Unit 12 Plants and Animals PLANTS A. General Information: 1. Kingdom Plantae. 2. multicellular organisms. 3. made up of eukaryotic cells. 4. autotrophic 5. undergoes photosynthesis in chloroplasts in the leaves. General Plant Structure: B. Roots Function of roots: 1. absorbs water & nutrients from soil through osmosis, diffusion, & active transport. 2. transports water & nutrients to stems of plant. 3. anchors plant in soil. 4. adaptation : root hairs – increases surface area to absorb more water & nutrients C. Stems Function of stems: 1. provide structural support & transport of water, minerals, & sugar made from photosynthesis. 2. Vascular tissue – transports materials throughout plant 2 kinds of vascular tissue

a. xylem (zy-lem) – transports water from roots up to leaves b. phloem (flow-em) – transports sugar (food) down from leaves to rest of the plant

3. nonvascular plants use osmosis and diffusion for transport of water and glucose 4. all plants are either vascular (with xylem and phloem) or nonvascular (without xylem and phloem) D. Leaves: 1. function of leaves is to absorb sunlight

in chlorophyll in chloroplasts. 2. highest concentration (number) of chloroplasts

is in leaves. 3. Cuticle is a waxy covering on the leaves that

prevents water loss (transpiration) of the plant. 4. transpiration: movement of water vapor out

of the plant

5. Leaves contain many stomata (stoma is one) which are pores in the leaves that allow for gas exchange 6. Size of stomata are controlled by guard cells

7. size of stomata changes in order to help the plant maintain its homeostasis of plant’s water balance 8. adaptations:

a. deciduous plants – plants that lose their leaves in the fall & lower their metabolism during the cold months of winter (hibernate) b. evergreens – plants that maintain leaves all year, stays green all year c. conifers - have needles for leaves

1. Needles are flexible and allow for snow & ice to fall off of plant. 2. Needles are skinny, so there is less surface area to reduce water loss through transpiration. 3. Needles secrete a resin as protection against insects and weather.

E. Non-Vascular Plants 1. examples: mosses and liverworts 2. Short plants 3. Grow in dense thick carpets 4. Have leaves which are very thin (only 1 cell thick) 5. Because of thin leaves, allows for osmosis &

diffusion for transport of water and nutrients F. Vascular plants 1. examples : ferns, all trees, all flowers, all vegetables,

all fruits 2. Tall plants 3. Have vascular tissue (xylem & phloem) for transport

of water and nutrients 4. Two types of vascular plants: gymnosperms &

angiosperms

Types of ferns

moss

G. Gymnosperms (means “naked seeds”) 1. Non-flowering vascular plants 2. Use cones for reproduction a. Male cone – smaller, releases pollen carried by wind b. Female cone – larger, contains eggs & catches pollen c. Seeds produced in the female cone 3. Ex : Conifers

a. Evergreens that do not lose their leaves b. Have needles as their leaves H. Angiosperms (means “covered seed”) 1. flowering vascular plants 2. reproduction occurs in the flower 3. Female reproductive parts of the flower:

a. pistil : female part of flower (has 3 parts) 1. stigma : has sticky surface to catch pollen

2. style: tube to connect stigma to ovary 3. ovary: holds eggs (ovules)

b. stamen : male part of flower (has 2 parts) 1. anther : produces pollen (sperm of plant) 2. filament : tube to hold anther up

4. produces seeds in the ovary after fertilization occurs 5. Pollination – transfer of pollen from anther to stigma by wind, insects, birds, or other animals 6. Fertilization – union of sperm (pollen grain) & egg (ovules) to form zygotes in ovary 7. Pollination is required for fertilization to occur 8. Fruit is the ripened ovary of an angiosperm 9. Advantage of fruits:

a. provides protection for seeds of plant b. aids in dispersal of seeds (animals eat fruit & then excrete the seeds with its own fertilizer!)

10. 2 types of angiosperms : a. monocotyledons (monocots) – have one leaf to come out first when plant seed germinates b. dicotyledon (dicot) – has two leaves to come out first when plant seed germinates

I. Seeds 1. an adaptive advantage for plant reproduction & survival on land 2. Parts of a seed:

a. Seed coat: tough outer layer for protection b. Embryo: developing “baby” plant c. Cotyledon: fleshy portion that provides food for the

developing embryo J. Plant Responses 1. tropism: plant’s response to an external stimulus 3 kinds of plant tropisms (responses):

1. phototropism: growth of plant toward light

2. gravitotropism (geotropism): growth of plant upward

3. thigmotropism: growth of plant in response to touch (ex. vines curling around objects – poison ivy, grape vines)

Animals A. Animal Characteristics (for ALL animals): 1. Kingdom Animalia 2. multicellular organisms 3. made up of eukaryotic cells 4. heterotrophic 5. Some are sessile: they do not move from place to place

Examples of sessile animals: sponges, corals, sea anemones 6. Reproduction can be : asexual, sexual with internal or external fertilization 7. Process of development from fertilization to embryo, mitosis allows for growth and development, blastocyst forms the embryo with stem cells:

8. Hermaphrodite: animal that can produce both eggs and sperm

a. increases the probability of fertilization for sessile animals and animals that can’t find a mate easily. B. Animal Structure for Support and Protection: 1. exoskeleton: hard waxy covering on outside of body, made of chitin Examples: insects, lobsters, spiders, king crabs 2. endoskeleton: hard bony structure on inside of body,made of bone & cartilage

a. Examples: humans, frogs, fish, snakes

3. Invertebrates: animals without a backbone a. Examples: worms, mollusks, insects, sponges 4. Vertebrates: animals with backbones a. Examples: humans, fish, snake, dogs b. have bilateral symmetry (divided into 2 equal parts)

5. Endothermic: animal that maintains a constant body temperature a.Examples: birds, mammals

6. Ectothermic: animal that changes body temperature based on their environment b. Examples: lizards, snakes

INVERTEBRATES A. Phylum Porifera: (pronounced “por- if-er-a”) 1. Example: sponges 2. Characteristics:

a. simplest, least complex animals b. movement type: sessile, attached to surfaces c. method of feeding: filter feeder – organism filters small particles

of food from water as water passes through the organism d. reproduction: both sexual (produces sperm & eggs) and

asexual (budding) e. fertilization: external, sperm & eggs carried by water currents f. excretion: wastes expelled through opening of sponge called osculum g. respiration: pore cells allow water through sponge carrying oxygen

into the cells of the sponge B. Phylum Cnidarians: (pronounced “ni-dari-an”) 1. Examples: coral, jelly fish, sea anemone 2. Characteristics:

a. movement type: some sessile, some move b. method of feeding: nematocyst – stinging cells that in tentacle that contains poison c. reproduction: sexual (medusa ) & asexual (polyps break off) d. fertilization: external e. excretion: undigested material released through mouth (in & out same opening) f. respiration: oxygen & carbon dioxide diffuse through body cells

C. Phylum Mollusca: (pronounced “moll – us- ka”) 1. Examples: snails, clams, oysters, octopus, squid 2. Characteristics of mollusks:

a. method of feeding: some with radula, some are filter feeders, and some have a mouth b. reproduction: most are sexual, land-dwelling snails are hermaphrodites c. fertilization: external d. excretion: have nephridia which are tube-like structures to expel wastes e. respiration: gills if live in water, primitive lungs on land

SNAIL CLAM SQUID

D. Phylum Annelida: (pronounced “ana – lee –da”) 1. Examples: earthworms, leeches, bristleworms 2. Characteristics of annelids:

a. method of feeding: have a gizzard & crop to grind up the organic matter found in soil and leaves b. reproduction: most are hermaphrodites, but can also mate c. fertilization: internal d. excretion: how to handle wastes - have nephridia which excretes wastes through each segment in skin and also through the anus e. respiration: how to get oxygen - exchange gases through skin (skin must be moist) f. movement: use setae which are tiny bristles that help worm move by anchoring it in the soil as it contracts muscle segments to pull it through the soil

E. Phylum Arthropoda: (pronounced “arth – ro – poda”) 1. Examples: spiders, crabs, insects, lobsters/shrimp 2. Characteristics of arthropods:

a. most diverse (most variety) Invertebrate phylum b. body parts: head, thorax, abdomen

c. movement: “arthro” means jointed, they have jointed appendages, d. skeleton: have an exoskeleton to protect & support their internal organs e. method of feeding: have mandibles (jaws) for chewing & biting f. reproduction: sexual (sperm & eggs) g. fertilization: most have internal, those in water have external h. excretion: Malpighian tubules connect to outside from intestines i. respiration: gills in water, tracheal tubes on land, “book lungs” for spiders

VERTEBRATES F. Common characteristics for all vertebrates: 1. all are in the Phylum Chordata 2. all vertebrates have bilateral symmetry (only one way to cut in 2 equal halves) 3. reproduction is sexual 4. all vertebrates have an internal backbone (endoskeleton) G. Class Agnatha: (pronounced “ag-nath-a”), Class Chondrichthyes: (pronounced “con- drick-thays”), and Class Osteichthyes: (pronounced “os-tee-ick-thays”) = FISH 1. Characteristics in common

a. Heart: 2 chambers in heart b. Temperature regulation: ectothermic c. Reproduction: external fertilization d. Use gills to get oxygen for respiration

2. Class Agntha a. Jawless fish (sucker mouth) b. cartilage for skeleton

c. Examples: lamprey, hagfish 3. Class Chondrichthyes

a. reproduction: most external (spawning), some internal (sharks mate) b. cartilage for skeleton, flexible animal c. Examples: sharks, rays, skates

4. Class Osteichthyes

a. skeleton made of bone (prefix osteo- means “bone”) b. lateral line system – sensory organ c. Scales for protection, streamline for swimming d. Swim bladder = regulates the depth that the fish can swim (controls fish going up and down in the water)

e. Examples: bass, tilapia, flounder, catfish, bluefish, goldfish, salmon

D. Class Amphibia: (pronounced “am-fib-ee-a”) 1. 3 chambers in heart 2. Temperature regulation: ectothermic

3. Reproduction: external fertilization (needs water) 4. Undergoes metamorphosis for development a. Life begins in water and moves to land 5. Breathes through gills when young in water, then through skin & with lungs when an adult on land 6. Examples: frogs, salamanders E. Class Reptilia: (pronounced “rep-till-ee-a”) 1. Heart: 3 or 4 chambers in heart, depends on species 2. Temperature regulation: ectothermic 3. Reproduction: internal fertilization 4. tough, scaly skin – adaptation for land 5. lungs – adaptation for land 6. amnionic egg with hard, leathery shell, adaptation for egg on land 7. Examples: snake, lizard, turtle, alligator

F. Class Aves: (pronounced “ah-vays”) 1. 4 chambers in the heart 2. Temperature regulation: endothermic

Frog lays eggs in water.

Adult frog lives on land.

Eggs hatch into tadpoles

that live in water.

Tadpoles grow into frogs.

3. Reproduction: internal fertilization 4. Feathers for insulation and flight 5. Hollow bones to allow for lighter weight for flight 6. Amnionic egg with hard shell, adaptation for egg on land 7. Examples: penguin, hawk, robin, chicken

G. Class Mammalia: (pronounced “mam-mail-ee-ah”) 1. 4 chambers in heart 2. Temperature regulation: endothermic 3. Reproduction: internal fertilization 4. most have hair or fur 5. have ability to learn 6. mammary glands to nurse young (mother produces milk) 7. have sweat glands 8. 3 types of mammals:

a. monotremes: ONLY mammals that lay eggs - examples: anteaters, platypus b. marsupials: embryo develops partially in uterus, then crawls out and up into the pouch of mom to get milk to grow & finish developing - examples: opossum, kangaroo c. placentals: embryo develops fully in uterus of mother, mother gives birth & nurses y

-examples: human, goat, dog, elephant, hamster - gestation: length of pregnancy (ex. 9 months human,

22 days hamster)

H. Animal Behavior - Behavior: anything an animal does in response to a stimulus in its environment 2 Kinds of Behavior: 1. Innate behaviors: behaviors animal is born knowing how to do (inherited)

a. reflex: simple automatic response that involves no conscious control; example: knee jerk, blinking at sudden noise

b. fight-or-flight: body mobilizes for greater activity during stress; prepares to fight or run, increase in adrenaline; example: stallion protecting its herd of mares or run from cougar

c. courtship: communicative behavior to ensure mating & continuation of species; example: mating ritual dances & songs

d. aggression / territorial : communicative behavior to intimidate another animal of the same species to protect it’s territory (resources, mates, habitat); example: male sea lions fighting for territory

e. dominance hierarchy: communicative form of social ranking within groups where some individuals are subordinate to others; example: pecking order of chickens, alpha ranking of males in wolf pack

f. migration: instinctive seasonal movement of animals; example: birds fly south for the winter

g. hibernation: during winter, animal’s metabolism slows down; example: Bear sleeps in winter

h. estivation: during summer, metabolism slows down; example: Desert animals in intense heat

i. circadian rhythm: 24 hour cycle of animal behavior; example: men are awake during the day, sleeps at night (diurnal); an owl is awake at night, sleeps during day ( nocturnal)

j. taxis: movement toward or away from a specific stimulus

1. phototaxis: movement in response to light 2. chemotaxis: movement in response to chemicals

k. suckling: nursing from mother (getting nutrition from milk from mother)

l. pheremones: chemical scents used for communication to change behavior of individuals; example: skunks warding off predators, ant trails

2. learned behaviors: — behavior that changes through experience or practice a. habituation: loss of sensitivity to a stimulus and thus a lack of response—get used to something; example: Police horse in NYC learning to ignore loud noises

b. imprinting: at a specific time critical to life, an animal forms a social attachment to an animal close to it; example: Baby ducks or geese following their mother after hatching from egg in the nest

c. trial and error: learn by getting a reward for the correct behavior, try one solution and another until find a solution that works; example: mouse and maze, math problems d. classical conditioning: learning by association of one behavior with another; example: Pavlov’s dogs with food and a ringing bell

d. insight: animal uses previous experience to respond to a stimulus; most complex learned behavior; example: Word problems in math, playing a new piece of music