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Review for Midterm II

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The pre-birth phase of a star

is called …

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1. Baby star2. Pre-star3. Starillo4. Protostar5. supernova

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ProtostarsProtostars =

pre-birth state of stars:

Hydrogen to Helium fusion not yet ignited

Still enshrouded in opaque “cocoons” of dust => barely

visible in the optical, but bright

in the infrared.

Dense pockets gas in a giant molecular

cloud which ultimately form

stars, are called …

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1. Starlets2. Globules3. Open star clusters4. Star pockets5. protostars

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(Bok) Globules

~ 10 – 1000 solar masses;

Contracting to form protostars

Compact, dense pockets of gas

which may contract to form

stars.

From Mercury to Neptune, the

average density of the planets …

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1. Steadily decreases2. Steadily increases3. Remains almost constant.4. Increases throughout the terrestrial planets, then

decreases.5. Decreases throughout the terrestrial planets, then

increases.1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

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Condensation in the Early Solar SystemOnly condensed materials

could stick together to form planets

Temperature in the protostellar cloud

decreases outward.

Further out → Protostellar cloud is cooler → lighter metals

with lower melting point condensed → change of

chemical composition throughout solar system

Lighter substances condense at lower temperatures.

→ Average density of planets decreases outwards!

The Condensation Sequence

Temperature (K) Condensate Planet (Estimated Temperature of Formation; K)

1500 Metal Oxides Mercury (1400)

1300 Metallic iron and Nickel

1200 Silicates

1000 Feldspats Venus (900)

680 Troilite (FeS) Earth (600)Mars (450)

175 H2O ice Jovian pl. (175)

150 Ammonia - water ice

120 Methane – water ice

65 Argon – neon ice Pluto

Planets orbiting stars other than our sun

are scientifically called …

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1. Alien Worlds2. Extragalactic planets3. Extra-universal planets4. Extrasolar planets5. Jovian planets

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Extrasolar PlanetsAll stars have gone through basically the same

formation process as the sun.→ Many stars should have planets!

Extrasolar are very hard to image directly.

→ planets orbiting around other stars = “Extrasolar

planets”

Detection using the “wobbling” technique: Look for “wobbling”

motion of the star due to the gravitational pull of the planet on the star.

How did the Jovian planets grow?

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1. Only by random encounters with rocky clumps in the protoplanetary cloud.

2. First by random encounters with rocky clumps, then by gravitational attraction.

3. First by gravitational attraction of gas and dust, then by random encounters with rock and gas clumps.

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The Story of Planet BuildingPlanets formed from the same protostellar

material as the sun.

Rocky planet material formed from clumping together of dust grains in the protostellar cloud.

Mass of less than ~ 15 Earth masses:

Planets can not grow by gravitational collapse

Mass of more than ~ 15 Earth masses:

Planets can grow by gravitationally attracting material from the

protostellar cloud

Earthlike planetsJovian planets (gas giants)

What is differentiation?

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1. Centrifugal forces flinging heavy metals out to the outer layers of a planet, while lighter materials remain near the core.

2. The sun’s gravity pulling heavier metals towards it, while lighter ones remain at the opposite side.

3. Heavier metals sinking to the cores of planets, while the lighter ones remain in the crust.

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The Growth of Protoplanets

As rocks melted, heavier elements sink to the

center → differentiation

→ Terrestrial planets have heavy-metal (iron) cores

and mantles of lighter substances

Near the Earth’s center, we find …

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1. A core of solid iron.2. A core of liquid iron.3. A core of liquid silicon-based rocks.4. A core of solid silicon-based rocks.5. A core of pure gold.

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Earth’s Interior (II)

Earth’s interior gets hotter towards the center.

Earth’s core is as hot as the sun’s surface;

metals are liquid near the core.

Basic structure:

Solid crust (light [Si-based] materials)

Solid mantle (light elements, iron-poor)Liquid core (iron-rich)Solid inner core (iron-rich)

Seismic waves are bent or bounce off transitions

between different materials or different

densities or temperatures.

Earth’s InteriorDirect exploration of Earth’s interior (e.g.

drilling) is impossible.

Earth’s interior can be explored through

seismology:

Earth quakes produce

seismic waves.

Earth quakes, tsunamis, and volcanic activity on Earth occur predominantly near …

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1. large oceans.2. the core of the Earth.3. the centers of large continents.4. the boundaries of tectonic plates.5. the top of the atmosphere.

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Geological activity around the Pacific

Volcanism: Mt. St. Helen

Earthquakes: Kobe (Japan)

Volcanism: Pinatubo (Philippines)

Earthquakes: San Francisco

Volcanoes related to subduction

zones are found …

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1. Only on Earth.2. Only on Mars.3. Only on Venus.4. Only on Mercury.5. On all terrestrial planets.

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Shield Volcanoes

Found above hot spots:

Fluid magma chamber, from

which lava erupts repeatedly through

surface layers above.

All volcanoes on Venus and Mars are shield volcanoes

Volcanism on Earth (II)

The Alps have been formed by the collision between …

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1. The North American and the South American Plate2. The Pacific Plate and the Eurasian Plate3. The Eurasian and the North American Plate4. The Afrian and the Eurasian Plate5. The Afrian and the Indian-Australian Plate.

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Earth’s Tectonic History

History of Geological Activity

Surface formations visible today have emerged only very recently compared to the age of Earth.

X-rays from space interact with the

atmosphere primerily through …

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1. The dissociation of ozone molecules.2. Inducing rotations of air molecules in the troposphere.3. Inducing vibrations of air molecules in the troposphere.4. Ionizing atoms and molecules in the Exosphere and

Thermosphere.5. Not at all: X-rays traverse the atmosphere nearly

unabsorbed.

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The Electromagnetic Spectrum

Need satellites to observe

Wavelength

Frequency

High flying air planes or satellites

The Temperature Structure of Earth’s Atmosphere

Exosphere: Heated by UV and X-rays from space

Thermosphere: Heated by X-rays from space

Stratosphere: Heated by UV radiation from space

Troposphere: Heated by greenhouse effect

Ozone Layer

Atmosphere gets colder at larger distance from heat sources.

Top of Ozone Layer

Temperature

Altit

ude

The most essential step in the greenhouse

effect is …

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1. The dissociation of ozone molecules by ultraviolet light.2. The ionization of air molecules by X-rays.3. The heating of air molecules by gamma-rays.4. The absorption of infrared light by complex molecules in

the stratosphere.5. The absorption of optical light by complex molecules in the

stratosphere.

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The Interactions between Light and Molecules

Carbon dioxide (CO2) /

Water vapor (H2O) /

any other asymmetric molecules (greenhouse gases)

Infrared

Causes asymmetric molecules to rotate

This is the essential step of the Greenhouse

Effect!

Which of the following is a

greenhouse gas?

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1. Hydrogen (H2)2. Oxygen (O2)3. Nitrogen (N2)4. Ammonia (NH3)5. All of the above.

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Gases consisting of compounds of two or more different types of atoms:

• CO2 (carbon dioxide)

• H2O (water vapor)

• CH4 (methane)

• NH3 (Ammonia)

Greenhouse Gases

Most common gases in Earth’s atmosphere (N2, O2) do not contribute to the greenhouse effect.