pmob outlines chapter 2

8/8/2019 PMOB Outlines Chapter 2

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Principles of Management & Organizational Behavior

Principles of Management and Organizational Behavior

Unit 2 The Individual

Individuals in Organizations Organizations and The Management of Learning

The Learning Organization - How People Learn

The outcomes of Learning Operant Conditioning Social Learning

Limitations of Behaviorist School Cognitive Theories

Learning Styles Complex Models of Learning Learning Models applied to study skills

Perception Importance Objective and Perceived reality

The Perceptual Process - Organization Translation

Perceiving Ourselves- Others Reducing Perceptual Others

The importance of Cultural Awareness to Managers Individualism- Collectivism Power Distance - Uncertainty avoidance

Masculinity- Femininity Time Orientation

Attitude Formation Change Work Related attitudes Importance Management of Employee

Attitudes

Work Motivation Content Theories

Process Theories of Motivation

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Individuals in Organizations

Personality : The sum total of ways in which an individual reacts and interacts with others

How do individuals differ?

Ethnic origin

Physique

Gender

Early family experiences

Social & cultural factors

National culture

Personality :Stable characteristics which explain why a person behaves in a particular way

Personality characteristics include:

Independence

Conscientiousness

Agreeableness

Self-control

Does a persons personality remain constant?

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Personality: its application in the workplace

Why should we value personality ?

Organisations regard personality as being of key significance in decision-making

Personality is taken into consideration at the selection interview

Personality is a powerful determinant of a managers effectiveness

The Nature of Learning

LEARNING :

Learning means change

Learning implies a different internal state that may result in new behaviours & actions or new understanding &

knowledge

Learning can be undertaken within a formal setting or be spontaneous or incremental

Factors influencing the learning process

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The significance of learning for managers

1. Powerful processes which can lead to positive outcomes, e.g. increased competence, understanding, self

esteem & morale

2. Individuals who enjoy learning are more likely to be flexible in times of constant change & therefore more

adaptable to organisational turbulence

3. Growing evidence that a learning culture can affect an organisations effectiveness

Organizations and the Management of Learning

Knowledge management : The promotion & formalisation of learning within the workplace with the aim of

aligning training with the needs of the business

Types of knowledge

Explicit knowledge knowledge that is easily communicated, quantified and systematic

Tacit knowledge knowledge and wisdom that is not easily communicated or quantified but is gained

through experience and communicated on an informal basis

The importance of knowledge management

Business pressure on innovation

Inter-organisational enterprises

Networked organisations & the need to co-ordinate geographically dispersed groups

Increasingly complex products & services with a significant knowledge component

Hyper-competitive marketplaces

Digitisation of business environments

Concerns about the loss of knowledge due to increasing staff mobility, attrition etc.

The learning organisation an organisation which facilitates the learning of all its members and continuously

transforms itself. -Pedler, Boydell & Burgoyne

Basic principles of a learning organisation - Lampel

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It can learn as much, if not more, from failure as from success

Rejects the adage if it aint broke, dont fix it as it constantly scrutinises the way things are done

Assumes that managers and workers closest to the design, manufacturing, distribution & sale of the product

often know more about these activities than their superiors

Seeks to move knowledge from one part of the organisation to another

Spends a lot of energy looking outside its own boundaries for knowledge

How people learn

Classical conditioning

Operant conditioning

Social learning

Terms to understand

Stimulus : Any stimulating information or event; acts to arouse action

Response : A bodily process occurring due to the effect of some foregoing stimulus or agent

Classical conditioning

Operant conditioning

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Social learning

Drive -- Cue -- Response -- RewardDrive : A physiological state corresponding to a strong need or desire,The trait of being highly motivated

Cue : A stimulus that provides information about what to do

Response : A bodily process occurring due to the effect of some antecedent stimulus or agent

Reward : A recompense for worthy acts or retribution for wrongdoing

Limitations of the Behaviorist School

Methods

Learning Principles

Heart of the Matter

Account of Cognitive Factors

PERCEPTION

Perception

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The process by which people organize and obtain meaning from the sensory

(Involving or derived from the senses) stimuli they receive from the environment.

Personality

The collection of psychological characteristics or traits that determines a persons

preferences and individual style of behavior.

Culture

The way in which a society as a whole perceives the world and how it should

operate.

What we see is not what it is .

The Importance of Perception

Perception

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The process by which we become aware of, and give meaning to, events around us.

Perception helps define reality.

Objective realitywhat truly exists in the physical world to the best abilities of science

to measure it.

Perceived realitywhat individuals experience through one or more of the human

senses, and the meaning they ascribe to those experiences.

Behavioral problems arise when an individuals perceived reality does not match

objective reality.

The Perceptual Process

The Perceptual Process

1. Sensation

An individuals ability to detect stimuli in the immediate environment.

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Our sensation abilities are limited, otherwise we will be in serious troubles of

overloading.

2. Selection

The process a person uses to eliminate some of the stimuli that have been

sensed and to retain others for further processing.

Two attributes that are particularly key to Selection are :

a) Physical Characteristics of Stimulus (Any stimulating information or event; acts to

arouse action)

b) Characteristics of Perceiver

Physical Characteristics of Stimuli

Contrast

The difference between one stimulus and surrounding stimuli that makes that

stimulus more likely to be selected for perceptual processing.

Which Blue circle is Bigger ? A or B

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Novelty

When the stimulus an individual senses differs from stimuli experienced in the

past.

Intensity

The forcefulness that enhances the likelihood that a stimulus will be selected

for perceptual processing.

Change

The variety that causes a stimulus to be selected for perceptual processing.

Characteristics of the Perceiver

Motive

Increased notice of a stimuli due to an individuals current active motives such

as a deficiency (e.g., hunger) that is associated with the subject (e.g., food) of

the stimulus.

Personality

An individual characteristic that creates an increased likelihood that a

particular stimulus related to the characteristic will be noticed.

The Perceptual Process (contd)

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3. Organization

The process of placing selected perceptual stimuli into a framework for

storage.

Stimuli become associated when they:

Are similar in physical resemblance.

Occur in close physical (space) proximity.

Occur in close time proximity.

Are used for figure-ground differentiation.

Are used together to achieve closurea perception of the whole or to

piece together a message.

Figure-Ground Illustration

Field-ground differentiation

The tendency to distinguish and focus on a stimulus that is classified as figure

as opposed to background.

Closure

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Closure

The tendency to organize perceptual stimuli so that, together, they form a

complete message.

The Perceptual Process (contd)

4. Transition

The stage in the perceptual process at which stimuli are interpreted and given

meaning.

Transition errors that distort perceptions (i.e., subjective reality) of objective

reality :

Primacy effect

Recency effect

Stereotyping

Halo effect

Projection

Selective perception

Expectancy effects

Transition Errors

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Primacy effect : The disproportionately high weight given to the first

information obtained about a stimulus.

Recency effect : The disproportionately high weight given to the last

information obtained about a stimulus.

Stereotyping: The generalization (application) of a persons prior beliefs about

a class of stimulus objects during encounters with members of that class of

objects.

Halo effect : The process of generalizing from an overall evaluation of an

individual to specific characteristics of the person.

Projection: The process by which people attribute their own feelings and

characteristics to other people.

Selective perception : The selection of things consistent with ones own

personal viewpoint and the rejection of things that are inconsistent with that

viewpoint;

A perceptual defense is the retention of existing beliefs that conflict with

new information.

Expectancy effect: The perception of stimuli by persons in ways that confirm

expectations.

Self-fulfilling prophecy (Pygmalion) effect-occurs when people

unconsciously adjust their behaviors to reflect their expectations in a

situation.

Self Perceptions: The Johari Window

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One way to conceptualize the possible combinations of what you know about

yourself and what others know about you.

Characteristics Affecting the Perception of Others

Perceiving Others

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Characteristics of the person perceived

Implicit personality theorythe tendency to ascribe personality traits to

people because they share certain characteristics (e.g., group membership,

status) with others.

Characteristics of the organization

An individuals association with an organization affects the perception of that

individual.

Organization culture (e.g., focus on quality) affects how other individuals are

perceived within the organization.

Characteristics of the perceiver

Attribution theoryexplains how people assign responsibility and the cognitive

processes by which they interpret the causes of their own behavior and the

behavior of others.

Locus of causalitythe attribution of the observed behavior of others to

internal or external causes.

Fundamental errorthe tendency to overestimate the effects of internal

causes and underestimate the effects of external causes when we judgeother peoples actions.

Reducing Perceptual Errors

Self-understanding

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The acknowledgement that you and people who interact with you are

susceptible to perceptual errors.

Conscious information processing

Carefully considering the facts during the perceptual process and consciously

questioning

the accuracy of what you perceive.

Reality testing

The comparison of developed perceptions about a stimulus object to another

(objective) measure of the object.

Another important factor in perception is .

CULTURE

Cultural Differences Among Organizational Members

Culture defined : How a society perceives the

world and how it should operate based on the

beliefs, values, attitudes, and expectations for

behavior that the society believes to be good,

effective, desirable, and beneficial.

Cultural Awareness and Managers

Culture affects:

The success of expatriate employees in overseas assignments.

The effectiveness of management practices and leadership styles in different cultures.

Cultural Dimensions (Hofstede)

Individualism-collectivism

The degree to which individuals in a society prefer to act as individuals, as opposed to a group.

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Power distance

The acceptance of large differences in power between the most and least powerful in society.

Uncertainty avoidance

The degree to which cultures differ in the extent to which they tolerate uncertainty.

Masculinity-femininity

The degree to which a society displays mostly traditionally male or traditionally female traits.

Time orientation

The degree to which cultures possess a short or long perspective on time.

Attitudes and Their Components

Attitude

An individuals predisposition to think, feel, perceive, and behave in certain ways toward a particular tangible

or intangible phenomenon (attitude object).

Cognitive componentwhat we know, or think we know, about the attitude object.

Affective componentthe feelings a person has toward an attitude object.

Behavioral tendency componentthe way an individual is inclined to behave toward an attitude object.

Attitudes develop over time and are resistant to change.

Illustration of the Attitude Behavior Relationship

Attitude Formation

Personal experience

Coming into direct contact with an attitude object creates perceptions about the objects

characteristics which are transformed into an attitude about the object.

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Association

The transference of parts or all of an attitude about an old object to a new attitude object.

Attitude Formation

Social learning

The influence of persons with whom an individual works on the formation of the individuals

attitudes.

Heredity

The transmission from parents to offspring of certain defining characteristics; a genetic

predisposition to behave or think in certain ways.

Attitude Change

Strategies for changing an attitude:

Present new information (cognitive component).

Present a different emotional reaction to the attitude object (affective component).

Provide a new experience with the attitude object that conflicts with prior experience.

Create new associations for the attitude object.

Use others more experienced with the attitude object for social learning.

Change the behavior associated with the attitude.

Cognitive dissonance

An unpleasant psychological state that occurs when a person possesses conflicting thoughts

about an attitude object.

Work-related Attitudes

Job satisfaction

The attitude that results from the appraisal of ones job as attaining or enabling the attainment of

ones important job values.

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Positive job attitudes arise when

jobs enable persons to

attain their values.

Facets of job satisfaction

Job contentwhat is done on the job

Job contextthe environment in which the job is done

Overall job satisfaction

A combination of facet satisfactions

that describes a persons overall

affective reaction to a set of

work-related factors.

Causes of job satisfaction

Experience with the work environment and job content

Association of the current job with past occupations/jobs

Social learning from others in the workplace

Genetic predispositions

Individual personalities

Organization goals and management actions

Measuring job satisfaction

Observing worker behavior

Interviewing workers about satisfaction levels

Distributing questionnaires to obtain information systematically

Measurement instruments: Faces (Kunin), Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire (MSQ),Job

Descriptive Index (JDI)

Consequences of job satisfaction

Employees are less likely to:

Consider quitting

Be absent or tardy

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Refuse to be good organizational citizens

Job performance does not appear to have a significant relationship to job satisfaction.

The Management of Employee Attitudes

Organizational influences on employee attitudes

Determinants of Performance

Theories of Motivation

Content motivation theories

Theories that focus on the content ofwhat factors (needs) motivate people.

Process motivation theories

Theories that address how and whypeople become motivated.

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Needs

Need

A human condition that becomes energized when people feel deficient in some respect.

Needs provide direction for motivation:

When a need is energized, people are motivated to satisfy it; once satisfied, the need no

longer motivates.

Hedonism

Early motivation theory that assumes people are motivated to satisfy mainly their own needs (seek

pleasure, avoid pain).

Content Theories of Motivation

Manifest Needs Theory (Murray)

Learned Needs Theory (McClelland)

Hierarchy of Needs Theory (Maslow)

ERG Theory (Alderfer)

Motivator-Hygiene Theory (Herzberg)

Self-Determination Theory (SDT)


Manifest Needs Theory (Murray)

The theory assumes that behavior is driven by the desire to satisfy manifest (most current) needs.

Latent needsneeds which an individual may have but are not evident in their current

behaviors.

Primary (instinctive) needsphysiological needs.

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Secondary (learned) needspsychological needs.


Learned Needs Theory (McClelland)

The theory assumes that peoples behavior in organizations is based on three principal needs:

Need for Achievement (nAch)the need to excel at the tasks they are performing.

Need for Affiliation (nAff)the need to establish and maintain warm and friendly

relationships with other people.

Need for power (nPow)the need to control things, especially other people; reflects a

motivation to influence and be responsible for other people.


Hierarchy of Needs Theory (Maslow)

The theory assumes that a higher order need is not manifest and cannot remain manifest unless

lower order needs are satisfied.

Physiological needsair, water, food, and sleep.

Safety and security needsfreedom from danger.

Social needsreceive love and affection from others.

Ego and esteem needsto be respected by others.

Self-actualizationthe need for self-fulfillment.


Alderfers ERG Theory

The theory compresses Maslows five need categories

into three: existence needs, relatedness needs, growthneeds.

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Herzbergs Motivator-Hygiene Theory

The theory posits that there are two sets of needs (motivators and hygienes) that affect individual

motivation and that they are not on a single continuum.

Motivators (growth needs/satisfiers)long-term needs related to job content; to having

sense of achievement (growth and self-actualization) from performing a job.

Hygienes (dissatisfiers)job context needs that must be met for an individual to avoid

dissatisfaction; they do not necessarily provide satisfaction or motivation.


Self-Determination Theory (SDT) : The theory seeks to explain both the causes of motivation and how extrinsic

rewards affect intrinsic motivation.

Extrinsic motivationperformance of a behavior to acquire an external reward that will

satisfy a lower-order need (e.g., working for wages).

Intrinsic motivationperformance of a behavior that in and of itself is rewarding (e.g.,

completing a crossword puzzle) and satisfies a higher-order need.

Increases in extrinsic rewards can decrease the level of intrinsic motivation in the performance of anactivity.


Operant Conditioning Theory

Equity Theory

Goal Theory

Expectancy Theory



The theory posits that people learn to behave in a particular fashion as a result of the consequences

that have followed their past behaviors.

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Operant conditioninga learning process based on the results produced by a person

operating on the environment. The reaction of the environment is to reward, punish, or

ignore the person.

Reinforcementoccurs when a consequence makes behavior more likely to be repeated.

Extinctionoccurs when a consequence or no consequence makes behavior less likely to be

repeated.



Learning process steps:

Stimulus (S)any situation or perceived event to which an individual responds.

Response (R)any behavior or action taken in reaction to a stimulus.

Consequence (C)any event (positive or negative) following a response that makes the

response more (or less) likely to recur.

General Operant Model: S R C


Operant Conditioning Theory (contd)

Making a response more likely by:

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Positive reinforcement

Negative reinforcement

Avoidance learning

Making a response less likely by:

Punishment

Nonreinforcement


Equity Theory

Theory states that motivation is affected by the an individuals perception of the equity

(fairness) of the outcomes (rewards) they receive in return for their inputs (efforts),

compared to the outcomes and inputs of other people (referent others).

Referent other ratio comparisons:

State of equityratio comparison is satisfactory.

Overrewardratio comparison favors the individual.

Underrewardratio comparison favors the referent other.

The Equity Theory Comparison


Equity Theory (contd)

Responses to a perceived state of inequity:

Alter inputs of the person

Alter outcomes of the person

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Alter inputs of the referent other

Alter outcomes of the referent other

Distort perceptions of inputs or outcomes

Choose a different referent other

Leave the situation


Goal Theory

The theory states that people will perform better if they have difficult, specific accepted

performance goals or objectives.

People will attempt to achieve those goals that they intend to achieve.

Difficult goals result in better performance than easy goals.

Specific goals are better than vague goals.

People must accept goals as their own if they are to work toward achieving them.

People must commit to goals to achieve them.


The Goal Setting Process


Expectancy Theory

The theory posits that rational people will exert high levels of effort to perform at high levels so

they can obtain valued outcomes.

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Directionwhich alternative to choose?

Intensityhow much effort to implement the alternative?

Valencethe degree to which a person perceives an outcome as being desirable, neutral, or

undesirable.

Organizations must make outcomes contingent upon performance and they should also equitably

distribute outcomes based on performance.

The Expectancy Theory of Motivation

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pmob outlines chapter 2

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