and a Turkish (18%) minority. The Turkish could control their own people, but Turkish and Greeks never integrated

(2) Greek military coup -> Turkey steps in to protect its minority on Cyprus. After a while Greek military officers were removed but Turkish were not.

(3) Northern part declared itself independent Turkish Republic (4) Wall constructed, buffer zone delineated. Nationalities isolated from each other

c. Antecedent- set before significant population was there (ex. US, Canada) d. Subsequent- Takes place as the cultural landscape evolves

*usually result of long-term process of adjustment and modification *usually follow culture/ethnic lines

e. Relict- Used to be in place; imprint still there (ex. N/S Vietnam) f. Superimposed- Without respect to ethnic groups, usually straight (ex. African colonies)

● Relative location is more important than absolute location because it gives ideas into GDP, GNP, population indicators, etc., instead of just GPS

coordinates.

IV. Types of Boundary Disputes A. Definitional/Positional- can’t decide where the boundary should be [language of where]

B. Locational- can’t decide where the boundary actually is and how it should be marked [where on map] C. Operational/Functional- can’t decide how the boundary should be run [function of the boundary] D. Allocational- fight for resources

WORLD POLITICS ● European colonialism has had lasting imprints on former colonies: spread of social-economic-military-political power.

○ 2 waves of colonialism: 1. For usurping raw materials and resources 2. For usurping cheap labor

○ Building of roads/infrastructure, bringing of raw materials ○ Emphasized unequal development with differences in political power→ “they still exploit former colonies today”= neocolonialism

I. Theorists

A. Ratzel- organic theory: states need “biological” nourishment--we need to expand territory/political power in order to survive a. geopolitics: study of spatial/territorial displays of power

B. MacKinder- “Heartland Theory”; control the Heartland (E.Europe/Russia) and you control the world [prevalent in WWII] a. believed by Hitler

C. Spykman- “Rimland Theory”; no one can rule the world because no one will be able to control the Rimland (All of Asia/Europe); must have a balance of power between states, establish organizations

D. Wallerstein- “World Systems Theory”; all states interlock into a global economy and nobody is isolated. Colonial power status is an added benefit but is not necessary to become wealthy (ex. Switzerland, Singapore)

1. One market and one global system exists: a. Capitalism, secures profit and is a constant search for cheap labor (outsourcing) b. Commodification is the act of placing a price on a good and selling it (ex. bottled water)

2. The fact that everything takes place in an interrelated world economy brings intended and unintended consequences. 3. 3 basic tiers of countries:

Core (ex. USA, Europe, Japan)

Rich Highly educated, high salaries, high tech.

Fuel the world’s economy Transform raw materials

Wealth is funneled into N.Am, Europe, Australia, and Japan

Periphery (Ex. Nigeria, Libya, Mali)

Low income Poorly educated, low salary, low tech

In the world economy b/c of colonialism Support rich countries by providing inexpensive

labor and a market for industrial products.

Semi-Periphery (Ex. India, Brazil, Mexico)

Remaining, median

Still dominated by core countries in the global economy.

*Also applicable inside of states having certain “core” and “periphery” areas. II. Areas of Influence

*Power is situated in core areas. The focal points of power are the USA, Europe, Russia, and China.

A. core area- characterized by (ex. France: Paris Basin, Japan: Kanto Plain) a. houses a country’s major cities [capital] b. largest/densest population clusters c. good internal transport d. cultivated farmland e. developed economy f. efficient circulation of ideas and people

B. multicore state- have more than one cluster of core areas a. can be a problem (ex. Nigeria: ethnically diverse [w/ self determination] and no strong central govt. = lang/relig. friction) b. can be fine (ex. USA: acts as a single nationality [American] so all of us can interact peacefully)

C. capital city- unplanned, “boomtown”. Has historic significance. (ex. NYC, Philadelphia) a. houses the govt. b. sometimes the largest city c. sometimes the most economically influential city d. symbolizes the state (ex. art, architecture, buildings, monuments)

D. forward capital- a planned capital that serves as a model for national objectives & LEADS THE WAY to change [like econ. development or future hopes (“showroom”) [ex. Washington, D.C.] ].

a. may be placed in contested area for resources and to cut ties with former colonizers b. may increase nationalism and unity

E. primate city- no city even comes close to rivaling in size/influence (often a capital city). [ex. Mexico City, NYC, Paris] a. can be negative; the other (peripheral/semiperipheral) cities are neglected (ex. may not have proper infrastructure to handle large

populations) bc the primate city is the sole focus of development. III. Politics

A. electoral geography- analysis of the methods, behavior, and results of elections in the context of geographic space and using geographical techniques.

B. gerrymandering- redrawing of political boundaries to benefit the party in power (began with Elbridge Gerry’s “gerrymander” district). Ruled illegal in 1985; however still persists. Fair boundary drawing should be unbiased/bipartisan (ex. Europe, Washington, Iowa)

a. wasted vote- spread out opposition in slender minority and a few districts with majority b. excess vote- high majorities of opp. and favoring in many districts; favor slender majority c. stacked vote- weirdly shaped boundaries around favorable areas. (good for ethnic groups)

C. majority-minority districts- districts where the majority population is actually the ethnic minority of the state D. supranationalism - when 3 or more states work together for a common goal (social, econ, polit, cultural, milit)

a. Good= UNITY: we got your backs, let’s reduce tariffs, etc. b. Bad to not be a member= you’re an outsider and might be exploited

E. UN (United Nations)- platform for all countries to settle disputes without resorting to war--groundwork of cooperation (esp. post WWII)

a. . Benelux is a political-economic union between Belgium, Netherlands, and Luxembourg, which are right next to each other. E. UNPO- Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization: international forum for stateless nations (just to be heard, doesn’t necessarily solve

problems); relieves tensions (ex. Albanians of Greece, Tatars of Crimea, Ogoni of Nigeria, Ka Lahui of Hawai’i, Lakota Nation) F. UNCLOS III: The Law of the Sea- establishes states’ rights and responsibilities of use/ownership of earth’s seas, oceans, resources.

● high seas: no claims; open to all ● Truman Proclamation: the US declares a 600 ft isobath (continental shelf)’s resources as our own, but open seas

○ other states are inspired and open up for maritime expansion [Russia/China keep expanding more and more, S.American states take open seas] (main motive is economic $$)

1. territorial seas: belong to a state (coastline), 12 nautical miles; but countries can pass through 2. EEZ (Exclusive Economic Zone): total economic rights @ under 200 nautical miles [just the continental shelf, up to 350 n. miles]

a. Median Line Principle says to just split it in half when under 400 miles (causes boundary disputes; ex. N.Sea, S.China Sea) i. China creates artificial Spratly Islands to extend EEZ

3. mineral resources beneath the high seas are “common” a. done to give landlocked states access to resources (the group Geographically Disadvantaged States) b. US opposed it for this reason [we’re the only ones that can mine the resources tho] but later accepts under Clinton

K. devolutionary forces L. Irredentism: attempt by one country to provoke a separatist movement in another country

IV. Government Systems and Regime Types

- National scale (regime=more/less democracy) A. democracy- citizens elect leaders and can run for office, have civil liberties and can “check” the govt.’s power

a. World has become more democratic because out-of touch monarchies are being replaced with with widening rights and policy (ex. voting, universal liberties) and diffusion from Europe→N.Am→world.

i. Arab Spring: most dramatic protest to remove the autocratic regime (in SW.Asia/N.Africa: Egypt, Libya, Tunisia, Yemen) in late 2010- early 2011 *Social media helped

B. autocracy- interests of rulers > people; hereditary succession. Power cannot be checked and the citizens are suppressed. (ex. W/E/C. Asia) C. anocracy- mix of the two

- Local scale (how much power a local govt. has) A. Federal state- strong power distributed in many places throughout the state

a. best for large, multinational/ethnic [heterozygous] states (ex. Russia, Canada, India, USA, outlier Belgium) i. stronger local govt. ii. different nationalities can play with power in their bounded regions

- global trend towards federal govts (national→local power) bc they allott influence towards ethnicities that like self-determination

B. Unitary state- power given to a centralized group of officials a. best for a uniform (small) nation-state (ex. European countries like France, outlier China and Switzerland)

i. some use in multinational states to impose ethnic dominance over another group (ex. Kenya/Rwanda)

Definition Examples Compare Contrast

centripetal- force that brings state together centrifugal- force that pulls state apart

good circulation, minority represented, nationalism, charismatic leadership, real or perceived external threat economic differences, regional differences, diverse languages, religions, cultures

works in every state centripetal takes lots of work centrifugal is result of central govt. not integrating all ppl

unitary- capital city reflects authority, central govt. controls state, most common form of govt. federal- power between control govt. and subunits; accommodates regional interests; need to know what former colonies instituted in and where most successful

France US, India

both strong forms of govt. federal takes into account regional interest and is less susceptible to devolutionary forces unitary created to reinforce central govt’s power

MacKinder- heartland theory (rule interior of Eurasia=rule world) Spykman- rule outskirt of Eurasia=rule world

MacKinder believed by Soviet Union in WWII

areas of control=world dominance (see definition)

nation- ppl’s feeling of belonging to cultural community that shares common history, homogeneity, ethnicities, language, religion, and culture state- political unit, est. govt., has control over internal and foreign affairs, occupies defined territory, permanent pop.

Nation: Kurds State: literally any state

nation can be state and state can be nation but not always =

nation implies homogeneity, state does not necessarily have homo pop.

TEXTBOOK NOTES. - state- a politically organized/stable country; formal region that has a permanent population. - sovereign- independent.

- largest: Russia, smallest: Monaco (microstate)

- growth into habitable land: from 50→ 200 states - United Nations: most important global organization (created after WWII) to settle international problems, do some military peacekeeping, encourage

cooperation, and aid humanitarian relief. - 51→ 193 states; rapid growths

- 1955: 16 liberated Euro states from Nazi Germany post-WWII - 1960: 17 African colonies (Egypt, S.Africa, Ethiopia, Liberia) - 1990-93: 26 b/c breakup of Yugoslavia and Soviet Union, also microstates

- Followed failed attempt: League of Nations - Forum/attempt @ international cooperation, which can be hard to maintain. - 5 permanent members: China, USA, Russia, France, UK, US.

- State or not? (Problematic areas)

- Korea - Split N (Dem.People’s Rep. of K) / S (Rep of K.) by the US. Separate govts. - Admitted as 2 states into the UN - Reconciliation was attempted, but North is crazy w/ nuclear weapons, poor, etc.

- China/Taiwan - Nationalist/Communist civil war in China

- Western Sahara (Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic) -

- S.Pole - claimed by Argentina, Chile, France, UK, New Zealand, Norway, and Australia (some overlapping claims) - US and Russia don’t recognize any claims - Antarctic treaty: can est research centers but no military troops

- signed by 47 states 1959 - Arctic

- wanted bc thought to be rich in resources - UNCLOS 1982 allowed countries to submit claims before 2009

- Development of the state concept= new.

- Ancient: MidEast/Mesopotamia (Fertile Crescent-between Medit. Sea/Persian Gulf)= center of sea/land comm. → city-states a sovereign town & its countryside/governing walls→soon rose to dominance→empires (ex. Babylonians, Sumerians, Assyrians)

- Medieval: height of polit. unity @ Roman Empire (huge collections of provinces). Fall because of internal conflicts (competing Euro kings). Powerful kings→modern states (consolidated empires, ex. England, France, Spain)

- Nation-states in Europe ethnically almost homogenous, live in same area of origin - shared values→right to govern ourselves→ self-determination (mainly W.Euro) - Language=most important identifier.(→shows up while trying to redraw map @Versailles Peace Conference after WWI)

- ex. Nazi Germany: all in one place, 2 Germanys made, today not same place as original - No perfect ones: never 100%. But close:

- Denmark: 90% ethnic Dane in that territory.

- Slovenia: More before in Yugoslavia, but now b/c of Hungarian-Italians and boundary changes, only 83% ethnic slovene. - Ethnicity can be

- a source of unity and nationalism to create nation-states - a grievance to minorities and cause conflict (ex. Balkans)→Communism seeks to minimize this with “socialist realism”: suppress

uniqueness and no religion, just govt. - Independent Nation-States in the Soviet Union

15 republics→5 groups, now independent states - Baltic

- closest to N.S status: annexed into Sov.Un by Nazis in WWI - Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania

- European - Distinctions blurred (all E.Orthodox and E.Slavic languages) - Belarus, Ukraine, Moldova

- B/c Belarus/Ukraine isolated from Russia, different ethnicity. - Moldova/Romania: is the same, but Sov.Un boundary conflicts :(

- Central Asian - Show that multinational states can be more peaceful than nation-states. - Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan.

- T/U: Altaic Muslim, conquered by Russia, eth.split into lotsa states - Kyrgyzstan: Altaic Muslim but don’t like Russia bc took farmland - Kazakhstan: split bw Russian/Kazakhs. Seems really bad because big, but kinda suppressed bc of bad economy (relative) - Tajikistan: opposite.civil war w/ Russia, Tajik, Uzbek (communism)

- Russia - recognizes 39 nationalities - 80% Russ - Chechens: Sunni Muslims who spoke Caucasian language; declared indep bc didn’t want to join Russia after SU dissolved but

Russ sent army to regain control

- Caucasus - Azerbaijan - Armenia - Georgia - Iowa

- Multinational state - more than one ethnicity w/ tradition of self-determination. (may fall under one nationality, ex. USA. largest= Russia.) - Colony- territory legally tied to a sovereign state. Colonialism: establish settlements esp for GGG