Plato

For other uses, see Plato (disambiguation) and Platon(disambiguation).

Plato (/ˈpleɪtoʊ/;[1] Greek: Πλάτων Plátōn pronounced[plá.tɔːn] in Classical Attic; 428/427 or 424/423 –348/347 BC) was a philosopher and mathematician inClassical Greece, and the founder of the Academy inAthens, the first institution of higher learning in theWestern world. He is widely considered the most pivotalfigure in the development of philosophy, especially theWestern tradition.[2] Unlike nearly all of his philosophicalcontemporaries, Plato’s entire œuvre is believed to havesurvived intact for over 2,400 years.[3][4]

Along with his teacher, Socrates, and his most famousstudent, Aristotle, Plato laid the very foundations ofWestern philosophy and science.[5] Alfred North White-head once noted: “the safest general characterizationof the European philosophical tradition is that it con-sists of a series of footnotes to Plato.”[6] In additionto being a foundational figure for Western science, phi-losophy, and mathematics, Plato has also often beencited as one of the founders of Western religion andspirituality,[7] particularly Christianity, which FriedrichNietzsche, amongst other scholars, called “Platonism forthe people”.[8] Plato’s influence on Christian thought isoften thought to be mediated by his major influence onSaint Augustine of Hippo, one of the most importantphilosophers and theologians in the history of Christian-ity. Plato was the innovator of the dialogue and dialecticforms in philosophy, which originate with him. Platoappears to have been the founder of Western politicalphilosophy, with his Republic, and Laws among otherdialogues, providing some of the earliest extant treat-ments of political questions from a philosophical perspec-tive. Plato’s own most decisive philosophical influencesare usually thought to have been Socrates, Parmenides,Heraclitus and Pythagoras, although few of his predeces-sors’ works remain extant and much of what we knowabout these figures today derives from Plato himself.[9]

The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy describes Platoas "...one of the most dazzling writers in the Western lit-erary tradition and one of the most penetrating, wide-ranging, and influential authors in the history of philoso-phy. ... He was not the first thinker or writer to whom theword “philosopher” should be applied. But he was so self-conscious about how philosophy should be conceived, andwhat its scope and ambitions properly are, and he so trans-formed the intellectual currents with which he grappled,that the subject of philosophy, as it is often conceived—a

rigorous and systematic examination of ethical, political,metaphysical, and epistemological issues, armed with adistinctive method—can be called his invention. Fewother authors in the history of Western philosophy ap-proximate him in depth and range: perhaps only Aristotle(who studied with him), Aquinas and Kant would be gen-erally agreed to be of the same rank.”[10]

1 Biography

1.1 Early life

Main article: Early life of Plato

Little can be known about Plato’s early life and educa-tion, due to a lack of surviving accounts. The philosophercame from one of the wealthiest and most politically ac-tive families in Athens. Ancient sources describe him asa bright though modest boy who excelled in his studies.His father contributed all which was necessary to give tohis son a good education, and, therefore, Plato must havebeen instructed in grammar, music, gymnastics and phi-losophy by some of the most distinguished teachers of hisera.

1.1.1 Birth and family

The exact time and place of Plato’s birth are not known,but it is certain that he belonged to an aristocratic and in-fluential family. Based on ancient sources, most modernscholars believe that he was born in Athens or Aegina[c]between 429 and 423 BCE.[a] His father was Ariston.According to a disputed tradition, reported by DiogenesLaertius, Ariston traced his descent from the king ofAthens, Codrus, and the king ofMessenia, Melanthus.[11]Plato’s mother was Perictione, whose family boasted ofa relationship with the famous Athenian lawmaker andlyric poet Solon.[12] Perictione was sister of Charmidesand niece of Critias, both prominent figures of the ThirtyTyrants, the brief oligarchic regime, which followed onthe collapse of Athens at the end of the PeloponnesianWar (404–403 BCE).[13] Besides Plato himself, Aristonand Perictione had three other children; these were twosons, Adeimantus and Glaucon, and a daughter Potone,the mother of Speusippus (the nephew and successorof Plato as head of his philosophical Academy).[13] Thebrothers Adeimantus and Glaucon are mentioned in the

1

2 1 BIOGRAPHY

Republic as sons of Ariston,[14] and presumably broth-ers of Plato, but some have argued they were uncles.[15]But in a scenario in the Memorabilia, Xenophon con-fused the issue by presenting a Glaucon much youngerthan Plato.[16]

The traditional date of Plato’s birth (428/427) is basedon a dubious interpretation of Diogenes Laertius, whosays, “When [Socrates] was gone, [Plato] joined Cratylusthe Heracleitean and Hermogenes, who philosophized inthe manner of Parmenides. Then, at twenty-eight, Her-modorus says, [Plato] went to Euclides in Megara.” AsDebra Nails argues, “The text itself gives no reason toinfer that Plato left immediately for Megara and impliesthe very opposite.”[17] In his Seventh Letter, Plato notesthat his coming of age coincided with the taking of powerby the Thirty, remarking, “But a youth under the age oftwenty made himself a laughingstock if he attempted toenter the political arena.” Thus, Nails dates Plato’s birthto 424/423.[18]

According to some accounts, Ariston tried to force his at-tentions on Perictione, but failed in his purpose; then thegod Apollo appeared to him in a vision, and as a result,Ariston left Perictione unmolested.[19] Another legend re-lated that, when Plato was an infant, bees settled on hislips while he was sleeping: an augury of the sweetness ofstyle in which he would discourse about philosophy.[20]

Ariston appears to have died in Plato’s childhood, al-though the precise dating of his death is difficult.[21] Per-ictione thenmarried Pyrilampes, hermother’s brother,[22]who had served many times as an ambassador to thePersian court and was a friend of Pericles, the leader ofthe democratic faction in Athens.[23] Pyrilampes had ason from a previous marriage, Demus, who was famousfor his beauty.[24] Perictione gave birth to Pyrilampes’second son, Antiphon, the half-brother of Plato, who ap-pears in Parmenides.[25]

In contrast to reticence about himself, Plato often in-troduced his distinguished relatives into his dialogues,or referred to them with some precision: Charmideshas a dialogue named after him; Critias speaks in bothCharmides and Protagoras; and Adeimantus and Glaucontake prominent parts in the Republic.[26] These and otherreferences suggest a considerable amount of family prideand enable us to reconstruct Plato’s family tree. Accord-ing to Burnet, “the opening scene of the Charmides is aglorification of the whole [family] connection ... Plato’sdialogues are not only a memorial to Socrates, but alsothe happier days of his own family.”[27]

1.1.2 Name

According to Diogenes Laërtius, the philosopher wasnamed Aristocles (Ἀριστοκλῆς) after his grandfather. Itwas common in Athenian society for boys to be namedafter grandfathers (or fathers). But there is only one in-scriptional record of an Aristocles, an early Archon of

Athens in 605/4 BCE. There is no record of a line fromAristocles to Plato’s father, Ariston. However, if Platowas not named after an ancestor named Plato (there is norecord of one), then the origin of his renaming as Platobecomes a conundrum.The sources of Diogenes account for this fact by claim-ing that his wrestling coach, Ariston of Argos, dubbedhim Platon, meaning “broad,” on account of his ro-bust figure[28] or that Plato derived his name from thebreadth (πλατύτης, platytēs) of his eloquence, or elsebecause he was very wide (πλατύς, platýs) across theforehead.[29] Recently a scholar has argued that even thename Aristocles for Plato was a much later invention.[30]Although Platonwas a fairly common name (31 instancesare known from Athens alone[31]), the name does not oc-cur in Plato’s known family line. The fact that the philoso-pher in his maturity called himself Platon is indisputable,but the origin of this naming must remain moot unlessthe record is made to yield more information.

1.1.3 Education

Apuleius informs us that Speusippus praised Plato’squickness of mind and modesty as a boy, and the “firstfruits of his youth infused with hard work and love ofstudy”.[32] Plato must have been instructed in grammar,music, and gymnastics by the most distinguished teach-ers of his time.[33] Dicaearchus went so far as to say thatPlato wrestled at the Isthmian games.[34] Plato had alsoattended courses of philosophy; before meeting Socrates,he first became acquainted with Cratylus (a disciple ofHeraclitus, a prominent pre-Socratic Greek philosopher)and the Heraclitean doctrines.[35] W. A. Borody arguesthat an Athenian openness towards a wider range of sex-uality may have contributed to the Athenian philoso-phers’ openness towards a wider range of thought, acultural situation Borody describes as “polymorphouslydiscursive.”[36]

1.2 Plato and Pythagoras

Although Socrates influenced Plato directly as related inthe dialogues, the influence of Pythagoras upon Plato alsoappears to have significant discussion in the philosoph-ical literature. Pythagoras, or in a broader sense, thePythagoreans, allegedly exercised an important influenceon the work of Plato. According to R.M. Hare, this influ-ence consists of three points: (1) The platonic Republicmight be related to the idea of “a tightly organized com-munity of like-minded thinkers”, like the one establishedby Pythagoras in Croton. (2) There is evidence that Platopossibly took from Pythagoras the idea that mathematicsand, generally speaking, abstract thinking is a secure ba-sis for philosophical thinking as well as “for substantialtheses in science and morals". (3) Plato and Pythagorasshared a “mystical approach to the soul and its place in the

1.4 Later life 3

Pythagoras, depicted as a medieval scholar in the NurembergChronicle

material world”. It is probable that both were influencedby Orphism.[37][38]

Aristotle claimed that the philosophy of Plato closelyfollowed the teachings of the Pythagoreans,[39] andCicero repeats this claim: Platonem ferunt didicissePythagorea omnia (“They say Plato learned all thingsPythagorean”).[40] Bertrand Russell, in his A Historyof Western Philosophy, contended that the influence ofPythagoras on Plato and others was so great that heshould be considered the most influential of all Westernphilosophers.[38]

1.3 Plato and Socrates

Main article: Socratic problemThe precise relationship between Plato and Socrates re-mains an area of contention among scholars. Plato makesit clear in his Apology of Socrates, that he was a devotedyoung follower of Socrates. In that dialogue, Socrates ispresented as mentioning Plato by name as one of thoseyouths close enough to him to have been corrupted, if hewere in fact guilty of corrupting the youth, and question-ing why their fathers and brothers did not step forwardto testify against him if he was indeed guilty of such acrime (33d-34a). Later, Plato is mentioned along withCrito, Critobolus, and Apollodorus as offering to pay afine of 30 minas on Socrates’ behalf, in lieu of the deathpenalty proposed by Meletus (38b). In the Phaedo, thetitle character lists those who were in attendance at theprison on Socrates’ last day, explaining Plato’s absenceby saying, “Plato was ill.” (Phaedo 59b)Plato never speaks in his own voice in his dialogues. Inthe Second Letter, it says, “no writing of Plato exists orever will exist, but those now said to be his are those of aSocrates become beautiful and new” (341c); if the Letteris Plato’s, the final qualification seems to call into question

Plato and Socrates in a medieval depiction

the dialogues’ historical fidelity. In any case, Xenophonand Aristophanes seem to present a somewhat differentportrait of Socrates from the one Plato paints. Some havecalled attention to the problem of taking Plato’s Socratesto be his mouthpiece, given Socrates’ reputation for ironyand the dramatic nature of the dialogue form.[41]

Aristotle attributes a different doctrine with respect tothe Ideas to Plato and Socrates (Metaphysics 987b1–11).Putting it in a nutshell, Aristotle merely suggests thatSocrates’ idea of forms can be discovered through investi-gation of the natural world, unlike Plato’s Forms that existbeyond and outside the ordinary range of human under-standing.

1.4 Later life

Plato may have traveled in Italy, Sicily, Egypt andCyrene, Libya.[42] Said to have returned to Athens at theage of forty, Plato founded one of the earliest knownorganized schools in Western Civilization on a plot ofland in the Grove of Hecademus or Academus.[43] TheAcademy was a large enclosure of ground about six stadiaoutside of Athens proper. One story is that the name ofthe Academy comes from the ancient hero, Academus.Another story is that the name came from a supposed aformer owner, a citizen of Athens also named Academus.Yet another account is that it was named after a memberof the army of Castor and Pollux, an Arcadian namedEchedemus.[44] The Academy operated until it was de-

4 2 PHILOSOPHY

stroyed by Lucius Cornelius Sulla in 84 BCE. Neopla-tonists revived the Academy in the early 5th century, andit operated until AD 529, when it was closed by JustinianI of Byzantium, who saw it as a threat to the propagationof Christianity. Many intellectuals were schooled in theAcademy, the most prominent one being Aristotle.[45][46]

Throughout his later life, Plato became entangledwith thepolitics of the city of Syracuse. According to DiogenesLaertius, Plato initially visited Syracuse while it was un-der the rule of Dionysius.[47] During this first trip Diony-sius’s brother-in-law, Dion of Syracuse, became one ofPlato’s disciples, but the tyrant himself turned againstPlato. Plato almost faced death, but he was sold intoslavery. Then Anniceris[48] bought Plato’s freedom fortwenty minas,[49] and sent him home. After Dionysius’sdeath, according to Plato’s Seventh Letter, Dion requestedPlato return to Syracuse to tutor Dionysius II and guidehim to become a philosopher king. Dionysius II seemedto accept Plato’s teachings, but he became suspicious ofDion, his uncle. Dionysius expelled Dion and kept Platoagainst his will. Eventually Plato left Syracuse. Dionwould return to overthrow Dionysius and ruled Syracusefor a short time before being usurped by Calippus, a fel-low disciple of Plato.

1.5 Death

A variety of sources have given accounts of Plato’s death.One story, based on a mutilated manuscript,[50] suggestsPlato died in his bed, whilst a young Thracian girl playedthe flute to him.[51] Another tradition suggests Plato diedat a wedding feast. The account is based on DiogenesLaertius’s reference to an account by Hermippus, a third-century Alexandrian.[52] According to Tertullian, Platosimply died in his sleep.[52]

2 Philosophy

2.1 Recurrent themes

Plato often discusses the father-son relationship and thequestion of whether a father’s interest in his sons hasmuch to do with how well his sons turn out. In ancientAthens, a boy was socially located by his family identity,and Plato often refers to his characters in terms of theirpaternal and fraternal relationships. Socrates was not afamily man, and saw himself as the son of his mother,who was apparently a midwife. A divine fatalist, Socratesmocks men who spent exorbitant fees on tutors and train-ers for their sons, and repeatedly ventures the idea thatgood character is a gift from the gods. Crito remindsSocrates that orphans are at the mercy of chance, butSocrates is unconcerned. In the Theaetetus, he is foundrecruiting as a disciple a young man whose inheritancehas been squandered. Socrates twice compares the rela-

Plato (left) and Aristotle (right), a detail of The School ofAthens, a fresco by Raphael. Aristotle gestures to the earth, rep-resenting his belief in knowledge through empirical observationand experience, while holding a copy of hisNicomachean Ethicsin his hand. Plato holds his Timaeus and gestures to the heavens,representing his belief in The Forms

tionship of the older man and his boy lover to the father-son relationship (Lysis 213a, Republic 3.403b), and in thePhaedo, Socrates’ disciples, towards whom he displaysmore concern than his biological sons, say they will feel“fatherless” when he is gone.In several of Plato’s dialogues, Socrates promulgates theidea that knowledge is a matter of recollection, and not oflearning, observation, or study.[53] Hemaintains this viewsomewhat at his own expense, because in many dialogues,Socrates complains of his forgetfulness. Socrates is oftenfound arguing that knowledge is not empirical, and thatit comes from divine insight. In many middle period dia-logues, such as the Phaedo, Republic and Phaedrus Platoadvocates a belief in the immortality of the soul, andseveral dialogues end with long speeches imagining theafterlife. More than one dialogue contrasts knowledgeand opinion, perception and reality, nature and custom,and body and soul.Several dialogues tackle questions about art: Socratessays that poetry is inspired by the muses, and is not ratio-nal. He speaks approvingly of this, and other forms of di-vine madness (drunkenness, eroticism, and dreaming) inthe Phaedrus (265a–c), and yet in the Republic wants tooutlaw Homer’s great poetry, and laughter as well. In Ion,Socrates gives no hint of the disapproval of Homer thathe expresses in the Republic. The dialogue Ion suggests

2.3 Theory of Forms 5

that Homer's Iliad functioned in the ancient Greek worldas the Bible does today in the modern Christian world: asdivinely inspired literature that can provide moral guid-ance, if only it can be properly interpreted.Socrates and his company of disputants had somethingto say on many subjects, including politics and art, reli-gion and science, justice and medicine, virtue and vice,crime and punishment, pleasure and pain, rhetoric andrhapsody, human nature and sexuality, as well as love andwisdom.

2.2 Metaphysics

Main article: Platonic realism

“Platonism” is a term coined by scholars to refer to theintellectual consequences of denying, as Plato’s Socratesoften does, the reality of the material world. In severaldialogues, most notably the Republic, Socrates inverts thecommonman’s intuition about what is knowable and whatis real. While most people take the objects of their sensesto be real if anything is, Socrates is contemptuous of peo-ple who think that something has to be graspable in thehands to be real. In the Theaetetus, he says such peopleare eu amousoi (εὖ ἄμουσοι), an expression that meansliterally, “happily without the muses” (Theaetetus 156a).In other words, such people live without the divine in-spiration that gives him, and people like him, access tohigher insights about reality.Socrates’s idea that reality is unavailable to those who usetheir senses is what puts him at odds with the commonman, and with common sense. Socrates says that he whosees with his eyes is blind, and this idea is most famouslycaptured in his allegory of the cave, and more explicitlyin his description of the divided line. The allegory ofthe cave (begins Republic 7.514a) is a paradoxical anal-ogy wherein Socrates argues that the invisible world isthe most intelligible (“noeton”) and that the visible world("(h)oraton”) is the least knowable, and the most obscure.Socrates says in the Republic that people who take thesun-lit world of the senses to be good and real are livingpitifully in a den of evil and ignorance. Socrates admitsthat few climb out of the den, or cave of ignorance, andthose who do, not only have a terrible struggle to attainthe heights, but when they go back down for a visit orto help other people up, they find themselves objects ofscorn and ridicule.According to Socrates, physical objects and physicalevents are “shadows” of their ideal or perfect forms, andexist only to the extent that they instantiate the perfectversions of themselves. Just as shadows are temporary,inconsequential epiphenomena produced by physical ob-jects, physical objects are themselves fleeting phenomenacaused by more substantial causes, the ideals of whichthey are mere instances. For example, Socrates thinks

that perfect justice exists (although it is not clear where)and his own trial would be a cheap copy of it.The allegory of the cave (often said by scholars to rep-resent Plato’s own epistemology and metaphysics) is inti-mately connected to his political ideology (often said toalso be Plato’s own), that only people who have climbedout of the cave and cast their eyes on a vision of goodnessare fit to rule. Socrates claims that the enlightened menof society must be forced from their divine contempla-tions and be compelled to run the city according to theirlofty insights. Thus is born the idea of the "philosopher-king", the wise person who accepts the power thrust uponhim by the people who are wise enough to choose a goodmaster. This is the main thesis of Socrates in the Repub-lic, that the most wisdom the masses can muster is thewise choice of a ruler.

2.3 Theory of Forms

Main article: Theory of Forms

The theory of Forms (or theory of Ideas) typically refersto the belief that the material world as it seems to us isnot the real world, but only an “image” or “copy” of thereal world. In some of Plato’s dialogues, this is expressedby Socrates, who spoke of forms in formulating a solu-tion to the problem of universals. The forms, accordingto Socrates, are archetypes or abstract representations ofthe many types of things, and properties we feel and seearound us, that can only be perceived by reason (Greek:λογική). (That is, they are universals.) In other words,Socrates was able to recognize two worlds: the apparentworld, which constantly changes, and an unchanging andunseen world of forms, which may be the cause of whatis apparent.

2.4 Epistemology

Main article: Platonic epistemology

Many have interpreted Plato as stating—even havingbeen the first to write—that knowledge is justified truebelief, an influential view that informed future develop-ments in epistemology.[54] This interpretation is partlybased on a reading of the Theaetetuswherein Plato arguesthat knowledge is distinguished from mere true belief bythe knower having an “account” of the object of her orhis true belief (Theaetetus 201c–d). And this theory mayagain be seen in theMeno, where it is suggested that truebelief can be raised to the level of knowledge if it is boundwith an account as to the question of “why” the objectof the true belief is so (Meno 97d–98a).[55] Many yearslater, Edmund Gettier famously demonstrated the prob-lems of the justified true belief account of knowledge.That the modern theory of justified true belief as knowl-

6 2 PHILOSOPHY

edge which Gettier addresses is equivalent to Plato’s is ac-cepted by some scholars but rejected by others.[56] Platohimself also identified problems with the justified true be-lief definition in the Theaetetus, concluding that justifi-cation (or an “account”) would require knowledge of dif-ferentness, meaning that the definition of knowledge iscircular (Theaetetus 210a–b).[57]

Later in theMeno, Socrates uses a geometrical example toexpound Plato’s view that knowledge in this latter senseis acquired by recollection. Socrates elicits a fact con-cerning a geometrical construction from a slave boy, whocould not have otherwise known the fact (due to the slaveboy’s lack of education). The knowledge must be present,Socrates concludes, in an eternal, non-experiential form.In other dialogues, the Sophist, Statesman, Republic, andthe Parmenides, Plato himself associates knowledge withthe apprehension of unchanging Forms and their rela-tionships to one another (which he calls “expertise” inDialectic), including through the processes of collectionand division.[58] More explicitly, Plato himself argues inthe Timaeus that knowledge is always proportionate to therealm from which it is gained. In other words, if one de-rives one’s account of something experientially, becausethe world of sense is in flux, the views therein attainedwill be mere opinions. And opinions are characterizedby a lack of necessity and stability. On the other hand,if one derives one’s account of something by way of thenon-sensible forms, because these forms are unchanging,so too is the account derived from them. That apprehen-sion of forms is required for knowledge may be taken tocohere with Plato’s theory in the Theaetetus andMeno.[59]Indeed, the apprehension of Forms may be at the base ofthe “account” required for justification, in that it offersfoundational knowledge which itself needs no account,thereby avoiding an infinite regression.[60]

2.5 The state

Main article: The Republic (Plato)Plato’s philosophical views had many societal implica-tions, especially on the idea of an ideal state or govern-ment. There is some discrepancy between his early andlater views. Some of the most famous doctrines are con-tained in the Republic during his middle period, as wellas in the Laws and the Statesman. However, becausePlato wrote dialogues, it is assumed that Socrates is oftenspeaking for Plato. This assumption may not be true inall cases.Plato, through the words of Socrates, asserts that soci-eties have a tripartite class structure corresponding tothe appetite/spirit/reason structure of the individual soul.The appetite/spirit/reason are analogous to the castes ofsociety.[61]

• Productive (Workers) — the labourers, carpenters,plumbers, masons, merchants, farmers, ranchers,

Papirus Oxyrhynchus, with fragment of Plato’s Republic

etc. These correspond to the “appetite” part of thesoul.

• Protective (Warriors or Guardians) — those who areadventurous, strong and brave; in the armed forces.These correspond to the “spirit” part of the soul.

• Governing (Rulers or Philosopher Kings) — thosewho are intelligent, rational, self-controlled, in lovewith wisdom, well suited to make decisions for thecommunity. These correspond to the “reason” partof the soul and are very few.

In the Timaeus, Plato locates the parts of the soul withinthe human body: Reason is located in the head, spirit inthe top third of the torso, and the appetite in the middlethird of the torso, down to the navel.[62][63]

According to this model, the principles of Atheniandemocracy (as it existed in his day) are rejected as onlya few are fit to rule. Instead of rhetoric and persuasion,Plato says reason and wisdom should govern. As Platoputs it:

“Until philosophers rule as kings or those whoare now called kings and leadingmen genuinelyand adequately philosophise, that is, until po-litical power and philosophy entirely coincide,while the many natures who at present pursueeither one exclusively are forcibly preventedfrom doing so, cities will have no rest fromevils,... nor, I think, will the human race.” (Re-public 473c-d)

Plato describes these “philosopher kings” as “those wholove the sight of truth” (Republic 475c) and supports theidea with the analogy of a captain and his ship or a doctor

2.6 Unwritten doctrines 7

Plato in his academy, drawing after a painting by Swedish painterCarl Johan Wahlbom

and his medicine. According to him, sailing and healthare not things that everyone is qualified to practice by na-ture. A large part of the Republic then addresses howthe educational system should be set up to produce thesephilosopher kings.However, it must be taken into account that the idealcity outlined in the Republic is qualified by Socrates asthe ideal luxurious city, examined to determine how itis that injustice and justice grow in a city (Republic372e). According to Socrates, the “true” and “healthy”city is instead the one first outlined in book II of the Re-public, 369c–372d, containing farmers, craftsmen, mer-chants, and wage-earners, but lacking the guardian classof philosopher-kings as well as delicacies such as “per-fumed oils, incense, prostitutes, and pastries”, in additionto paintings, gold, ivory, couches, a multitude of occupa-tions such as poets and hunters, and war.In addition, the ideal city is used as an image to illumi-nate the state of one’s soul, or the will, reason, and desirescombined in the human body. Socrates is attempting tomake an image of a rightly ordered human, and then latergoes on to describe the different kinds of humans that canbe observed, from tyrants to lovers of money in variouskinds of cities. The ideal city is not promoted, but onlyused to magnify the different kinds of individual humansand the state of their soul. However, the philosopher kingimage was used by many after Plato to justify their per-sonal political beliefs. The philosophic soul accordingto Socrates has reason, will, and desires united in vir-tuous harmony. A philosopher has the moderate lovefor wisdom and the courage to act according to wisdom.Wisdom is knowledge about the Good or the right rela-tions between all that exists.Wherein it concerns states and rulers, Plato has madeinteresting arguments. For instance he asks which isbetter—a bad democracy or a country reigned by a tyrant.He argues that it is better to be ruled by a bad tyrant, thanbe a bad democracy (since here all the people are now

responsible for such actions, rather than one individualcommitting many bad deeds.) This is emphasised withinthe Republic as Plato describes the event of mutiny onboard a ship.[64] Plato suggests the ship’s crew to be inline with the democratic rule of many and the captain,although inhibited through ailments, the tyrant. Plato’sdescription of this event is parallel to that of democracywithin the state and the inherent problems that arise.According to Plato, a state made up of different kinds ofsouls will, overall, decline from an aristocracy (rule bythe best) to a timocracy (rule by the honorable), then toan oligarchy (rule by the few), then to a democracy (ruleby the people), and finally to tyranny (rule by one person,rule by a tyrant).[65] Aristocracy is the form of govern-ment (politeia) advocated in Plato’sRepublic. This regimeis ruled by a philosopher king, and thus is grounded onwisdom and reason. The aristocratic state, and the manwhose nature corresponds to it, are the objects of Plato’sanalyses throughout much of the Republic, as opposed tothe other four types of states/men, who are discussed laterin his work. In Book VIII, Plato states in order the otherfour imperfect societies with a description of the state’sstructure and individual character. In timocracy the rul-ing class is made up primarily of those with a warrior-likecharacter.[66] In his description, Plato has Sparta in mind.Oligarchy is made up of a society in which wealth is thecriterion of merit and the wealthy are in control.[67] Indemocracy, the state bears resemblance to ancient Athenswith traits such as equality of political opportunity andfreedom for the individual to do as he likes.[68] Democ-racy then degenerates into tyranny from the conflict ofrich and poor. It is characterized by an undisciplined so-ciety existing in chaos, where the tyrant rises as popularchampion leading to the formation of his private armyand the growth of oppression.[69][65][70]

2.6 Unwritten doctrines

For a long time, Plato’s unwritten doctrine[71][72][73] hadbeen controversial. Manymodern books on Plato seem todiminish its importance; nevertheless, the first importantwitness whomentions its existence is Aristotle, who in hisPhysics (209 b) writes: “It is true, indeed, that the accounthe gives there [i.e. in Timaeus] of the participant is dif-ferent from what he says in his so-called unwritten teach-ings (ἄγραφα δόγματα).” The term "ἄγραφα δόγματα"literally means unwritten doctrines and it stands for themost fundamental metaphysical teaching of Plato, whichhe disclosed only orally, and some say only to his mosttrusted fellows, and which he may have kept secret fromthe public. The importance of the unwritten doctrinesdoes not seem to have been seriously questioned beforethe 19th century.A reason for not revealing it to everyone is partially dis-cussed inPhaedrus (276 c) where Plato criticizes the writ-ten transmission of knowledge as faulty, favoring insteadthe spoken logos: “he who has knowledge of the just

8 3 THE DIALOGUES

and the good and beautiful ... will not, when in earnest,write them in ink, sowing them through a pen with words,which cannot defend themselves by argument and can-not teach the truth effectually.” The same argument isrepeated in Plato’s Seventh Letter (344 c): “every seri-ous man in dealing with really serious subjects carefullyavoids writing.” In the same letter he writes (341 c): “Ican certainly declare concerning all these writers whoclaim to know the subjects that I seriously study ... theredoes not exist, nor will there ever exist, any treatise ofmine dealing therewith.” Such secrecy is necessary in or-der not “to expose them to unseemly and degrading treat-ment” (344 d).It is, however, said that Plato once disclosed this knowl-edge to the public in his lecture On the Good (Περὶτἀγαθοῦ), in which the Good (τὸ ἀγαθόν) is identifiedwith the One (the Unity, τὸ ἕν), the fundamental onto-logical principle. The content of this lecture has beentransmitted by several witnesses. Aristoxenus describesthe event in the following words: “Each came expectingto learn something about the things that are generally con-sidered good for men, such as wealth, good health, phys-ical strength, and altogether a kind of wonderful happi-ness. But when the mathematical demonstrations came,including numbers, geometrical figures and astronomy,and finally the statement Good is One seemed to them, Iimagine, utterly unexpected and strange; hence some be-littled the matter, while others rejected it.”[74] Simpliciusquotes Alexander of Aphrodisias, who states that “ac-cording to Plato, the first principles of everything, includ-ing the Forms themselves are One and Indefinite Dual-ity (ἡ ἀόριστος δυάς), which he called Large and Small(τὸ μέγα καὶ τὸ μικρόν)", and Simplicius reports aswell that “one might also learn this from Speusippus andXenocrates and the others whowere present at Plato’s lec-ture on the Good”.[30]

Their account is in full agreement with Aristotle’s de-scription of Plato’s metaphysical doctrine. InMetaphysicshe writes: “Now since the Forms are the causes of every-thing else, he [i.e. Plato] supposed that their elementsare the elements of all things. Accordingly the materialprinciple is the Great and Small [i.e. the Dyad], and theessence is the One (τὸ ἕν), since the numbers are derivedfrom the Great and Small by participation in the One”(987 b). “From this account it is clear that he only em-ployed two causes: that of the essence, and the materialcause; for the Forms are the cause of the essence in ev-erything else, and the One is the cause of it in the Forms.He also tells us what the material substrate is of which theForms are predicated in the case of sensible things, andthe One in that of the Forms - that it is this the duality(the Dyad, ἡ δυάς), the Great and Small (τὸ μέγα καὶτὸ μικρόν). Further, he assigned to these two elementsrespectively the causation of good and of evil” (988 a).Themost important aspect of this interpretation of Plato’smetaphysics is the continuity between his teaching andthe neoplatonic interpretation of Plotinus[75] or Ficino[76]

which has been considered erroneous by many but mayin fact have been directly influenced by oral transmissionof Plato’s doctrine. A modern scholar who recognizedthe importance of the unwritten doctrine of Plato wasHeinrich Gomperz who described it in his speech duringthe 7th International Congress of Philosophy in 1930.[77]All the sources related to the ἄγραφα δόγματα havebeen collected by Konrad Gaiser and published as Tes-timonia Platonica.[78] These sources have subsequentlybeen interpreted by scholars from the German TübingenSchool of interpretation such as Hans Joachim Krämer orThomas A. Szlezák.[79]

2.7 Dialectic

The role of dialectic in Plato’s thought is contested butthere are two main interpretations: a type of reasoningand amethod of intuition.[80] SimonBlackburn adopts thefirst, saying that Plato’s dialectic is “the process of elicit-ing the truth by means of questions aimed at opening outwhat is already implicitly known, or at exposing the con-tradictions and muddles of an opponent’s position.”[80] Asimilar interpretation has been put forth by Louis Hartz,who suggests that elements of the dialectic are borrowedfrom Hegel.[81] According to this view, opposing argu-ments improve upon each other, and prevailing opinionis shaped by the synthesis of many conflicting ideas overtime. Each new idea exposes a flaw in the acceptedmodel, and the epistemological substance of the debatecontinually approaches the truth. Hartz’s is a teleologi-cal interpretation at the core, in which philosophers willultimately exhaust the available body of knowledge andthus reach “the end of history.” Karl Popper, on the otherhand, claims that dialectic is the art of intuition for “vi-sualising the divine originals, the Forms or Ideas, of un-veiling the Great Mystery behind the common man’s ev-eryday world of appearances.”[82]

3 The dialogues

See also: Stephanus pagination

Thirty-five dialogues and thirteen letters (the Epistles)have traditionally been ascribed to Plato, though mod-ern scholarship doubts the authenticity of at least someof these. Plato’s writings have been published in severalfashions; this has led to several conventions regarding thenaming and referencing of Plato’s texts.The usual system formaking unique references to sectionsof the text by Plato derives from a 16th-century editionof Plato’s works by Henricus Stephanus. An overview ofPlato’s writings according to this system can be found inthe Stephanus pagination article.One tradition regarding the arrangement of Plato’s texts isaccording to tetralogies. This scheme is ascribed by Dio-

3.2 Composition of the dialogues 9

genes Laertius to an ancient scholar and court astrologerto Tiberius named Thrasyllus.The works are usually grouped into Early, (sometimes bysome into Transitional), Middle, and Late period.[83][84]This choice to group chronologically is thought worthy ofcriticism by some (Cooper et al),[85] given that it’s recog-nised that there is no absolute agreement as to the truechronologicity, since the facts of the temporal order ofwriting are not confidently ascertained.[86]

Early : Apology (of Socrates), Charmides, Crito,Euthyphro, Gorgias, (Lesser) Hippias (minor), (Greater)Hippias (major), Ion, Laches, Lysis, ProtagorasMiddle/Transitional : Cratylus, Euthydemus, Meno,Parmenides, Phaedo, Phaedrus, Republic, Symposium,Middle/Late : TheaetetusLate : Critias, Sophist, Statesman / Politicus, Timaeus ,Philebus, Laws

Chronologicity was not a consideration in ancient times,in that grouping of this nature are virtually absent (Tar-rant) in the extant writings of ancient Platonists.[87]

3.1 Writings of doubted authenticity

Jowett mentions in his Appendix to Menexenus, thatworks which bore the character of a writer were at-tributed to that writer even when the actual author wasunknown.[88]

For below:(*) if there is no consensus among scholars as to whetherPlato is the author, and (‡) if most scholars agree thatPlato is not the author of the work.[89]

First Alcibiades (*), Second Alcibiades (‡), Clitophon (*),Epinomis (‡), Epistles (*), Hipparchus (‡),Menexenus(*),Minos (‡) (Rival) Lovers (‡), Theages (‡)

3.1.1 Spurious writings

The following works were transmitted under Plato’sname, most of them already considered spurious in an-tiquity, and so were not included by Thrasyllus in histetralogical arrangement. These works are labelled asNotheuomenoi (“spurious”) or Apocrypha.

• Axiochus, Definitions, Demodocus, Epigrams,Eryxias, Halcyon, On Justice, On Virtue, Sisyphus.

3.2 Composition of the dialogues

No one knows the exact order Plato’s dialogues were writ-ten in, nor the extent to which some might have beenlater revised and rewritten. A significant distinction ofthe early Plato and the later Plato has been offered by

scholars such as E.R. Dodds and has been summarizedby Harold Bloom in his book titled Agon: “E.R. Dodds isthe classical scholar whose writings most illuminated theHellenic descent (in) The Greeks and the Irrational [...]In his chapter on Plato and the Irrational Soul [...] Doddstraces Plato’s spiritual evolution from the pure rational-ist of the Protagoras to the transcendental psychologist,influenced by the Pythagoreans and Orphics, of the laterworks culminating in the Laws.”[90]

Lewis Campbell was the first[91] to make exhaustiveuse of stylometry to prove objectively that the Critias,Timaeus, Laws, Philebus, Sophist, and Statesman wereall clustered together as a group, while the Parmenides,Phaedrus, Republic, and Theaetetus belong to a separategroup, which must be earlier (given Aristotle’s statementin his Politics[92] that the Laws was written after the Re-public; cf. Diogenes Laertius Lives 3.37). What is re-markable about Campbell’s conclusions is that, in spiteof all the stylometric studies that have been conductedsince his time, perhaps the only chronological fact aboutPlato’s works that can now be said to be proven by sty-lometry is the fact that Critias, Timaeus, Laws, Philebus,Sophist, and Statesman are the latest of Plato’s dialogues,the others earlier.[93]

Increasingly in the most recent Plato scholarship, writ-ers are skeptical of the notion that the order of Plato’swritings can be established with any precision,[94] thoughPlato’s works are still often characterized as falling at leastroughly into three groups.[95] The following representsone relatively common such division.[96] It should, how-ever, be kept in mind that many of the positions in theordering are still highly disputed, and also that the verynotion that Plato’s dialogues can or should be “ordered”is by no means universally accepted.Among those who classify the dialogues into periods ofcomposition, Socrates figures in all of the “early dia-logues” and they are considered the most faithful repre-sentations of the historical Socrates.[97] They include TheApology of Socrates, Charmides, Crito, Euthyphro, Ion,Laches, Lesser Hippias, Lysis, Menexenus, and Protago-ras (often considered one of the last of the “early dia-logues”). Three dialogues are often considered “transi-tional” or “pre-middle": Euthydemus, Gorgias, andMeno.Whereas those classified as “early dialogues” often con-clude in aporia, the so-called “middle dialogues” providemore clearly stated positive teachings that are often as-cribed to Plato such as the theory of Forms. These di-alogues include Cratylus, Phaedo, Phaedrus, Republic,Symposium, Parmenides, and Theaetetus. Proponents ofdividing the dialogues into periods often consider theParmenides and Theaetetus to come late in this periodand be transitional to the next, as they seem to treat thetheory of Forms critically (Parmenides) or only indirectly(Theaetetus).[98] Ritter’s stylometric analysis places Phae-drus as probably after Theaetetus and Parmenides,[99] al-though it does not relate to the theory of Forms in the

10 3 THE DIALOGUES

same way. The first book of the Republic is often thoughtto have been written significantly earlier than the rest ofthe work, although possibly having undergone revisionswhen the later books were attached to it.[98]

The remaining dialogues are classified as “late” and aregenerally agreed to be difficult and challenging pieces ofphilosophy. This grouping is the only one proven by sty-lometric analysis.[93]While looked to for Plato’s “mature”answers to the questions posed by his earlier works, thoseanswers are difficult to discern. Some scholars[97] indi-cate that the theory of Forms is absent from the late di-alogues, its having been refuted in the Parmenides, butthere isn't total consensus that the Parmenides actuallyrefutes the theory of Forms.[100] The so-called “late di-alogues” include Critias, Laws, Philebus, Sophist, States-man, and Timaeus.[97]

3.3 Narration of the dialogues

Plato never presents himself as a participant in any ofthe dialogues, and with the exception of the Apology,there is no suggestion that he heard any of the dia-logues firsthand. Some dialogues have no narrator buthave a pure “dramatic” form (examples: Meno, Gorgias,Phaedrus, Crito, Euthyphro), some dialogues are narratedby Socrates, wherein he speaks in first person (examples:Lysis, Charmides, Republic). One dialogue, Protagoras,begins in dramatic form but quickly proceeds to Socrates’narration of a conversation he had previously with thesophist for whom the dialogue is named; this narrationcontinues uninterrupted till the dialogue’s end.

Plato’s Symposium (Anselm Feuerbach, 1873)

Two dialogues Phaedo and Symposium also begin in dra-matic form but then proceed to virtually uninterruptednarration by followers of Socrates. Phaedo, an accountof Socrates’ final conversation and hemlock drinking, isnarrated by Phaedo to Echecrates in a foreign city notlong after the execution took place.[101] The Symposium isnarrated by Apollodorus, a Socratic disciple, apparentlyto Glaucon. Apollodorus assures his listener that he is re-counting the story, which took place when he himself wasan infant, not from his own memory, but as rememberedby Aristodemus, who told him the story years ago.The Theaetetus is a peculiar case: a dialogue in dra-matic form embedded within another dialogue in dra-matic form. In the beginning of the Theaetetus (142c-

143b), Euclides says that he compiled the conversationfrom notes he took based on what Socrates told him ofhis conversation with the title character. The rest of theTheaetetus is presented as a “book” written in dramaticform and read by one of Euclides’ slaves (143c). Somescholars take this as an indication that Plato had by thisdate wearied of the narrated form.[102] With the excep-tion of the Theaetetus, Plato gives no explicit indicationas to how these orally transmitted conversations came tobe written down.

3.4 Trial of Socrates

Main article: Trial of Socrates

The trial of Socrates is the central, unifying event of thegreat Platonic dialogues. Because of this, Plato’s Apologyis perhaps the most often read of the dialogues. In theApology, Socrates tries to dismiss rumors that he is asophist and defends himself against charges of disbelief inthe gods and corruption of the young. Socrates insists thatlong-standing slander will be the real cause of his demise,and says the legal charges are essentially false. Socratesfamously denies being wise, and explains how his life asa philosopher was launched by the Oracle at Delphi. Hesays that his quest to resolve the riddle of the oracle puthim at odds with his fellow man, and that this is the rea-son he has been mistaken for a menace to the city-stateof Athens.If Plato’s important dialogues do not refer to Socrates’execution explicitly, they allude to it, or use characters orthemes that play a part in it. Five dialogues foreshadowthe trial: In the Theaetetus (210d) and the Euthyphro (2a–b) Socrates tells people that he is about to face corruptioncharges. In the Meno (94e–95a), one of the men whobrings legal charges against Socrates, Anytus, warns himabout the trouble he may get into if he does not stop crit-icizing important people. In the Gorgias, Socrates saysthat his trial will be like a doctor prosecuted by a cookwho asks a jury of children to choose between the doc-tor’s bitter medicine and the cook’s tasty treats (521e–522a). In the Republic (7.517e), Socrates explains whyan enlightened man (presumably himself) will stumble ina courtroom situation. The Apology is Socrates’ defensespeech, and the Crito and Phaedo take place in prison af-ter the conviction. In the Protagoras, Socrates is a guestat the home of Callias, son of Hipponicus, a man whomSocrates disparages in the Apology as having wasted agreat amount of money on sophists’ fees.

3.5 Unity and diversity of the dialogues

Two other important dialogues, the Symposium and thePhaedrus, are linked to the main storyline by characters.In the Apology (19b, c), Socrates says Aristophanes slan-dered him in a comic play, and blames him for causing his

3.6 Platonic scholarship 11

bad reputation, and ultimately, his death. In the Sympo-sium, the two of them are drinking together with otherfriends. The character Phaedrus is linked to the mainstory line by character (Phaedrus is also a participant inthe Symposium and the Protagoras) and by theme (thephilosopher as divine emissary, etc.) The Protagoras isalso strongly linked to the Symposium by characters: allof the formal speakers at the Symposium (with the excep-tion of Aristophanes) are present at the home of Calliasin that dialogue. Charmides and his guardian Critias arepresent for the discussion in the Protagoras. Examplesof characters crossing between dialogues can be furthermultiplied. The Protagoras contains the largest gatheringof Socratic associates.In the dialogues Plato is most celebrated and admired for,Socrates is concerned with human and political virtue,has a distinctive personality, and friends and enemies who“travel” with him from dialogue to dialogue. This is notto say that Socrates is consistent: a man who is his friendin one dialogue may be an adversary or subject of hismockery in another. For example, Socrates praises thewisdom of Euthyphro many times in the Cratylus, butmakes him look like a fool in the Euthyphro. He dis-parages sophists generally, and Prodicus specifically inthe Apology, whom he also slyly jabs in the Cratylus forcharging the hefty fee of fifty drachmas for a course onlanguage and grammar. However, Socrates tells Theaete-tus in his namesake dialogue that he admires Prodicus andhas directed many pupils to him. Socrates’ ideas are alsonot consistent within or between or among dialogues.

3.6 Platonic scholarship

Although their popularity has fluctuated over the years,the works of Plato have never been without readers sincethe time they were written.[103] Plato’s thought is oftencompared with that of his most famous student, Aristo-tle, whose reputation during the Western Middle Agesso completely eclipsed that of Plato that the Scholasticphilosophers referred to Aristotle as “the Philosopher”.However, in the Byzantine Empire, the study of Platocontinued.The only Platonic work known to western scholarship wasTimaeus, until translations were made at a time post thefall of Constantinople, which occurred during 1453,[104]George Gemistos Plethon brought Plato’s original writ-ings from Constantinople in the century of its fall. Itis believed that Plethon passed a copy of the Dialoguesto Cosimo de' Medici when in 1438 the Council of Fer-rara, called to unify the Greek and Latin Churches, wasadjourned to Florence, where Plethon then lectured onthe relation and differences of Plato and Aristotle, andfired Cosimo with his enthusiasm;[105] Cosimo wouldsupply Marsilio Ficino with Plato’s text for translationto Latin. During the early Islamic era, Persian andArab scholars translated much of Plato into Arabic andwrote commentaries and interpretations on Plato’s, Aris-

“The safest general characterisation of the European philosoph-ical tradition is that it consists of a series of footnotes to Plato.”(Alfred North Whitehead, Process and Reality, 1929).

totle’s and other Platonist philosophers’ works (see Al-Farabi, Avicenna, Averroes, Hunayn ibn Ishaq). Manyof these comments on Plato were translated from Ara-bic into Latin and as such influenced Medieval scholasticphilosophers.[106]

During the Renaissance, with the general resurgence ofinterest in classical civilization, knowledge of Plato’s phi-losophy would become widespread again in the West.Many of the greatest early modern scientists and artistswho broke with Scholasticism and fostered the flower-ing of the Renaissance, with the support of the Plato-inspired Lorenzo (grandson of Cosimo), saw Plato’s phi-losophy as the basis for progress in the arts and sciences.His political views, too, were well-received: the visionof wise philosopher-kings of the Republic matched theviews set out in works such as Machiavelli's The Prince.More problematic was Plato’s belief in metempsychosis,transmigration of the soul, as well as his ethical views(on polyamory and euthanasia in particular), which didnot match those of Christianity. It was Plethon’s studentBessarion who reconciled Plato with Christian theology,arguing that Plato’s views were only ideals, unattainabledue to the fall of man.[107]

By the 19th century, Plato’s reputation was restored, and

12 3 THE DIALOGUES

at least on par with Aristotle’s. Notable Western philoso-phers have continued to draw upon Plato’s work sincethat time. Plato’s influence has been especially strongin mathematics and the sciences. He helped to distin-guish between pure and applied mathematics by wideningthe gap between “arithmetic”, now called number theoryand “logistic”, now called arithmetic. He regarded “lo-gistic” as appropriate for business men and men of warwho “must learn the art of numbers or he will not knowhow to array his troops,” while “arithmetic” was appro-priate for philosophers “because he has to arise out ofthe sea of change and lay hold of true being.”[108] Plato’sresurgence further inspired some of the greatest advancesin logic since Aristotle, primarily through Gottlob Fregeand his followers Kurt Gödel, Alonzo Church, and AlfredTarski. Albert Einstein suggested that the scientist whotakes philosophy seriously would have to avoid system-atization and take on many different roles, and possiblyappear as a Platonist or Pythagorean, in that such a onewould have “the viewpoint of logical simplicity as an in-dispensable and effective tool of his research.”[109]

Many recent philosophers have diverged from what somewould describe as the ontological models and moral ide-als characteristic of traditional Platonism. A number ofthese postmodern philosophers have thus appeared to dis-parage Platonism from more or less informed perspec-tives. Friedrich Nietzsche notoriously attacked Plato’s“idea of the good itself” along with many fundamentalsof Christian morality, which he interpreted as “Platon-ism for the masses” in one of his most important works,Beyond Good and Evil (1886). Martin Heidegger ar-gued against Plato’s alleged obfuscation of Being in his in-complete tome, Being and Time (1927), and the philoso-pher of science Karl Popper argued in The Open Societyand Its Enemies (1945) that Plato’s alleged proposal fora utopian political regime in the Republic was prototypi-cally totalitarian. The political philosopher and professorLeo Strauss is considered by some as the prime thinker in-volved in the recovery of Platonic thought in its more po-litical, and less metaphysical, form. Strauss’ political ap-proach was in part inspired by the appropriation of Platoand Aristotle by medieval Jewish and Islamic politicalphilosophers, especially Maimonides and Al-Farabi, asopposed to the Christian metaphysical tradition that de-veloped from Neoplatonism. Deeply influenced by Ni-etzsche and Heidegger, Strauss nonetheless rejects theircondemnation of Plato and looks to the dialogues for asolution to what all three latter day thinkers acknowledgeas 'the crisis of the West.'

3.7 Textual sources and history

See also: List of manuscripts of Plato’s dialogues

Some 250 known manuscripts of Plato survive.[110] Thetexts of Plato as received today apparently represent thecomplete written philosophical work of Plato and are

First page of the Euthyphro, from the Clarke Plato (Codex Ox-oniensis Clarkianus 39), 895 AD. The text is Greek minuscule.

generally good by the standards of textual criticism.[111]No modern edition of Plato in the original Greek repre-sents a single source, but rather it is reconstructed frommultiple sources which are compared with each other.These sources are medieval manuscripts written on vel-lum (mainly from 9th-13th century AD Byzantium), pa-pyri (mainly from late antiquity in Egypt), and from theindependent testimonia of other authors who quote vari-ous segments of the works (which come from a variety ofsources). The text as presented is usually not much differ-ent from what appears in the Byzantine manuscripts, andpapyri and testimonia just confirm the manuscript tradi-tion. In some editions however the readings in the papyrior testimonia are favoured in some places by the editingcritic of the text. Reviewing editions of papyri for theRepublic in 1987, Slings suggests that the use of papyri ishampered due to some poor editing practices.[112]

In the first century AD, Thrasyllus of Mendes had com-piled and published the works of Plato in the originalGreek, both genuine and spurious. While it has not sur-vived to the present day, all the extant medieval Greekmanuscripts are based on his edition.[113]

The oldest surviving complete manuscript for many ofthe dialogues is the Clarke Plato (Codex OxoniensisClarkianus 39, or Codex Boleianus MS E.D. Clarke 39),which was written in Constantinople in 895 and acquired

13

by Oxford University in 1809.[114] The Clarke is giventhe siglum B in modern editions. B contains the first sixtetralogies and is described internally as being written by“John the Calligrapher” on behalf of Arethas of Caesarea.It appears to have undergone corrections by Arethashimself.[115] For the last two tetralogies and the apoc-rypha, the oldest surviving complete manuscript is CodexParisinus graecus 1807, designated A, which was writ-ten nearly contemporaneously to B, circa 900 AD.[116]A must be a copy of the edition edited by the patriarch,Photios, teacher of Arethas.[117][118][119]A probably hadan initial volume containing the first 7 tetralogies whichis now lost, but of which a copywasmade, CodexVenetusappend. class. 4, 1, which has the siglum T. The oldestmanuscript for the seventh tetralogy is Codex Vindobo-nensis 54. suppl. phil. Gr. 7, with siglum W, with asupposed date in the twelfth century.[120] In total thereare fifty-one such Byzantine manuscripts known, whileothers may yet be found.[121]

To help establish the text, the older evidence of papyriand the independent evidence of the testimony of com-mentators and other authors (i.e., those who quote andrefer to an old text of Plato which is no longer extant)are also used. Many papyri which contain fragments ofPlato’s texts are among the Oxyrhynchus Papyri. The2003 Oxford Classical Texts edition by Slings even citesthe Coptic translation of a fragment of the Republic inthe Nag Hammadi library as evidence.[122] Important au-thors for testimony include Olympiodorus the Younger,Plutarch, Proclus, Iamblichus, Eusebius, and Stobaeus.During the early Renaissance, the Greek language and,along with it, Plato’s texts were reintroduced to WesternEurope by Byzantine scholars. In September or Octo-ber of 1484 Filippo Valori and Francesco Berlinghieriprinted 1025 copies of Ficino’s translation, using theprinting press at the Dominican convent S.Jacopo diRipoli.[123][124] Cosimo had been influenced towardstudying Plato by the many Byzantine Platonists in Flo-rence during his day, including George Gemistus Plethon.Henri Estienne’s edition, including parallel Greek andLatin, was published in 1578. It was this edition whichestablished Stephanus pagination, still in use today.[125]

3.8 Modern editions

The Oxford Classical Texts offers the current standardcomplete Greek text of Plato’s complete works. In fivevolumes edited by John Burnet, its first edition was pub-lished 1900-1907, and it is still available from the pub-lisher, having last been printed in 1993.[126][127] The sec-ond edition is still in progress with only the first volume,printed in 1995, and the Republic, printed in 2003, avail-able. The Cambridge Greek and Latin Texts and Cam-bridge Classical Texts and Commentaries series includesGreek editions of the Protagoras, Symposium, Phaedrus,Alcibiades, andClitophon, with English philological, liter-ary, and, to an extent, philosophical commentary.[128][129]

One distinguished edition of the Greek text is E. R.Dodds' of the Gorgias, which includes extensive Englishcommentary.[130][131]

The modern standard complete English edition is the1997 Hackett Plato, Complete Works, edited by John M.Cooper.[132][133] For many of these translations Hackettoffers separate volumes which include more by way ofcommentary, notes, and introductory material. Thereis also the Clarendon Plato Series by Oxford Univer-sity Press which offers English translations and thoroughphilosophical commentary by leading scholars on a fewof Plato’s works, including John McDowell's version ofthe Theaetetus.[134] Cornell University Press has also be-gun the Agora series of English translations of classi-cal and medieval philosophical texts, including a few ofPlato’s.[135]

4 See also• Cambridge Platonists

• List of speakers in Plato’s dialogues

• Methexis

• Plato’s tripartite theory of soul

• Platonic Academy

• Platonic love

• Platonic solid

• Platonic realism

• Proclus

• Seventh Letter

• Theia mania

• Ellen Francis Mason, translator of Plato

5 Notes

a. ^ Plato is a nickname from the adjective πλατύςplatýs “broad”. Diogenes Laertius mentions three pos-sible meanings of the nickname:[136]

ἐγυμνάσατο δὲ παρὰ Ἀρίστωνι τῷ Ἀργείῳπαλαιστῇ· ἀφ' οὗ καὶ Πλάτων διὰ τὴν εὐε-ξίαν μετωνομάσθη, πρότερον Ἀριστοκλῆςἀπὸ τοῦ πάππου καλούμενος [ὄνομα], καθάφησιν Ἀλέξανδρος ἐν Διαδοχαῖς. ἔνιοι δὲδιὰ τὴν πλατύτητα τῆς ἑρμηνείας οὕτωςὀνομασθῆναι· ἢ ὅτι πλατὺς ἦν τὸ μέτωπον,ὥς φησι Νεάνθης.“And he learnt gymnastics under Ariston, theArgive wrestler. And from him he received

14 6 FOOTNOTES

the name of Plato on account of his robust fig-ure, in place of his original name which wasAristocles, after his grandfather, as Alexan-der informs us in his Successions of Philoso-phers. But others affirm that he got the namePlato from the breadth of his style, or from thebreadth of his forehead, as suggested by Nean-thes.”

Seneca mentions the meaning of Plato’s name in connec-tion to a moral lesson:[137]

Illud simul cogitemus, si mundum ipsum, nonminus mortalem quam nos sumus, providentiapericulis eximit, posse aliquatenus nostra quo-que providentia longiorem prorogari huic cor-pusculo moram, si voluptates, quibus pars ma-ior perit, potuerimus regere et coercere. Platoipse ad senectutem se diligentia protulit. Eratquidem corpus validum ac forte sortitus et il-li nomen latitudo pectoris fecerat, sed naviga-tiones ac pericula multum detraxerant viribus;parsimonia tamen et eorum quae aviditatemevocant modus et diligens sui tutela perduxitillum ad senectutemmultis prohibentibus cau-sis.

“Let us at the same time reflect, seeing thatProvidence rescues from its perils the worlditself, which is no less mortal than we our-selves, that to some extent our petty bodiescan be made to tarry longer upon earth by ourown providence, if only we acquire the abilityto control and check those pleasures wherebythe greater portion of mankind perishes. Platohimself, by taking pains, advanced to old age.To be sure, he was the fortunate possessor ofa strong and sound body (his very name wasgiven him because of his broad chest); but hisstrength wasmuch impaired by sea voyages anddesperate adventures. Nevertheless, by frugalliving, by setting a limit upon all that rouses theappetites, and by painstaking attention to him-self, he reached that advanced age in spite ofmany hindrances.”

b. ^ The grammarian Apollodorus of Athens arguesin his Chronicles that Plato was born in the first yearof the eighty-eighth Olympiad (427 BCE), on the sev-enth day of the month Thargelion; according to thistradition the god Apollo was born this day.[138] Ac-cording to another biographer of him, Neanthes, Platowas eighty-four years of age at his death.[138] If we ac-cept Neanthes’ version, Plato was younger than Isocratesby six years, and therefore he was born in the secondyear of the 87th Olympiad, the year Pericles died (429BCE).[139] According to the Suda, Plato was born inAegina in the 88th Olympiad amid the preliminaries ofthe Peloponnesian war, and he lived 82 years.[140] Sir

Thomas Browne also believes that Plato was born in the88th Olympiad.[141] Renaissance Platonists celebratedPlato’s birth onNovember 7.[142] Ulrich vonWilamowitz-Moellendorff estimates that Plato was born when Dio-timos was archon eponymous, namely between July 29,428 BCE and July 24, 427 BCE.[143] Greek philologistIoannis Kalitsounakis believes that the philosopher wasborn on May 26 or 27, 427 BCE, while Jonathan Barnesregards 428 BCE as year of Plato’s birth.[144] For herpart, Debra Nails asserts that the philosopher was bornin 424/423 BCE.[142] According to Seneca Plato died atthe age of 81 on the same day he was born.[145]

c. ^ Diogenes Laertius mentions that Plato “was born, ac-cording to some writers, in Aegina in the house of Phidi-ades the son of Thales”. Diogenes mentions as one of hissources the Universal History of Favorinus. Accordingto Favorinus, Ariston, Plato’s family, and his family weresent by Athens to settle as cleruchs (colonists retainingtheir Athenian citizenship), on the island of Aegina, fromwhich they were expelled by the Spartans after Plato’sbirth there.[146] Nails points out, however, that there isno record of any Spartan expulsion of Athenians fromAegina between 431–411 BCE.[147] On the other hand,at the Peace of Nicias, Aegina was silently left underAthens’ control, and it was not until the summer of 411that the Spartans overran the island.[148] Therefore, Nailsconcludes that “perhaps Ariston was a cleruch, perhapshe went to Aegina in 431, and perhaps Plato was bornon Aegina, but none of this enables a precise dating ofAriston’s death (or Plato’s birth).[147] Aegina is regardedas Plato’s place of birth by Suda as well.[140]

6 Footnotes

[1] Jones 2006.

[2] quote="...the subject of philosophy, as it is oftenconceived—a rigorous and systematic examination of eth-ical, political, metaphysical, and epistemological issues,armed with a distinctive method—can be called his in-vention” http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/plato/

[3] See introduction. https://books.google.com/books?id=eSKTvJDrr5kC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false

[4] quote= " one of the most dazzling writers in the Westernliterary tradition and one of the most penetrating, wide-ranging, and influential authors in the history of philoso-phy.” http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/plato/

[5] “Plato”. Encyclopaedia Britannica. 2002.

[6] Whitehead 1978, p. 39.

[7] http://rebels-library.org/files/foucault_hermeneutics.pdf

[8] http://www.gutenberg.org/files/4363/4363-h/4363-h.htm

15

[9] quote="Though influenced primarily by Socrates, to theextent that Socrates is usually the main character in manyof Plato’s writings, he was also influenced by Heraclitus,Parmenides, and the Pythagoreans”.http://www.iep.utm.edu/plato/

[10] http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/plato/

[11] Diogenes Laertius, Life of Plato, III• Nails 2002, p. 53• Wilamowitz-Moellendorff 2005, p. 46

[12] Diogenes Laertius, Life of Plato, I

[13] Guthrie 1986, p. 10• Taylor 2001, p. xiv• Wilamowitz-Moellendorff 2005, p. 47

[14] Plato, Republic 368a• Wilamowitz-Moellendorff 2005, p. 47

[15] Some have held that Glaucon and Adeimantus were unclesof Plato, but Zeller decides for the usual view that theywere brothers. Cf. Ph. d. Gr. ii. 1, 4th ed. 1889, p. 392,and Abhandl. d. Berl. Akad., 1873, Hist.-Phil Kl. pp. 86ff.

[16] Xenophon, Memorabilia, 3.6.1

[17] Nails 2002, p. 247.

[18] Nails 2002, p. 246.

[19] Apuleius, De Dogmate Platonis, 1• Diogenes Laertius, Life of Plato, I• “Plato”. Suda.

[20] Cicero, De Divinatione, I, 36

[21] Nails 2002, p. 53• Taylor 2001, p. xiv

[22] Plato, Charmides 158a• Nails 2003, pp. 228–229

[23] Plato, Charmides 158a• Plutarch, Pericles, IV

[24] Plato, Gorgias 481d and 513b• Aristophanes,Wasps, 97

[25] Plato, Parmenides 126c

[26] Guthrie 1986, p. 11.

[27] Kahn 2004, p. 186.

[28] Diogenes Laertius, Life of Plato, IV

[29] Diogenes Laertius, Life of Plato, IV• Notopoulos 1939, p. 135

[30] see Tarán 1981, p. 226.

[31] Guthrie 1986, p. 12 (footnote).

[32] Apuleius, De Dogmate Platonis, 2

[33] Diogenes Laertius, Life of Plato, IV• Smith 1870, p. 393

[34] Diogenes Laertius, Life of Plato, V

[35] Aristotle, Metaphysics, 1.987a

[36] Borody 1998.

[37] R.M. Hare, Plato in C.C.W. Taylor, R.M. Hare andJonathan Barnes, Greek Philosophers, Socrates, Plato,and Aristotle, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999(1982), 103–189, here 117–9.

[38] Russell, Bertrand (1991). History of Western Philosophy.Routledge. pp. 122–124. ISBN 0-415-07854-7.

[39] Metaphysics, 1.6.1 (987a)

[40] Tusc. Disput. 1.17.39.

[41] Strauss 1964, pp. 50–51.

[42] McEvoy 1984.

[43] Cairns 1961, p. xiii.

[44] Robinson 1827, p. 16.

[45] Dillon 2003, pp. 1–3.

[46] Press 2000, p. 1.

[47] Riginos 1976, p. 73.

[48] Not to be confused with Anniceris the Cyrenaic philoso-pher.

[49] Diogenes Laertius, Book iii, 20

[50] Riginos 1976, p. 194.

[51] Schall 1996.

[52] Riginos 1976, p. 195.

[53] Baird & Kaufmann 2008.

[54] Fine 2003, p. 5.

[55] McDowell 1973, p. 230.

[56] Fine 1979, p. 366.

[57] McDowell 1973, p. 256.

[58] Taylor 2011, pp. 176–187.

[59] Lee 2011, p. 432.

[60] Taylor 2011, p. 189.

[61] Blössner 2007, pp. 345–349.

[62] Plato, Timaeus 44d & 70

[63] Dorter 2006, p. 360.

[64] Plato, Republic 488

[65] Blössner 2007, p. 350.

[66] Republic 550b

[67] Republic 554a

[68] Republic 561a–b

16 6 FOOTNOTES

[69] Republic 571a

[70] Dorter 2006, pp. 253–267.

[71] Rodriguez-Grandjean 1998.

[72] Reale 1990. Cf. p.14 and onwards.

[73] Krämer 1990. Cf. pp.38-47.

[74] Elementa harmonica II, 30–31; quoted in Gaiser 1980, p.5.

[75] Plotinus describes this in the last part of his final Ennead(VI, 9) entitled On the Good, or the One (Περὶ τἀγαθοῦἢ τοῦ ἑνός). Jens Halfwassen states in Der Aufstieg zumEinen (2006) that “Plotinus’ ontology—which should becalled Plotinus’ henology - is a rather accurate philosophi-cal renewal and continuation of Plato’s unwritten doctrine,i.e. the doctrine rediscovered by Krämer and Gaiser.”

[76] In one of his letters (Epistolae 1612) Ficino writes: “Themain goal of the divine Plato ... is to show one principle ofthings, which he called the One (τὸ ἕν)", cf. Montoriola1926, p. 147.

[77] Gomperz 1931.

[78] Gaiser 1998.

[79] For a brief description of the problem see for exampleGaiser 1980. A more detailed analysis is given by Krämer1990. Another description is by Reale 1997 and Reale1990. A thorough analysis of the consequences of such anapproach is given by Szlezak 1999. Another supporter ofthis interpretation is the German philosopher Karl Albert,cf. Albert 1980 or Albert 1996. Hans-Georg Gadameris also sympathetic towards it, cf. Grondin 2010 andGadamer 1980. Gadamer’s final position on the subjectis stated in Gadamer 1997.

[80] Blackburn 1996, p. 104.

[81] Hartz, Louis. 1984. A Synthesis ofWorld History. Zurich:Humanity Press

[82] Popper 1962, p. 133.

[83] C. D. C. Reeve (Delta Kappa Epsilon DistinguishedProfessor of Philosophy, University of North Carolina,Chapel Hill) - A Plato Reader: Eight Essential Dialogues(page vi - Introduction) Hackett Publishing 2012 - 592pages ISBN 1603849173 [Retrieved 2015-3-31](ed. thisthe first source of < Early, Middle,(Transitional), Late >

[84] Robin Barrow (Professor of Philosophy of Education atSimon Fraser University, Canada and Fellow of The RoyalSociety of Canada) - Appendix 2:Notes on the authentic-ity and Groupings of Plato’s works (in) Plato BloomsburyPublishing, 18 Dec 2014 ISBN 1472504852 [Retrieved2015-3-31]

[85] Preface - page x (of) Platonic Writings/Platonic Readings(edited by CL. Griswold Jr) Penn State Press, 1 Nov 2010ISBN 0271044810 [Retrieved 2015-3-31]

[86] JM. Cooper (Stuart Professor of Philosophy, PrincetonUniversity c.1997), D. S. Hutchinson - Complete Works- xii Hackett Publishing, 1997 [Retrieved 2015-3-31](ed.this source was 1st source for criticism of < chronologicalorder >)

[87] H Tarrant (Professor of Classics at the University ofNewcastle, New South Wales) - Plato’s First Interpreters(Cornell University Press, 2000) ISBN 080143792X [Re-trieved 2015-3-31]

[88] B Jowett - APPENDIX I (1st paragraph) - MENEX-ENUS[Retrieved 2015-3-31]

[89] The extent to which scholars consider a dialogue to be au-thentic is noted in Cooper 1997, pp. v–vi.

[90] Bloom 1982, p. 5.

[91] Burnet 1928b, p. 9.

[92] Aristotle, Politics 1264b24-27.

[93] Cooper 1997, p. xiv.

[94] Kraut 2013; Schofield 2002; and Rowe 2006.

[95] Brickhouse & Smith.

[96] See Guthrie 1986; Vlastos 1991; Penner 1992; Kahn1996; Fine 1999b.

[97] Dodds 2004.

[98] Brandwood 1990, p. 251.

[99] Brandwood 1990, p. 77.

[100] Meinwald 1991.

[101] “The time is not long after the death of Socrates; for thePythagoreans [Echecrates & co.] have not heard any de-tails yet” (Burnet 1911, p. 5).

[102] Burnet 1928a, §177.

[103] Cooper 1997, p. vii.

[104] C.U.M. Smith - Brain, Mind and Consciousness in theHistory of Neuroscience (page 1) Springer Science &Business, 1 Jan 2014, 374 pages, Volume 6 of History,philosophy and theory of the life sciences SpringerLink :Bücher ISBN 9401787743 [Retrieved 2015-06-27]

[105] Lackner 2001, p. 21.

[106] See Burrell 1998 and Hasse 2002, pp. 33–45.

[107] Harris, Jonathan (2002). “Byzantines in RenaissanceItaly”. ORB: The Online Reference Book for MedievalStudies. College of Staten Island, City University of NewYork. Retrieved 9 February 2015.

[108] Boyer 1991, p. 86: 'Plato is important in the history ofmathematics largely for his role as inspirer and directorof others, and perhaps to him is due the sharp distinctionin ancient Greece between arithmetic (in the sense of thetheory of numbers) and logistic (the technique of compu-tation). Plato regarded logistic as appropriate for the busi-nessman and for the man of war, who “must learn the art

17

of numbers or he will not know how to array his troops.”The philosopher, on the other hand, must be an arithmeti-cian “because he has to arise out of the sea of change andlay hold of true being."'

[109] Einstein 1949, pp. 683–684.

[110] Brumbaugh & Wells 1989.

[111] Irwin 2011, pp. 64 & 74. See also Slings 1987, p. 34:"... primary MSS. together offer a text of tolerably goodquality” (this is without the further corrections of othersources).

[112] Slings 1987, p. 31.

[113] Cooper 1997, pp. viii–xii.

[114] Manuscripts - Philosophy Faculty Library (InternetArchive)

[115] Dodds 1959, pp. 35–36.

[116] Dodds 1959, p. 37.

[117] RD McKirahan - Philosophy Before Socrates (SecondEdition): An Introduction with Texts and Commentary:An Introduction with Texts and Commentary HackettPublishing, 1 Mar 2011 ISBN 1603846123 [Retrieved2015-3-20]

[118] RS Brumbaugh - Plato for the Modern Age (p.199) Uni-versity Press of America, 1 Jan 1991 ISBN 0819183563[Retrieved 2015-3-20]

[119] J Duffy - The lonely mission of Michael Psellos (in)Byzantine Philosophy and Its Ancient Sources edited byK Ierodiakonou (Oxford University Press, 2004) ISBN0199269718 [Retrieved 2015-3-20]

[120] Dodds 1959, p. 39.

[121] Irwin 2011, p. 71.

[122] Slings 2003, p. xxiii.

[123] J Hankins - (p.301) ISBN 9004091610 [Retrieved 2015-3-20]

[124] Allen 1975, p. 12.

[125] Suzanne 2009.

[126] Cooper 1997, pp. xii & xxvii.

[127] Oxford Classical Texts - Classical Studies & Ancient His-tory Series - Series - Academic, Professional, & General -Oxford University Press

[128] Cambridge Greek and Latin Classics - Series - Academicand Professional Books - Cambridge University Press

[129] Cambridge Classical Texts and Commentaries - Series -Academic and Professional Books - Cambridge UniversityPress

[130] Irwin 1979, pp. vi & 11.

[131] Dodds 1959.

[132] Fine 1999a, p. 482.

[133] Complete Works - Philosophy

[134] Clarendon Plato Series - Philosophy Series - Series - Aca-demic, Professional, & General - Oxford University Press

[135] Cornell University Press : Agora Editions

[136] Diogenes Laertius, Life of Plato, 3.4; translation byRobertDrew Hicks

[137] Seneca, Epistulae, VI 58:29-30; translation by RobertMott Gummere

[138] Diogenes Laertius, Life of Plato, II

[139] Nietzsche 1967, p. 32.

[140] “Plato”. Suda.

[141] Browne 1672.

[142] Nails 2006, p. 1.

[143] Wilamowitz-Moellendorff 2005, p. 46.

[144] “Plato”. Encyclopaedia Britannica. 2002.• “Plato”. Encyclopaedic Dictionary The Helios Volume V(in Greek). 1952.

[145] Seneca, Epistulae, VI, 58, 31: natali suo decessit et annumumum atque octogensimum.

[146] Diogenes Laertius, Life of Plato, III

[147] Nails 2002, p. 54.

[148] Thucydides, 5.18• Thucydides, 8.92

7 References

7.1 Primary sources (Greek and Roman)

• Apuleius, De Dogmate Platonis, I. See original textin Latin Library.

• Aristophanes, The Wasps. See original text inPerseus program.

• Aristotle, Metaphysics. See original text in Perseusprogram.

• Cicero, De Divinatione, I. See original text in Latinlibrary.

• Diogenes Laërtius, Life of Plato, translated byRobert Drew Hicks (1925).

• Plato. Charmides. Translated by BenjaminJowett. Wikisource. See original text in Perseusprogram.

• Plato. Gorgias. Translated by Benjamin Jowett.Wikisource. See original text in Perseus program.

• Plato, Parmenides. See original text in Perseus pro-gram.

18 7 REFERENCES

• Plato. The Republic. Translated by BenjaminJowett. Wikisource. See original text in Perseusprogram.

• Plutarch (1683) [written in the late 1st century]." Pericles". Lives. Translated by John Dryden.Wikisource. See original text in Perseus program.

• Seneca the Younger. Moral Letters to Lucilius:Letter 58. Translated by Richard Mott Gummere.Wikisource. See original text in Latin Library.

• Thucydides. History of the Peloponnesian War.Translated by Richard Crawley. Wikisource., V,VIII. See original text in Perseus program.

• Xenophon, Memorabilia. See original text inPerseus program.

7.2 Secondary sources

• Albert, Karl (1980). Griechische Religion und pla-tonische Philosophie. Hamburg: Felix Meiner Ver-lag.

• Albert, Karl (1996). Einführung in die philosophis-che Mystik. Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchge-sellschaft.

• Allen, Michael J. B. (1975). “Introduction”. Mar-silio Ficino: The Philebus Commentary. Universityof California Press. pp. 1–58.

• Baird, Forrest E.; Kaufmann, Walter, eds. (2008).Philosophic Classics: From Plato to Derrida (Fifthed.). Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: PearsonPrentice Hall. ISBN 0-13-158591-6.

• Blackburn, Simon (1996). The Oxford Dictionaryof Philosophy. Oxford University Press.

• Bloom, Harold (1982). Agon. Oxford: Oxford Uni-versity Press.

• Blössner, Norbert (2007). “The City-Soul Anal-ogy”. In Ferrari, G. R. F. The Cambridge Compan-ion to Plato’s Republic. Translated from the Germanby G. R. F. Ferrari. Cambridge University Press.

• Borody, W. A. (1998). “Figuring the Phallogocen-tric Argument with Respect to the Classical GreekPhilosophical Tradition”. Nebula, A Netzine of theArts and Science 13: 1–27.

• Boyer, Carl B. (1991). Merzbach, Uta C., ed. AHistory of Mathematics (Second ed.). John Wiley &Sons. ISBN 0-471-54397-7.

• Brandwood, Leonard (1990). The Chronology ofPlato’s Dialogues. Cambridge University Press.

• Brickhouse, Thomas; Smith, Nicholas D. Fieser,James; Dowden, Bradley, eds. “Plato”. The Inter-net Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved 3 April2014.

• Browne, Sir Thomas (1672). “XII”. PseudodoxiaEpidemica IV (6th ed.).

• Brumbaugh, Robert S.; Wells, Rulon S. (October1989). “Completing Yale’s Microfilm Project”. TheYale University Library Gazette 64 (1/2): 73–75.

• Burnet, John (1911). Plato’s Phaedo. Oxford Uni-versity Press.

• Burnet, John (1928a). Greek Philosophy: Part I:Thales to Plato. MacMillan.

• Burnet, John (1928b). Platonism. University of Cal-ifornia Press.

• Cairns, Huntington (1961). “Introduction”. InHamilton, Edith; Cairns, Huntington. The CollectedDialogues of Plato, Including the Letters. PrincetonUniversity Press.

• Burrell, David (1998). “Platonism in Islamic Phi-losophy”. In Craig, Edward. Routledge Encyclope-dia of Philosophy 7. Routledge. pp. 429–430.

• Cooper, John M.; Hutchinson, D. S., eds. (1997).Plato: Complete Works. Hackett Publishing.

• Dillon, John (2003). The Heirs of Plato: A Study ofthe Old Academy. Oxford University Press.

• Dodds, E. R. (1959). Plato Gorgias. Oxford Uni-versity Press.

• Dodds, E. R. (2004) [1951]. The Greeks and theIrrational. University of California Press.

• Dorter, Kenneth (2006). The Transformation ofPlato’s Republic. Lexington Books.

• Einstein, Albert (1949). “Remarks to the EssaysAppearing in this Collective Volume”. In Schilpp.Albert Einstein: Philosopher-Scientist. The Libraryof Living Philosophers 7. MJF Books. pp. 663–688.

• Fine, Gail (July 1979). “Knowledge and Logosin the Theaetetus”. Philosophical Review 88 (3).Reprinted in Fine 2003.

• Fine, Gail (1999a). “Selected Bibliography”. Plato1: Metaphysics and Epistemology. Oxford Univer-sity Press. pp. 481–494.

• Fine, Gail (1999b). “Introduction”. Plato 2: Ethics,Politics, Religion, and the Soul. Oxford UniversityPress. pp. 1–33.

7.2 Secondary sources 19

• Fine, Gail (2003). “Introduction”. Plato on Knowl-edge and Forms: Selected Essays. Oxford UniversityPress.

• Gadamer, Hans-Georg (1980) [1968]. “Plato’s Un-written Dialectic”. Dialogue and Dialectic. YaleUniversity Press. pp. 124–155.

• Gadamer, Hans-Georg (1997). “Introduzione”. InGirgenti, Giuseppe. La nuova interpretazione di Pla-tone. Milan: Rusconi Libri.

• Gaiser, Konrad (1980). “Plato’s Enigmatic Lec-ture 'On the Good'". Phronesis 25 (1): 5–37.doi:10.1163/156852880x00025.

• Gaiser, Konrad (1998). Reale, Giovanni, ed. Testi-monia Platonica: Le antiche testimonianze sulle dot-trine non scritte di Platone. Milan: Vita e Pensiero.First published as “Testimonia Platonica. Quellen-texte zur Schule und mündlichen Lehre Platons”as an appendix to Gaiser’s Platons UngeschriebeneLehre, Stuttgart, 1963.

• Gomperz, H. (1931). “Plato’s System of Philoso-phy”. In Ryle, G. Proceedings of the Seventh Inter-national Congress of Philosophy. London. pp. 426–431. Reprinted in Gomperz, H. (1953). Philosoph-ical Studies. Boston: Christopher Publishing House1953, pp. 119–24.

• Grondin, Jean (2010). “Gadamer and the TübingenSchool”. In Gill, Christopher; Renaud, François.Hermeneutic Philosophy and Plato: Gadamer’s Re-sponse to the Philebus. Academia Verlag. pp. 139–156.

• Guthrie, W.K.C. (1986). AHistory of Greek Philos-ophy: Volume 4, Plato: The Man and His Dialogues:Earlier Period. Cambridge University Press. ISBN0-521-31101-2.

• Hasse, Dag Nikolaus (2002). “Plato arabico-latinus”. In Gersh; Hoenen. The Platonic Traditionin the Middle Ages: A Doxographic Approach. DeGruyter. pp. 33–66.

• Irwin, T. H. (1979). Plato: Gorgias. Oxford Uni-versity Press.

• Irwin, T. H. (2011). “The Platonic Corpus”. InFine, G. The Oxford Handbook of Plato. OxfordUniversity Press.

• Jones, Daniel (2006). Roach, Peter; Hartman,James; Setter, Jane, eds. Cambridge English Pro-nouncing Dictionary (17 ed.). Cambridge Univer-sity Press.

• Kahn, Charles H. (1996). Plato and the Socratic Di-alogue: The Philosophical Use of a Literary Form.Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-64830-0.

• Kierkegaard, Søren (1992). “Plato”. The Conceptof Irony. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-02072-3.

• Krämer, Hans Joachim (1990). Catan, John R., ed.Plato and the Foundations of Metaphysics: A Workon the Theory of the Principles and Unwritten Doc-trines of Plato with a Collection of the Fundamen-tal Documents. State University of New York Press.ISBN 0-7914-0433-1.

• Lee, M.-K. (2011). “The Theaetetus". In Fine, G.The Oxford Handbook of Plato. Oxford UniversityPress. pp. 411–436.

• Kraut, Richard (11 September 2013). Zalta, Ed-ward N., ed. “Plato”. The Stanford Encyclopedia ofPhilosophy. Stanford University. Retrieved 3 April2014.

• Lackner, D. F. (2001). “The CamaldoleseAcademy: Ambrogio Traversari, Marsilio Ficinoand the Christian Platonic Tradition”. In Allen;Rees. Marsilio Ficino: His Theology, His Philoso-phy, His Legacy. Brill.

• Meinwald, Constance Chu (1991). Plato’s Par-menides. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

• McDowell, J. (1973). Plato: Theaetetus. OxfordUniversity Press.

• McEvoy, James (1984). “Plato and The Wisdomof Egypt”. Irish Philosophical Journal (Belfast:Dept. of Scholastic Philosophy, Queen’s Universityof Belfast) 1 (2). ISSN 0266-9080. Retrieved 2007-12-03.

• Montoriola, Karl Markgraf von (1926). Briefe DesMediceerkreises Aus Marsilio Ficino’s Epistolarium.Berlin: Juncker.

• Nails, Debra (2002). The People of Plato: A Proso-pography of Plato and Other Socratics. Hackett Pub-lishing. ISBN 0-87220-564-9.

• Nails, Debra (2006). “The Life of Plato of Athens”.In Benson, Hugh H. A Companion to Plato. Black-well Publishing. ISBN 1-4051-1521-1.

• Nietzsche, Friedrich Wilhelm (1967). “Vor-lesungsaufzeichnungen”. Werke: Kritische Gesam-tausgabe (in German). Walter de Gruyter. ISBN3-11-013912-X.

• Notopoulos, A. (April 1939). “The Name of Plato”.Classical Philology (The University of ChicagoPress) 34 (2): 135–145. doi:10.1086/362227.

• Penner, Terry (1992). “Socrates and the Early Di-alogues”. In Kraut, Richard. The Cambridge Com-panion to Plato. Cambridge University Press. pp.121–169.

20 8 FURTHER READING

• “Plato”. Encyclopaedia Britannica. 2002.

• “Plato”. Encyclopaedic Dictionary The Helios Vol-ume XVI (in Greek). 1952.

• “Plato”. Suda. 10th century.

• Popper, K. (1962). TheOpen Society and its Enemies1. London: Routledge.

• Press, Gerald Alan (2000). “Introduction”. InPress, Gerald Alan. Who Speaks for Plato?: Stud-ies in Platonic Anonymity. Rowman & Littlefield.pp. 1–14.

• Reale, Giovanni (1990). Catan, John R., ed. Platoand Aristotle. A History of Ancient Philosophy 2.State University of New York Press.

• Reale, Giovanni (1997). Toward a New Interpreta-tion of Plato. Washington, D.C.: CUA Press.

• Riginos, Alice (1976). Platonica : the anecdotesconcerning the life and writings of Plato. Leiden:E.J. Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-04565-1.

• Robinson, John (1827). Archæologica Græca (Sec-ond ed.). London: A. J. Valpy. Archived from theoriginal on 2006-03-24.

• Rodriguez-Grandjean, Pablo (1998). Philosophyand Dialogue: Plato’s Unwritten Doctrines from aHermeneutical Point of View. Twentieth WorldCongress of Philosophy. Boston.

• Rowe, Christopher (2006). “Interpreting Plato”. InBenson, Hugh H. A Companion to Plato. BlackwellPublishing. pp. 13–24.

• Schall, James V. (Summer 1996). “On the Death ofPlato”. The American Scholar 65.

• Schofield, Malcolm (23 August 2002). Craig, Ed-ward, ed. “Plato”. Routledge Encyclopedia of Phi-losophy. Routledge. Retrieved 3 April 2014.

• Sedley, David (2003). Plato’s Cratylus. CambridgeUniversity Press.

• Slings, S. R. (1987). “Remarks on Some Recent Pa-pyri of the Politeia". Mnemosyne. Fourth 40 (1/2):27–34. doi:10.1163/156852587x00030.

• Slings, S. R. (2003). Platonis Rempublicam. OxfordUniversity Press.

• Smith, William (1870). “Plato”. Dictionary ofGreek and Roman Biography and Mythology.

• Strauss, Leo (1964). The City and the Man.Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

• Suzanne, Bernard (8 March 2009). “The Stephanusedition”. Plato and his dialogues. Retrieved 3 April2014.

• Szlezak, Thomas A. (1999). Reading Plato. Rout-ledge. ISBN 0-415-18984-5.

• Tarán, Leonardo (1981). Speusippus of Athens.Brill Publishers.

• Tarán, Leonardo (2001). “Plato’s Alleged Epitaph”.Collected Papers 1962-1999. Brill Academic Pub-lishers. ISBN 9004123040.

• Taylor, Alfred Edward (2001) [1937]. Plato: TheMan and His Work. Courier Dover Publications.ISBN 0-486-41605-4.

• Taylor, C. C. W. (2011). “Plato’s Epistemology”.In Fine, G. The Oxford Handbook of Plato. OxfordUniversity Press. pp. 165–190.

• Vlastos, Gregory (1991). Socrates: Ironist andMoral Philosopher. Cambridge University Press.

• Whitehead, Alfred North (1978). Process and Real-ity. New York: The Free Press.

• Wilamowitz-Moellendorff, Ulrich von (2005)[1917]. Plato: His Life and Work (translated inGreek by Xenophon Armyros). Kaktos. ISBN960-382-664-2.

8 Further reading• Alican, Necip Fikri (2012). Rethinking Plato: A

Cartesian Quest for the Real Plato. Amsterdam andNew York: Editions Rodopi B.V. ISBN 978-90-420-3537-9.

• Allen, R. E. (1965). Studies in Plato’s MetaphysicsII. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 0710036264

• Ambuel, David (2007). Image and Paradigm inPlato’s Sophist. Parmenides Publishing. ISBN 978-1-930972-04-9

• Arieti, James A. Interpreting Plato: The Dialoguesas Drama, Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc.ISBN 0-8476-7662-5

• Bakalis, Nikolaos (2005). Handbook of GreekPhilosophy: From Thales to the Stoics Analysisand Fragments, Trafford Publishing ISBN 1-4120-4843-5

• Barrow, Robin (2007). Plato: Continuum Library ofEducational Thought. Continuum. ISBN 0-8264-8408-5.

• Cadame, Claude (1999). Indigenous and Mod-ern Perspectives on Tribal Initiation Rites: Educa-tion According to Plato, pp. 278–312, in Padilla,MarkWilliam (editor), “Rites of Passage in AncientGreece: Literature, Religion, Society”, BucknellUniversity Press, 1999. ISBN 0-8387-5418-X

21

• Cooper, John M. & Hutchinson, D. S. (Eds.)(1997). Plato: Complete Works. Hackett Publish-ing Company, Inc. ISBN 0-87220-349-2.

• Corlett, J. Angelo (2005). Interpreting Plato’s Di-alogues. Parmenides Publishing. ISBN 978-1-930972-02-5

• Durant, Will (1926). The Story of Philosophy. Si-mon & Schuster. ISBN 0-671-69500-2.

• Derrida, Jacques (1972). La dissémination, Paris:Seuil. (esp. cap.: La Pharmacie de Platon, 69-199)ISBN 2-02-001958-2

• Field, G.C. (Guy Cromwell) (1969). The Philosophyof Plato (2nd ed. with an appendix by R. C. Cross.ed.). London: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-888040-5.

• Fine, Gail (2000). Plato 1: Metaphysics and Episte-mology Oxford University Press, USA, ISBN 0-19-875206-7

• Finley, M. I. (1969). Aspects of antiquity: Discover-ies and Controversies The Viking Press, Inc., USA

• Garvey, James (2006). Twenty Greatest PhilosophyBooks. Continuum. ISBN 0-8264-9053-0.

• Guthrie, W. K. C. (1986). A History of Greek Phi-losophy (Plato - The Man & His Dialogues - EarlierPeriod), Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-31101-2

• Guthrie, W. K. C. (1986). A History of Greek Phi-losophy (Later Plato & the Academy) CambridgeUniversity Press, ISBN 0-521-31102-0

• Havelock, Eric (2005). Preface to Plato (Historyof the Greek Mind), Belknap Press, ISBN 0-674-69906-8

• Hamilton, Edith & Cairns, Huntington (Eds.)(1961). The Collected Dialogues of Plato, Includingthe Letters. Princeton Univ. Press. ISBN 0-691-09718-6.

• Harvard University Press publishes the hardboundseries Loeb Classical Library, containing Plato’sworks in Greek, with English translations on facingpages.

• Irvine, Andrew David (2008). Socrates on Trial: Aplay based on Aristophanes’ Clouds and Plato’s Apol-ogy, Crito, and Phaedo, adapted for modern per-formance. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.ISBN 978-0-8020-9783-5 (cloth); ISBN 978-0-8020-9538-1 (paper)

• Hermann, Arnold (2010). Plato’s Parmenides: Text,Translation & Introductory Essay, Parmenides Pub-lishing, ISBN 978-1-930972-71-1

• Irwin, Terence (1995). Plato’s Ethics, Oxford Uni-versity Press, USA, ISBN 0-19-508645-7

• Jackson, Roy (2001). Plato: A Beginner’s Guide.London: Hoder & Stroughton. ISBN 0-340-80385-1.

• Jowett, Benjamin (1892). [The Dialogues of Plato.Translated into English with analyses and introduc-tions by B. Jowett.], Oxford Clarendon Press, UK,UIN:BLL01002931898

• Kochin, Michael S. (2002). Gender and Rhetoric inPlato’s Political Thought. Cambridge Univ. Press.ISBN 0-521-80852-9.

• Kraut, Richard (Ed.) (1993). The Cambridge Com-panion to Plato. Cambridge University Press. ISBN0-521-43610-9.

• Lilar, Suzanne (1954), Journal de l'analogiste, Paris,Éditions Julliard; Reedited 1979, Paris, Grasset.Foreword by Julien Gracq

• Lilar, Suzanne (1963), Le couple, Paris, Grasset.Translated as Aspects of Love in Western Society in1965, with a foreword by Jonathan Griffin London,Thames and Hudson.

• Lilar, Suzanne (1967) A propos de Sartre et del'amour , Paris, Grasset.

• Lundberg, Phillip (2005). Tallyho - The Hunt forVirtue: Beauty,Truth and Goodness Nine Dialoguesby Plato: Pheadrus, Lysis, Protagoras, Charmides,Parmenides, Gorgias, Theaetetus, Meno & Sophist.Authorhouse. ISBN 1-4184-4977-6.

• Márquez, Xavier (2012) A Stranger’s Knowledge:Statesmanship, Philosophy & Law in Plato’s States-man, Parmenides Publishing. ISBN 978-1-930972-79-7

• Melchert, Norman (2002). The Great Conversation:A Historical Introduction to Philosophy. McGrawHill. ISBN 0-19-517510-7.

• Miller, Mitchell (2004). The Philosopher in Plato’sStatesman. Parmenides Publishing. ISBN 978-1-930972-16-2

• Mohr, Richard D. (2006). God and Forms in Plato -and other Essays in Plato’s Metaphysics. ParmenidesPublishing. ISBN 978-1-930972-01-8

• Mohr, Richard D. (Ed.), Sattler, Barbara M. (Ed.)(2010) One Book, The Whole Universe: Plato’sTimaeus Today, Parmenides Publishing. ISBN 978-1-930972-32-2

• Moore, Edward (2007). Plato. Philosophy InsightsSeries. Tirril, Humanities-Ebooks. ISBN 978-1-84760-047-9

22 9 EXTERNAL LINKS

• Nightingale, Andrea Wilson. (1995). “Genres inDialogue: Plato and the Construct of Philosophy”,Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-48264-X

• Oxford University Press publishes scholarly editionsof Plato’s Greek texts in the Oxford Classical Textsseries, and some translations in the Clarendon PlatoSeries.

• Patterson, Richard (Ed.), Karasmanis, Vassilis(Ed.), Hermann, Arnold (Ed.) (2013) Presocrat-ics & Plato: Festschrift at Delphi in Honor ofCharles Kahn, Parmenides Publishing. ISBN 978-1-930972-75-9

• Sallis, John (1996). Being and Logos: Reading thePlatonic Dialogues. Indiana University Press. ISBN0-253-21071-2.

• Sallis, John (1999). Chorology: On Beginning inPlato’s “Timaeus”. Indiana University Press. ISBN0-253-21308-8.

• Sayre, Kenneth M. (2005). Plato’s Late Ontology:A Riddle Resolved. Parmenides Publishing. ISBN978-1-930972-09-4

• Seung, T. K. (1996). Plato Rediscovered: HumanValue and Social Order. Rowman and Littlefield.ISBN 0-8476-8112-2

• Smith, William. (1867). Dictionary of Greek andRoman Biography and Mythology. University ofMichigan/Online version.

• Stewart, John. (2010). Kierkegaard and the GreekWorld - Socrates and Plato. Ashgate. ISBN 978-0-7546-6981-4

• Thesleff, Holger (2009). Platonic Patterns: A Col-lection of Studies by Holger Thesleff, ParmenidesPublishing, ISBN 978-1-930972-29-2

• Thomas Taylor has translated Plato’s completeworks.

• Thomas Taylor (1804). TheWorks of Plato, viz. HisFifty-Five Dialogues and Twelve Epistles 5 vols

• Vlastos, Gregory (1981). Platonic Studies, Prince-ton University Press, ISBN 0-691-10021-7

• Vlastos, Gregory (2006). Plato’s Universe - with anew Introducution by Luc Brisson, Parmenides Pub-lishing. ISBN 978-1-930972-13-1

• Zuckert, Catherine (2009). Plato’s Philosophers:The Coherence of the Dialogues, The University ofChicago Press, ISBN 978-0-226-99335-5

9 External links• Works available on-line:

• Works by Plato at Perseus Project - Greek &English hyperlinked text

• Works of Plato (Jowett, 1892)• Works by Plato at Project Gutenberg• Works by or about Plato at Internet Archive• Works by Plato at LibriVox (public domainaudiobooks)

• Plato complete works, annotated and search-able, at ELPENOR

• Quick Links to Plato’s Dialogues (English,Greek, French, Spanish)

• The Dialogues of Plato with ApocryphalWorks from Loeb Classical Library edition(1925-1968)

• Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy:

• Plato• Plato’s Organicism• Plato’s Phaedo• Plato’s Political Philosophy• Plato’s Republic• Plato’s Theaetetus• Plato’s Academy• Middle Platonism• Neoplatonism

• Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy:

• Plato• Plato’s Ethics• Friendship and Eros• Middle Period Metaphysics and Epistemology• Plato on Utopia• Rhetoric and Poetry

• Other resources:

• Plato at the Indiana Philosophy OntologyProject

• Plato at PhilPapers• "Plato and Platonism". Catholic Encyclopedia.New York: Robert Appleton Company. 1913.

• Website on Plato and his works: Plato and hisdialogues by Bernard Suzanne

• Approaching Plato: A Guide to the Early andMiddle Dialogues

23

10 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

10.1 Text• Plato Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plato?oldid=687500766 Contributors: AxelBoldt, Magnus Manske, General Wesc,

MichaelTinkler, Lee Daniel Crocker, Eloquence, Mav, Wesley, Ap, Amillar, Larry Sanger, XJaM, SJK, William Avery, Roadrunner,SimonP, Ben-Zin~enwiki, Heron, Camembert, Hephaestos, Tucci528, DennisDaniels, JohnOwens, Michael Hardy, Bewildebeast, Jah-sonic, Nixdorf, BoNoMoJo (old), Liftarn, Jketola, 172, TakuyaMurata, Egil, Ihcoyc, Ahoerstemeier, Stan Shebs, William M. Connolley,MGee, Александър, AugPi, Djnjwd, Poor Yorick, Dpol, Cimon Avaro, Rl, John K, Barfoed, Harvester, Jod, Skyfaller, JASpencer, MichaelVoytinsky, Adam Conover, Quickbeam, Ideyal, Charles Matthews, Adam Bishop, EALacey, Wikiborg, RickK, Radgeek, Dandrake, Wik,DJ Clayworth, Markhurd, Tpbradbury, Nv8200pa, VeryVerily, Mir Harven, James Skarzinskas, Buridan, J D, Wetman, Bcorr, Camerong,David.Monniaux, Banno, Owen, Bearcat, Robbot, Pigsonthewing, ChrisO~enwiki, Chris 73, Aliter, Goethean, Altenmann, Romanm,Academic Challenger, Diderot, DHN, Rasmus Faber, Sunray, Wally, Hadal, Carlj7, SoLando, Kevin Saff, Giftlite, DocWatson42, Kba-hey, AtStart, Tom harrison, MSGJ, Peruvianllama, Everyking, WHEELER, Wikibob, Ezhiki, Tom-, Mboverload, Joshuapaquin, Eequor,Christofurio, Solipsist, Wmahan, Neilc, Utcursch, AznPhilo, PauloColacino~enwiki, Antandrus, Mustafaa, Piotrus, Brokethebank, Kaldari,Jossi, Rdsmith4, APH,MFNickster, Girolamo Savonarola, JimWae, Dmaftei, SeanProctor, Tomruen, Phil1988, Pmanderson, Karl-Henner,Mrtrey99, Soman, Shadowlink1014, Syvanen, Cwoyte, Adashiel, Trevor MacInnis, Flyhighplato, Canterbury Tail, ELApro, Mike Rosoft,Shahab, Chris Howard, Ta bu shi da yu, Simonides, Freakofnurture, Venu62, CALR, Haiduc, DanielCD, Andy Smith, Alexrexpvt, Noisy,Discospinster, William Pietri, Guanabot, FranksValli, Rama, Vsmith, Florian Blaschke, Silence, Francis Schonken, Euthydemos, User2004,Polymorp, Alistair1978, Dbachmann, Paul August, Bender235, ESkog, Kbh3rd, Kaisershatner, JoeSmack, Brian0918, RJHall, El C, Lycur-gus, Zenohockey, Mwanner, Shanes, RoyBoy, EurekaLott, Smartiew, SS451, Spoon!, Wareh, Guettarda, Bobo192, Whosyourjudas, Feit-club, KPalicz, Adrian~enwiki, Jguk 2, Arcadian, Sampo Torgo, Nk, Rajah, Alexalderman, Kwunlam, Vitiekee, (aeropagitica), Krellis, Nsaa,Ogress, Truddick, Knucmo2, Jumbuck, Alansohn, JYolkowski, Polarscribe, ChristopherWillis, Hoovernj, Visviva, Rd232, Ricky81682,Wikidea, Lectonar, Axl, Malo, Snowolf, Yossiea~enwiki, Subramanian, Mavros, Pbutler, Binabik80, Garzo, VivaEmilyDavies, Omphalo-scope, Staeiou, CloudNine, Sciurinæ, Kusma, SteinbDJ, Vonaurum, Djsasso, HenryLi, Bookandcoffee, Dan100, Delief, Duke33, Tom.k,Benoni, Mel Etitis, OwenX,Mindmatrix, FeanorStar7, RHaworth, Carcharoth, Barrylb, Jacobolus, Kzollman, Commander Keane, ^demon,Ruud Koot, WadeSimMiser, Chochopk, Bkwillwm, Schzmo, Wikiklrsc, Bbatsell, Terence, Pictureuploader, SeventyThree, Ryan Reich,Wayward, BrenDJ, Prashanthns, Radiant!, Dysepsion, Graham87, Hashhagen, Magister Mathematicae, BD2412, Qwertyus, RxS, Jclemens,Fcoulter, Sjö, Sjakkalle, Rjwilmsi, Koavf, Саша Стефановић, Athrash, Seraphimblade, Bruce1ee, SMC, Heah, John Frink, Crazynas,Ligulem, Infosocialist, Merrilee, Blueskyboris, The wub, Bhadani, ATLBeer, Dar-Ape, Sango123, Yamamoto Ichiro, Hanshans23, Hep-tor, FayssalF, Titoxd, Miskin, FlaBot, Rats, G Clark, Tagith, RobertG, Pumeleon, Nihiltres, Crazycomputers, Tumble, Sanbeg, Who,Nivix, RexNL, Gurch, Mucus, Jrtayloriv, Intgr, Sgrayban, Tyrth, Anlagan, Piniricc65, BradBeattie, Gareth E Kegg, Cave troll, King ofHearts, Chobot, Jaraalbe, Prmadhura, DVdm, Mhking, JesseGarrett, Hall Monitor, Gwernol, Sonic Mew, EamonnPKeane, Uriah923, TheRambling Man, Measure, YurikBot, Wavelength, RobotE, Ssimsekler, Sceptre, RussBot, Michael Slone, Jtkiefer, Briaboru, Splash, RJC,Pigman, DanMS, SpuriousQ, Kirill Lokshin, Pvasiliadis, Hydrargyrum, Stephenb, Shell Kinney, Gaius Cornelius, XX55XX, Speermeister,Gabrichidze, Akhristov, KSchutte, Wimt, Ravenous, Odysses, Shanel, NawlinWiki, Matia.gr, Rick Norwood, EWS23, TEB728, Nowa,Wiki alf, Rwaldin, Chick Bowen, Jaxl, Exir Kamalabadi, Cognition, Tailpig, Ziel, Cleared as filed, Irishguy, Retired username, Banes,Cholmes75, Rmky87, Benne, Aldux, Raven4x4x, Killdevil, Zwobot, Ospalh, Lockesdonkey, S. Neuman, BOT-Superzerocool, Wangi,ThreePD, Wolfling, Jpeob, User27091, Sahands, Wknight94, Thor Waldsen, FF2010, Dast, Lt-wiki-bot, Andrew Lancaster, Encephalon,Imaninjapirate, Ell90, RDF, Nikkimaria, Modify, BorgQueen, GraemeL, JoanneB, Shawnc, Fram, Contaldo80, Whobot, JLaTondre, Gar-ion96, Argos’Dad, Kungfuadam, Ejfox, GrinBot~enwiki, Airconswitch, SkerHawx, DVD R W, Bibliomaniac15, That Guy, From ThatShow!, Luk, Sycthos, C mon, Sardanaphalus, Sintonak.X, SmackBot, Selfworm, Moeron, Nihonjoe, Lestrade, Zazaban, Reedy, Prodego,Larvatus, KnowledgeOfSelf, Mrgate3, Gubby, Hydrogen Iodide, Kimon, Fdt, Pgk, Blue520, Jacek Kendysz, Davewild, AndreasJS, Im-manuel goldstein, Delldot, Monty Cantsin, Frymaster, Josephprymak, Stealie, Warfvinge, Edgar181, Srnec, Sebesta, Commander Keanebot, Aksi great, Peter Isotalo, Gilliam, Portillo, Ohnoitsjamie, Eudaemonia Noob, Betacommand, The monkeyhate, Poulsen, Ekoontz,Kurykh, TimBentley, Persian Poet Gal, Ian13, Tito4000, LostInsideFear, Snori, PrimeHunter, MalafayaBot, Jennneal1313, Gaara42,Interstate295revisited, JoeBlogsDord, Go for it!, Azeira, Kostmo, DHN-bot~enwiki, Da Vynci, Antonrojo, Darth Panda, Gracenotes,Saiku50, CaveatLector, Springeragh, Daddy Kindsoul, Suicidalhamster, Ig0774, SometimeScribe, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Tam-fang, Akhilleus, Sumahoy, MParshall, OrphanBot, Onorem, JBel, Philosopher Torin, Rrburke, Morton devonshire, Addshore, Kcordina,Edivorce, SundarBot, Phaedriel, Grover cleveland, Stevenmitchell, Aldaron, Harvest day fool, Flyguy649, Iapetus, Khukri, Nakon, Ve-gaDark, Nick125, Ocsadanielsw@hotmail.com, LoveMonkey, Mister Five, Fitzhugh, Jon Awbrey, Jklin, DMacks, Wizardman, Kotjze,Nmpenguin, Er Komandante, Bidabadi~enwiki, Bejnar, Pilotguy, FelisLeo, Kukini, Drunken Pirate, SashatoBot, Lambiam, Yannismarou,Nishkid64, Tdw1203, Rory096, Harryboyles, Kuru, John, Vgy7ujm, Kipala, Heimstern, WadeMcR, CalumMacÙisdean, Tim bates, Pack-ynix, Ιωανης, Edwy, Chodorkovskiy, Hemmingsen, Minna Sora no Shita, JohnWittle, Moontheloon, MonstaPro, IronGargoyle, DIEGORICARDO PEREIRA, MikaM, RomanSpa, Antireconciler, KatToni, Bmistler, Sagejr, IdeArchos, Defyn, Across.The.Synapse, Nbatra,Rkmlai, Beetstra, Stevebritgimp, Mr Stephen, The Missing Hour, Mr. Plato, Stizz, Macellarius, Ryulong, Dr.K., RichardF, Zapvet, Jose77,LaMenta3, Galactor213, Isokrates, Darry2385, Badlermd, Chgwheeler, Amitch, Keitei, Sarahspat, Hu12, BranStark, Hihi786, JMK,Rob-nick, Ludo716, J Di, Gheuf, R~enwiki, Lenoxus, Beno1000, CapitalR, Richard75, Zeusnoos, Az1568, Psychoelf, Etexzan, Ben-jamin grante, Tawkerbot2, AnsonF, Connection, Petebertine, Wikifarzin, Leprechaunjg, Megatronium, JForget, Mebizzare, Bridesmill,Lawrence Connor, CWY2190, Ruslik0, TheDaftman, Kylu, Ngcam, Nithan, Outriggr (2006-2009), MarsRover, Sdorrance, Neelix, Jswap,Talented Mr Miller, Lookingforgroup, MaxEnt, Gregbard, FilipeS, Jac16888, Cydebot, Karimarie, R Harris, Andreasegde, ParmenidesII,Aristophanes68, Peterdjones, Gogo Dodo, Bardak, Lossenelin, James Fleming, JFreeman, Llort, Andrewsandberg, Danethol, Joegasper,Tawkerbot4, DougWeller, Codetiger, DumbBOT, DarkLink, In Defense of the Artist, Omicronpersei8, Theadder, Woland37, Gimmetrow,Bwmcmaste, Shadowstrike, Runningtherace2024, FrancoGG, Thijs!bot, Epbr123, Barticus88, Wikid77, Pstanton, Jaxsonjo, Mime, Saga-ciousuk, Silentbob449, Wolfietrausch, PhillipLundberg, Headbomb, West Brom 4ever, An Italian Friend, Bobblehead, James086, Micah-burnett, BehnamFarid, Philippe, FreeKresge, MichaelMaggs, Natalie Erin, Talknshare, Mmortal03, Escarbot, Oreo Priest, Tom dl, Kraka-toaKatie, WikiSlasher, AntiVandalBot, Chaleyer61, Manuel de Sousa, Luna Santin, Akradecki, Cobored192, Snakenerd, Seaphoto, Hypo-typosis, Opelio, Prolog, Julia Rossi, Mary Mark Ockerbloom, Dr who1975, D. Webb, Dylan Lake, Donjanssen, Danny lost, Farosdaughter,Storkk, Itafroma, Canadian-Bacon, Ingolfson, JAnDbot, Deflective, Ndyguy, MER-C, Skomorokh, The Transhumanist, Avaya1, MatthewFennell, Nwe, Lili22~enwiki, Ibis3, PhilKnight, Rothorpe, SiobhanHansa, Acroterion, Propaniac, Nikolaos Bakalis, Magioladitis, Con-normah, Bongwarrior, VoABot II, VKing, AuburnPilot, Benasso, C d h, Wild rabbit, Hullaballoo Wolfowitz, JamesBWatson, Sarahj2107,Doug Coldwell, Midgrid, Carn, WhatamIdoing, Argonautica~enwiki, Practical123, MiPe, Exiledone, JoergenB, Chris G, DerHexer, Ja-hangard, CCS81, Lao commando, Oroso, Gjd001, FisherQueen, Job L, Skarioffszky, Leaderofearth, Jackson Peebles, Darkbreed, Ugajin,

24 10 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

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