pmgt_402_103_w13_motivation(1)

7/31/2019 PMGT_402_103_W13_Motivation(1)

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School of Business

PMGT 4 0 2Project Leadership

Mario Vasilkovs


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Agenda

HousekeepingMonday Aug 2: School Closed

Assignment #2

Due Aug. 6Final: Tuesday, Aug. 17, 1330, E2-12

MC & Short Answer

Motivating Employees

TheoriesIssues

Suggestions

Groups and TeamsPMGT 402- Week 14 - Motivation


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MotivatingEmployees


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Motivation

Defined:The processes that account for an

individuals willingness to exert high levels

of effort to reach organizational goals,conditioned by the efforts ability to satisfysome individual need

Effort: a measure of intensity or drive

Direction: toward organizational goals

Need: personalized reason to exert effortMotivation works best when individual

needs are compatible with organizationalgoals

PMGT 402- Week 14 - Motivation


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Motivation

Process Schematic:


Unsatisfied Need Tension Effort Satisfied Need Tension Reduction

Intensity Direction Persistence

Exhibit 9-1


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Motivation

Early, Content Theories:Motivational Factors within the person

Needs become goals become actions

Maslow: Needs Hierarchy McGregor: Theory X & Y

Herzberg: Two Factor Theory

McClelland: Learned Needs



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Mot ivat ion: Maslow

Hierarchy of Needs TheoryNeeds were categorized as five levels

Individuals must satisfy lower-order needsbefore they can satisfy higher order needs

Satisfied needs will no longer motivate Motivating a person depends on knowing atwhat level that person is on the hierarchy

Hierarchy of needs Lower-order (external): physiological, safety Higher-order (internal): social, esteem, self-

actualization



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Mot ivat ion: Maslow


Self-

Actualization

Esteem

Social

Safety

Physiological

Exhibit 9-2

Food, drink, shelter

Security: from harm , ofsupply

Affection, acceptance

Self- respect,confidence,recognition

Growth, self-fulfillment,lear ning


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Mot ivat ion: McGregor

Theory X and Theory YTheory X

Employees have little ambition, dislike work,avoid responsibility, and require closesupervision

Theory Y Employees can exercise self-direction, desire

responsibility, and like to work

Motivation is maximized byparticipative decision making,interesting jobs, and good grouprelations



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Motivation: Herzberg

Motivation-Hygiene TheoryJob satisfaction and job dissatisfaction are

created by different factors Hygiene factors: extrinsic (environmental)

factors that create job dissatisfaction Motivators: intrinsic (psychological) factors

that create job satisfaction

Attempted to explain why job satisfactiondoes not result in increased performance The opposite of satisfaction is not

dissatisfaction, but rather no satisfaction



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AchievementRecognitionWork Itself

ResponsibilityAdvancementGrowth

Motivators Hygiene Factors

SupervisionCompany PolicyRelationship with

SupervisorWorking ConditionsSalaryRelationship with PeersPersonal LifeRelationship withSubordinates

StatusSecurity

Extremely Satisfied Extremely DissatisfiedNeutral


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Satisfied Dissatisfied

Traditional View

MotivatorsSatisfaction No Satisfaction

Hygiene FactorsNo Dissatisfaction Dissatisfaction

Herzbergs View

Exhibit 9-4


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Mot ivat ion: Observat ions

Each had a different perspective:Maslow: Individual

McGregor: Manager

Herzberg: OrganizationAll are well known

Intuitive appeal

Low Order:Physiological, X, Hygiene

High OrderSelf-Actualization, Y, Motivators



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Motivat ion: McClelland

Theory of Needs:Three acquired needs motivating job

performance: Achievement (nAch)

Drive to excel, succeed, beat standards

Power (nPow) Make others behave in different ways

Affiliation (nAff)

Desire for friendly and close relationships



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Motivation: Contem porary

ReinforcementReward the positive

Job Characteristics

5 dimensions in designing a motivatingjob

EquityFair return for effort

ExpectancyExpected positive outcome of an

action



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Mot ivat ion: Reinforcem ent

Reinforcement Theory

Behavior is influenced byconsequences

Reinforcers are consequences that,when given immediately following abehavior, increase the probability thatthe behavior will be repeated

Non-reinforce (ignore) ve behavior

A.k.a. Skinners Operant Conditioning



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Mot ivat ion: Reinforcem ent

Reinforcement Theory, the basis:

http://www3.niu.edu/acad/psych/Millis/History/2003/OperantConditioning.htm



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An Aside: Classical Condit ioning

Pavlovs Experiment:

Conditioning: Ring the bell + food = saliva

After conditioning: Ring the bell = saliva



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Job Characteristics Model (JCM)A framework for designing motivating jobs

Five primary job characteristics:

Skill variety: how many skills and talents areneeded?

Task identity: does the job produce acomplete work?

Task significance: how important is the job?

Autonomy: how much independence does thejobholder have?

Feedback: do workers know how well theyare doing?



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Job Characteristics Model (JCM)


Skill Variety

Task Identity

Task Significance

Autonomy

Feedback

Core Job

Dimensions

Critical

Psychological States

Experienced

meaningfulnessof the work

Experienced responsibility

for outcomes of the work

Knowledge of the actual

results of the work activities

High Internal

Work Motivation

High-Quality

Work Performance

High Satisfaction

with the Work

Low Absenteeism

and Turnover

Personal and

Work Outcomes

Exhibit 9-5


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Guidelines for designing motivating jobs

Combine tasks (job enlargement) to create moremeaningful work.

Create natural work units to make employeeswork important and whole.

Establish external and internal client relationshipsto provide feedback.

Expand jobs vertically (job enrichment) by giving

employees more autonomy. Open feedback channels to let employees know

how well they are doing.



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Combine tasks

Form natural work units

Establish client relationships

Load vertically

Open feedback channels

Skill variety

Task identity

Task significance

Autonomy

Feedback

Suggested Action Core Job Dimensio

Combine tasks

Form natural work units

Establish client relationships

Load vertically

Open feedback channels

Skill variety

Task identity

Task significance

Autonomy

Feedback

Suggested Action Core Job Dimensio

Exhibit 9-6


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Equity Theory:

Employees perceive:

What they get from a job situation (outcomes)

What they put in (inputs)

Yields input-outcome ratio

Employees compare their perceived ratiowith those of others

If equal then a state of equity (fairness) exists

If unequal, inequity exists and the person feelsunder- or over-rewarded

When inequities occur, employees willattempt to do something to rebalance theratios (seek justice)



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Equity Theory:

Employee responses: Distort own or others ratios

Induce others to change their own inputs or

outcomes Change own inputs (increase or decrease efforts)

or outcomes (seek greater rewards)

Choose a different comparison (referent) other(person, systems, or self)

Quit their job

Employees are concerned with both theabsolute and relative nature of organizationalrewards



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Equity Theory, illustrated:


Person 1

Inequity, under-rewarded

Equity

Inequity, over-rewarded

Ratio of Output to Input Person 1 s Perception

Person 2

Person 1

Person 2

Person 1

Person 2

Exhibit 9-7


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Expectancy Theory: Individuals act based on the expectation that

a given outcome will follow and whether thatoutcome is attractive

The carrotKey to the theory is understanding and

managing employee goals and the linkagesamong and between effort, performance, andrewards

Effort: employee abilities andtraining/development

Performance: valid appraisal systems

Rewards (goals): understanding employee needs



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Expectancy Theory Relationships:Expectancy (effort-performance linkage)

The perceived probability that an individuals effortwill result in a certain level of performance

Instrumentality The perception that a particular level of

performance will result in attaining a desiredoutcome (reward)

Valence

The attractiveness/importance of the performancereward (outcome) to the individual



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Expectancy Theory Relationships:


C

B

IndividualEffort

IndividualPerformance

OrganizationalRewards

IndividualGoals

A

A

B C

= Effort-performance linkage

= Performance-reward linkage

= Attractiveness of reward

Exhibit 9-8


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Expectancy Theory-Guided Improvements:


Exhibit 9-9

Improving Expectancy

Improve the ability of the

individual to perform

Make sure employees have skills

for the task. Provide training.

Assign reasonable tasks and goals.

Improving Instrumentality

Increase the individuals belief that

performance will lead to reward

Observe and recognize performance.

Deliver rewards as promised. Indicate to employees how previous

good performance led to greater

rewards.

Improving Valence

Make sure that the reward is

meaningful to the individual

Ask employees what rewards they

value. Give rewards that are valued.


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Motivation: Current I ssues

Motivating a Diverse Workforce

Motivating a diverse workforce throughflexibility:

Men desire more autonomy than do women Women desire learning opportunities, flexible

work schedules, and good interpersonalrelations

Interesting work ranks high in importance

to almost all employees



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Motivating a Diverse Workforce

Cross-cultural: Maslows needs may be ranked differently:

Security ranked higher in uncertainty-avoidance cultures

Social needs ranked higher in Quality-of-Life cultures

Equity theory relationships may differ:

Socialist entitlement bias

Herzbergs intrinsic Motivators:

Some evidence of general applicability



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Motivating Minimum-Wage EmployeesEmployee recognition programs

Provision of sincere praise

Motivating Professionals and Technical

WorkersCharacteristics of professionals:

Strong and long-term commitment to their field ofexpertise

Loyalty is to their profession, not to the employer

Have the need to regularly update their knowledge Dont define their workday as 9-5

Motivated by job challenges and organizationalsupport of their work



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Designing Effective Rewards Programs

The role of money Money is normally not an employees top priority

Employee recognition programs Giving personal attention and expressing interest,

approval, and appreciation for a job well done

Pay-for-performance Variable compensation plans that reward

employees on the basis of their performance:

Piece rates, wage incentives, profit-sharing, andlump-sum bonuses

Bonuses for: staying until a plant closes, projectfinishes, etc.



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Improving Work-Life BalanceCompressed workweek

Longer daily hours, but fewer days

Flexible work hours (flextime)

Specific weekly hours with varying arrival,departure, lunch and break times around certaincore hours during which all employees must bepresent

Job Sharing

Two or more people split a full-time jobTelecommuting Employees work from home using computer links



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Mot ivat ion: Suggest ions

Recognize individual differences

Motivation is subjective

Match people to jobs

I.E. Put people in the job that bestsatisfies needs, attitudes, personality

HR material on selection

Individualize rewardsMotivation is subjective



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Mot ivat ion: Suggest ions

Link rewards to performance

Reward appropriate behavior

Check the system for equity

Careful: subjective by definition

Use recognition

Can be a both cheap and effective

Dont ignore moneyUltimate, tangible measure of value



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Motivation: Team s

Groups vs. Teams:Group:

Two or more interacting and interdependentindividuals who come together to achieveparticular goals

Functions: share information, make decisions

Team:

Group working together towards a common goal

Functions: creating a whole greater than the sumof its parts through:

Synergy

Complementary Skills

Mutual Accountability



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Motivation: Team s

Team Types:Problem-Solving:

5-12, same functional area

Self-Managed: No official leader

Cross-Functional:

Experts from multiple functional areas

Virtual:

Technology used to link physically dispersed team



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Motivation: Team s

Virtual Team topics:Possible Issues:

Limited social contact, i.e. informal contact

Missing nonverbal communication

Missing paraverbal communication

Tone, pitch, emphasis, pacing

6-pack this: I didnt say you were stupid

Developing interaction and trust:

Initial e-mails highly important to set tone Personal introductions, albeit through e-mail

Assign clear roles

Spontaneous communications, i.e. MBWA viaphone



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Motivat ion: Team Developm ent

Tuckman Model:


Prestage 1 Stage IForming

Stage IIStorming

Stage IIINorming

Stage IVPerforming

Stage VAdjourning

Exhibit 10-2


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Tuckman Model:

Stage 1 - Forming:

One word: Uncertainty

Join the group: trying define the groups purpose,structure, and leadership

Confusion about team goals, structure and leadership

Excitement, anticipation, and optimism, pride in beingchosen to be part of a team

Attempt to define their roles and responsibilities

Tentative attachment to the team, suspicion, fear, and

anxiety about the job ahead Ends when: members begin to think of themselves as

part of a group

PM: Directed or telling leadership



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Tuckman Model:

Stage 2 - Storming:

One word: Conflict

Resistance to group control

Potential conflict over leadership and process Cliques may form

Easily distracted from purpose

Ends when: members agree on leadership and direction

Needs: Coaching or selling leadership



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Tuckman Model:

Stage 3 - Norming:

One word: Cohesiveness

Relationships now formed, resistance fades

Members get used to working together Accept the team, team ground rules (or "norms"), their

roles in the team, and the individuality of fellowmembers

May open up and freely exchange ideas and thoughts

Ends when: members agree on roles and

responsibilities

Needs: Facilitating or participatingleadership



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Tuckman Model:

Stage 4 - Performing:

One word: Functional

Team begins performingdiagnosing and solvingproblems, and choosing and implementing changes

Clear about goals, responsibilities, and process

Conflicts resolved within the team

Team may aim to overachieve stated goals

Members have insight into personal and groupprocesses, and better understanding of each other's

strengths and weaknesses Ends when: goals achieved

Needs: Oversight and mentoring, ordelegating/empowering leadership



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Tuckman Model:

Stage 5 - Adjourning:

Two words: Deforming and Mourning First 4 stages posited in 1965, stage 5 added ~10 years later

Team winds down

Concerned with wrapping up activities rather than withtask performance

Members may feel separation anxiety and sense of loss

Ends when: team members move on

Note: Stage not important wrt. managing

for project results

Needs: Sensitivity from the organization



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Motivation: Crea ting Team Player s

Challenges:

Individual Resistance:

Most people are used to individual performance plans

May need to learn new behavior to work in a team

Team rewards are a valuable toolNational Culture:

Individualism High or Low

Power Distance

Expectation of hierarchy or self-direction Uncertainty Avoidance

Tolerance for Ambiguity



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Challenges:

Social Loafing The tendency for individuals to expend less effort

when working collectively than when workingindividually



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Management Responses:

Selection:

Technical Skills

The right interpersonal skills for teamwork

Never try to teach a pig to sing; it wastesyour time and annoys the pig

http://thinkexist.com/quotes/robert_heinlein/


http://www.grsites.com/archive/sounds/view/1659/


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Management Responses (continued):

Training:

Supplement skills if a viable option Problem solving

Communications Negotiation

Conflict resolution

Coaching

Rewards

Reward behavior that supports team effectiveness Make link between perfromance and reward clear

Beware of rewarding: Individual effort at the expense of the team

But the team may choose

Activity, instead of results



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Effective Teams:

Clear understanding of goals

Competent members: technical andinterpersonal

High mutual trust

Unified in commitment to goals

Communicate well

Effective negotiating skills

Appropriate leadership

Supportive environment:

Internal

ExternalPMGT 402- Week 14 - Motivation


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Cohesiveness:

Degree to which members are attracted to a groupand share the groups goals

Increasing socio-emotional cohesiveness Keep the group relatively small

Strive for a favourable public imageto increase thestatus and prestige of belonging

Encourage interactionand cooperation

Emphasize memberscommon characterist icsandinterests

Point out environmental threats(e.g., competitorsachievements) to rally the group



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Mot ivat ion: Cohesiveness


Strong Increasein Productivity

Decrease inProductivity

No Significant Effecton Productivity

Moderate Increasein Productivity

Cohesiveness

High Low

Exhibit 10-4


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Mot ivat ion: Team Conflict

Defined:

perceived incompatible differences in a groupresulting in some form of interference with oropposition to its assigned tasks

Traditional view: must be avoided

Human relations view: natural and inevitableoutcome in any group

Interactionist view:

can be a positive force

absolutely necessary for effective group performance



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Situation

Level ofGroup

Performance

Low

High

Level of ConflictLow High

A CB

A CB

Level of Conflict

Group'sInternalCharacteristics

Type of Conflict

Low or none Optimal High

Dysfunctional Functional Dysfunctional

ApatheticStagnantUnresponsive to ChangeLack of New Ideas

ViableSelf-CriticalInnovative

DisruptiveChaoticUncooperative

Level of GroupPerformance

Low High Low

Exhibit 10-5


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Categories of Conflict

Functional conflicts

Dysfunctional conflicts

Types of ConflictTask conflict: content and goals of the

work

Relationship conflict: interpersonalrelationships

Process conflict: how the work getsdone



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Techniques to Reduce Conflict:

Avoidance

Withdraw or suppress

Accommodation

One side gives in

Forcing

One imposed solution: My way or the highway

Compromise

Both sides willing to concede something: Meetinghalfway

Collaboration

Both sides actively work towards full, or better,satisfaction



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PMGT402 Week 14 Motivation

Uncooperative Cooperative

Cooperativeness

Avoiding

Forcing

Accommodating

Collaborating

Compromising

Resolving conflicts byeach party's giving up

something of value.

Resolving conflicts by

withdrawing from orsuppressing them.

Resolving conflicts bysatisfying ones ownneeds at the expense

of anothers.

Resolving conflicts byseeking an advantageous

solution for all parties.

Resolving conflicts byplacing anothers needs

and concerns aboveyour own.

Exhibit 10-6

pmgt_402_103_w13_motivation(1)

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