PLANNING DRY SEASON

FEED RESERVE

FOR

RUMINANT LIVESTOCK

EXTENSION BULLETIN NO 44 Livestock Series No 6

Produced and distributed by.: National Agriculture Extension and Research Uaison Services, Ahmadu Bello University, P.M. B. 1067,

~ .J'.arla - Nigeria.

- ......__ Published: March 1989. -.-

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT This bulletin is an expansion of the extension guide on Planning

Feed Reserve for Animals on the. Farm. In writing this bulletin , new ideas and vital information derived from various local and interna­tional sources have been incorporated.

Special thanks go to Drs. W. 0. Ehoche and E. C. Agishi, both of the National Animal Production Research Institute (NAPRI) and J. Y. Odiba, M . Umaru, I. I. Dafwang of A.E.R.L.S. for their useful comments on the manuscript.

I. E. J . Iwuanyanwu Extension Specialist.

The Information Used in this Publication is based on the work done by the

NATIONAL ANIMAL PRODUCTION RESEARCH INSTITUTE <NAPRI)

Ahmadu Bello University Zaria

CONTENTS

Page

Acknowledgement ••• • 0 • • 0. 0 ••• 0 0 •• 0 0 0 • •• • • 0 • • 0 ••• 0 0 •• 0 •• II

Introduction ..... . ............ .. ... . .. ..... . . . ..... . ... . .

Sources of dry season feed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

Production of hay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

Production of Silage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

Crop Residues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

Concentrates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . 23

How much to produce or purchase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 7

Animal Unit Equivalent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

Worked examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

Estimated capacity of silo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

Introduction:

The obvious reason for planning for feed reserve is to maintain livestock against weight loss particularly during the dry season when feed is scarce. For maintenance and production, livestock not only re­quires feed continuously at fairly regular intervals but such food must provide the animal with the nutrients necessary for growth and production. About 600Jo of the food an animal is able to eat is required for such functions as body maintenance, metabolism, circulation of blood, respiration and reproduction. Liveweight gains and profits from livestock for the owner depend on the feed available for an animal to eat over and above the amount required for maintenance purposes . Thus good feeding is important for profitable returns from livestock.

In beef cattle, feeding for production cannot always be economical­ly justified because of the interplay of meat prices and feed cost. Nevertheless special situations exist where conserved fodders have.L to be fed to ensure the sale of a finished product. For instance if, at ter fattening in finished grain feedlot and all the animals are not S•Jld at the same time, there is need to feed them for maintenance before they are finally sold out. The sheep and goat producer, by <:.nd large, is in a similar situation as the beef raiser.

With the dairy farmer, the situation is slightly different. Once the milk product ion level of the dairy cow falls to a low point as a resul t of inadequate nutrition, no amount of feeding will return it to its previous level in the current lactation. Thus the loss in milk prodJc­tion in dairy cannot be recovered.

The wise livestock prod~cer will therefore s~udy his basi·c· ye4rly feed supply in terms of avatlable pasture , and wtll make prov1s1on for a reserve of suitable feeds for maintenance and or production .

For maintenance feeding in which low-quality roughage such as grass hay or cereal crop residue is the dominant feed, there is then ed to ensure adequate supply of supplementary protein and minerals to encourage the consumption of the roughage by animals . Thus feeds, particularly 1 hose used for production should be rich in energy and protein. Thi s bulletin discusses various sources of ruminant animal feed that can be preserved and used for dry season feeding.

SOURCES OF FEED DURING THE DRY SEASON

There are two main sources of feed. These are roughages and con­centrates.

A. ROUGHAGES Roughages are feeds that are high in crude fibre content and relati­

vely low in digestible nutrients. Fibre aids the mastication and regurgi­tation of food and prevents constipation and bloat in ruminants. Sources of roughages are:-

Native or natural range Improved pasture Hay Silage Crop residues

i) Native Range Native range is grazing land dominated by indigenous species into

which fertilizer or exotic species have not deliberately been introduc­ed. Animals managed under the nomadic system are almost exclusive­ly dependent on it. Because man neither plants nor harvests the feed, native range is the least costly of all animal feed but it does have its limitations. Continued heavy grazing results in production that is far below the potential for the site both in quantity and quality. Usually native range is insufficient for current needs as a result of nuctuation in quantity caused by seasonal growth patterns.

Sheep grazing on native range .

The range a lso suffers serious losses of nutrients as a result of ex­posure to heat during the long dry season . The consequence is that during 6 to 8 months of the year, range forage may be a little better than straw in supplying the essential nutrients fo r normal growth and reproduction of livestock. Thus in order to make provisio n for dry season ruminants' feed needs , native range could be paddocked in reserve for dry season grazing. About 3 to 6 hecta res of range can sup­port a 300kg cattle in the Derived Savanna while 4 to 6 ha. and 12.3 can support cattle of similar size respectively in the Guinea Savanna and Sudan Savanna.

ii) Improved Pastures

Improved pastures include sown pasture and native range which has received fertilizer appli cation. Improved native pasture m ay or may not have been introduced to legumes or grasses which means that in ­digenous species can still be present in such pasture . Like native range the improved nati ve pasture is grazed (harvested) b y animals . Improv­ed na tive p asture could be reseed ed to e n a b le it produce gre a ter yie ld <; or high quality forage than native range.

Sown pasture on the other hand is that which result s from prepared seed-beds. They arc almost invariably sown and fertili zer is app lied and other agronomic practices arc carried out on them .

Sown legume pa~t urc

The yield from sown pastures is usually high and the conLribution of nati ve spec ies is minor . Bet tcr qua lit y hay is usually produced from improved a nd sown pastures.

PRODUCTION OF HAY

Hay is a dried forage usually cut, baled and preserved for the feeding of li vestock. It is fibrou s, has 25 to 45 07o crude fibre and I to 20% crude prot ein ; the 20% crude protein is.found in young legumes. Hay can be made from na tural, dry forages and a lso from the improv­ed forage species deliberately culti vated for the purpose of feedi ng of li vestock duri ng the dry season . Hay can be fed to ruminant an imals and horses; it is not led to pigs and poultry. It is a very safe feed especially for young ruminants of about 2 weeks old in whom it en­coUI·ages the development of the rumen ami innoculation with bacterial organisms. Hay is a good maintenance feed fo r livestock .

Grass hay

Forage species used for hay Hay can be produced from both grass and legumes alike . Grass hay.

can be made from Gamba (Androprogon gayanus), signa l g rass (Bracharia decumbens), Rhodes grass(Chloris gayana) wooly finger grass(Digitatia smutsi1) and buffet grass(Denchrus ciliaris). Legume hay can be produced from sty\o, groundnut, cowpea and soyabean

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vines. combinations of combinable grasses or grass with legumes arc usuall y superio r to single species because they norma ll y resul t in more palatable feed, greater yield per unit areas, better weed control and better utilization of plant nutrients a nd water from the soil.

Equipment for making hay The equipment used for the product ion of hay include:

I. Mowers II. Cut lasses Ill. Sickles IV. Ra kes v. Balers VI. Tractor-trailers

When to make hay

The time to make hay varies fro m o ne ecological zone to the other and is determined by the rainfa ll pat tern a nd stage of growch of the forage species . The best time to make hay in the various ecological zones are as follows:-

!. September is suitable for places within the Sudan Savanna 11. October is favourable to places within the Northern

Guinea Savanna. 111. November suit s the Southern Guinea Savanna areas. tv . December and J anuary favour places within the Forest

Zone. However, necessary adjustment for time should be ma de if rai ns

start o r stop earlier or later than expected .

When to cut the hay grass or legume The best time to cut the hay forage is before flowerin g i.e. when the

flower buds ha ve developed but are not yet open. If the green forage is cut earlier than this stage, it is best used for feedi ng dairy calves and sheep since the fibre and mineral contents are low and is also used as

a laxative. The importance of cutting at the right time is that the per­centage protein, dry matter digestibilit y and mineral s a ll decrease as the forage species advance in age; the ra te or decrease is greater in grasses than legumes . Thus forages cut very late, for example at seed s tage are usually of low value for all classes of li vestock .

5

Cutting with a mower

Choose a dry sunny day for cutting the hay material. Use a mower if available. Mowing can be done in the morning after dew has disap­peared or in the afternoon.

Cutting with sickle

In certain situations for example in small farms where mo\\'c rs may not be available, ordinary tools such as cutlasses or sickles can be used for cutting.

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It is necessary to graze the hay field once at the early stage of growth (about 6 weeks after the rains) and then allow the field to regrow for hay production at the end of the rains. Wilting the cut forage

The cut hay material should be allowed to stay on the field until sufficiently wilted . But over-exposure to the sun should be avoided as this will lead to losses in colour, palatability, nutrients and material.

Raking the Wilted hay forage Rake the wilted hay forage to the windrow. During raking, the side

delivery rake and the horizontal action rake of the raker mahine puts the forage into a windrow with the basal stem ends exposed and the leafy upper stems rolled to the side. In the absence of machines, hand­rake is used to move the forage into small heaps.

Raking hay forage

The length of time the hay will remain in the windrow or small heaps will depend on weather conditions and coarseness of the hay. The length of time will vary from two (2) days to 14 days. Leaves that are very thin dry faster than stems, thus it is important to expose such leaves to less sun and wind than the stems.

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Baling the hay Hay is ready for baling if after twisting it a few times it does not

break, but is dry enough for the bark on the stem to be rubbed off with the thumbnail. Baling should not be done when hay forage is too dry, as can happen on hot afternoons as this results in loss of leaves. Under such conditions, baling should be done only in the morning or evening when the hay has softened up from water vapour in the cooling air. Field baling is desirable if the hay is to be transported to some distance.

In the absence of a baling machine, the forage can be tied into conve­nient bundles. The hay forage can also be stacked when tying it up is not possible.

-- --:::...-

Tying up hay

Stacking hay by hand requires a minimum of equipment but the hay is usually difficult to feed and bulky to transport.

In more advanced countries, the cheapest way of handling hay from the field to the animals is to mow rake and chop the hay with field pick-up choppers. The chopper also blows the hay into wagons fo r hauling to barns or stacks where it is unloaded mechanically. Recent

8

developments show that a new type of baler has been developed. This model compresses wilted hay into cylindrical pellets. The process eliminates the need of wire and baling twine; it also reduces storage space and allows hay to be pressed the same day it is mowed. However, artificial drying of hay, if properly done, has the advantage of higher retention of carotene, vitamins and minerals.

Storage of hay Hay can be stored in barns or sheds. Such barns or sheds need not be

made with expensive materials. For hay to keep safely in the store, the moisture content must not be more than 25 percent. if hay is to be stored at the time it is being baled, the moisture content should not be more than 22 per cent, because hay containing too much moisture when stored will undergo pronounced fermentation and become very hot; the nutrients value will also be reduced. Hay stored without bal­ing can be tested for the correct moisture contents before storage. A practical method of test ingi f the forage is sufficiently dried is to take a wisp ofthe hay and twist it with the bands and note what happens. If the stems are slightly brittle and there is no evidence of moisture as the

Stored Hay

stems are twisted, then the hay can be safely stored. However, hay whether baled or not can store as long as two (2) years without going bad.

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Losses in hay Losses in hay are inevitable. Any loss in hay exceeding 20 to 300Jo in

legume and 10 to 150/o in grass hay should be considered serious. Losses in leaves and nutrients can occur in the field and during storage.

While on the field, hay should not be too dry in order to prevent leaves and stems (particularly of legumes) from shattering. Hay should not be a llowed to ferment extensively to prevent heavy loss of car­bohydrates carotene, minerals and vitamins. Therefore hay that is already dry should not be exposed to heavy a nd prolonged rain in order to prevent loss in nutrients by leaching.

PRODUCTION OF SILAGE

Silage is a most succulent roughage feed made by storing fresh green or slightly wilted forage in a silo in such a manner as to exclude air. The forage is acted upon by bacteria and other organisms which fer­ment the sugars in the forage into acids. The acids in turn stop further bacterial action and thus the forage is preserved as Si lage Silage is primarily used as feed for dairy and beef catt le. However, it can also be fed to sheep, goats and rabbits.

Silage

10

Origin of silage production The idea of silage production originated from some German and.

French farmers in early 1900. These farmers discovered that they could and infact did make deep pits for storing surplus fresh green grass using common salt as preservative. The store forage was later

used to feed livestock during the period of feed scarcity. The whole ex­ercise later gave rise to the modern method of silage production. To­day, silage making involves a deliberate production of silage crops us­ing the necessary tools and ensiling such forages for use as supplemen­tary feed during the dry season. Crops Suitable for Silage Making

Crops used for making silage are legumes and cereal crops including grasses. Legume crops include cowpea, mecuna and velvet beans. Cereals and grass used for silage making include maize, guinea corn, millet and Elephant grass. Legumes are more expensive than cereals for making silage. This is because legumes are delicate in nature and therefore are not easy to handle.

Maize is the traditional silage crop but recent investigations at the National Animal Production Research Institute (NAPRI) has revealed 1 hat milking cows fed millet silage produced slightly higher amount of milk than those fed maize silage. However maize, sorghum and millet are sources of food for humans, as such, Elephant grass has more at­traction than cereal food crops for silage production. This is because Elephant grass is not competed for as. food for man and livestock and in addition, Elephant grass is a permanent grass. When once established Elephant grass can be harvested for silage production for at least five (5} years. The yield or a hectare of well maintained Elephant grass field over the 5 years period is given below:

Year Yield (!annes) I 12.3 2 44.5 3 6/.7 4 61.7 5 . 61.7

I I

On the other hand legume silages have higher protein and mineral contents than grass silages. Legumes therefore can make excellent feed. Because silages made from cereals contain insufficient amount of nutrients, ruminant animals fed such silages must be supplemented with oil seed cakes or other nitrogenous sources in order to enhance the protein and mineral intake of the animals for efficient meat and milk production.

Stage of growth best suited for silage crops The stage of growth at which silage crop is harvested for silage mak­

ing varies among crops. Generally silage crops should be harvested before they mature i.e. earlier than the stage in which they make the best hay.

Silage maize (maize forage) should be harvested when the kernels on the cobs have finisRed denting or while all but one or two of the lowest leaves are still green. Denting implies that signs for the formation of seeds on the cobs are conspicuously present.

Guinea corn and millet forages should be harvested when their heads have just.reached the dough (soft or flabby) stage.

Grass silage should be harvested as soon as the heads form or cut in their early bloom, while legumes should be cut when they are one­quarter (1/4) bloom.

Equipment used for silage production Equipment that can be used for silage production include: Sickles and cutlasses Buckrake and windrowers Wheeldbarrows Forage harvesters

Sickles and cutlasses are used when manual harvesting of silage crop is used. Buckrake and wheelbarrows are used respectively to rake and convey the silage material to site for ensiling.

Forage harvesters are employed when silage crops are harvested and gathered mechanically. The harvester picks the cut forage crop after wilting on the field and places it directly into a truck or trailer for con­veyance to the silo.

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~ lanual harvesting of silage crop is tedious and requires a lot of labour a. ld is hardly rhe best method. Mechanical production of silage is recommended since silage is invariably produced for feeding a large number of ruminant beef or dairy cattle.

Types of Silos

The various types of silos used for ensiling silage crops include: Pit (trench) silo Bunker silo Stack silo upright silo

Upright Silo

Upright Silo

Upright or tower silo is cylindrical in form and airtight. It can be of concrete, steel, glazed metal or brick which should be between 4m to lOrn high and should be built on a fairly level ground. The silo should be fitted with a door from beneath for emptying the silage when need­ed. The forage for ensiling should be filled from the top using a support such as a ladder. Although expensive to make, upright silos take some r~sk out of silage making silage compression is also assured with upright silo. The cost of construction could be prohibitive.

Stack (fence) Silo

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Stack Silo

Stack or fence silo is constructed on fairly level ground surface. it is suited for short-time use only, as percentage of spoilage is usually high. However, this can be reduced if plastic sheeting is used inside slatted walls and cover it is usually re(;ommended for u se in Soulhern States because of the ease of feeding from it.

Bunker Silo

- -- ---- -- ---- - -----

Bunker Silo

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Bunker silos should be built on a fairly level ground with most of the floor at ground level and open at both ends. Side walls should be of concrete if it is to be used for a long time (or wood, wire plus matting for short-time use). The walls require concrete brace for suport. The floor should shape sufficiently to ensure good drainage. The bunker silo is popular in the U.S. A.

Pit (Trench) Silo Pit silo should be dug on a slopy ground; one end of the pit should

be at ground level to allow for good drainage and access to machinery.

---Pit Silo

If soil structure is firm, the sidewalls should be smooth and should slope 10 em to 12.5 em (4ins to Sins) per 30 em of depth. If the soil structure is not firm or if the silo is to last for many years. the sidewalls should be lined with concrete or masonry block. The wall should slope 2.5 em to 5 em (1 in to 2ms) per 30 em of dept. The con­struction should prevent the entry of surface water . Pit siloa facilitate ease of self feeding and is therefore recommended.

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Size of Silo The size of silo varies depending on: - the number and kind of animals to be fed -the quanti1:y of silage to be fed daily - how long the silage is to last - the quantity of forage that will be available for ensiling

each time. Below (Table I) are the various dept , widths of silos and the cor­responding amount of silage that can be produced per lineal 0.305m.

Table 1: Estimated Capacity of Trench Silo

No . Depth(M) Top Width(M) Bottom Approximate Width(M) Tonnage per

lineal 0 .305m A B c

I 1.22 2.14 1.53 0.4 2 1.22 2. 8 1.83 0.5 3 1.22 3.10 2. 14 0.5 4 1.83 2. 8 1.83 0.7 5 2.44 3.10 1.83 1.0 6 2.44 3.70 2.14 1.2 7 2.44 4.60 2.44 1.3 8 3.10 3.40 1..83 1.3 9 3.10 4.60 2.44 1.8

10 3.10 5.50 3. 10 2.2

6 !5 6 8

Steps necessary to make good silage

The following steps are necess ary for good siiagc production: 1. Grow suitable silage crop in sufficient quantity using the

nect:ssary agronomic practices ; plant early enough . n. Locate and con struct the ~izc and the recommended silo before

the crop matures for silage making.

m. Cut the silage cro~s at ~ he right stage of maturity.

lu

When to make silage

Silage can be made at any time provided irrigated agriculture is practised. In the drier Northern States of Nigeria, silage making starts at the later part or end of the rains; it could be made at any time under irrigation. In the Southern States, silage production should commence a month after the rains or precisely during the first week in December.

Cutting and Preparation of forage fol' ensiling Maize, millet or guinea corn forages should be cut with forage

harvester from the field directly into truck or trailer and delivered into silo. The forage cutter of the harvester chops the forage into finer pieces.

For legumes and wet grasses, the cut forage should be allowed to wilt for a few days on the field to reduce excess moisture. This should be followed by mowing and windrowing. The wilted forage should be collected with the harvester which chops and delivers it into trucks or trailer for conveyance to silo.

If forage harvester or chopper is not availabe, then mow and win­drow (after wilting in case of legumes and wet grasses) Then with buck rate, load th}! material into truck or trailer and deliver to silo. If the forage is hot chopped, fermentation will be delayed because the cell saps will be tied into the plant. This will result in spoilage. it is desirable to chop fine with sharp knives when machinery is not available.

Moisture content of silage crops

A suitable moisture Content (M.C) should be ensured before ensil­ing is commenced. Between 65 TO 70ff/o M.C. is ideal because if the forage is too wet during ensiling, the silage produced will be strong and sometimes rotten. On the other hand if the forage is too dry, the silage may be heated and thus may burn.

To test or ensure a 65 to 70o/o M.C., the following should be done. Collect a handfull of cut forage already left on the field to wilt, or forage that is freshly cut for ensiling. Squeeze the forage. If water drips from the hand after squeezing, the forage is too wet, and should be wilted to reduce moisture. If the material remains in a hard com­pact ball, it is still too wet. If the handfu! of squeezed materials is compact but slowly springs apart, then it is just right (65 to 70% M.C.).

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How to fill the silo with forage Forage from cereals s uch as maize, millet and guinea corn can be

delivered into the silo after cutting and chopping. This is called direct ensilage. But forage grass and legumes should be wilted for a few days on the field, since they are easier to compact at low moisture content.

To fill the silo, a reliable man should be placed in it to distribute the forage uniformly over the length and breath of the silo. He should also walk about in the silo to help pack the silage materials (fo rage). Towards the top of the silo the forage sh~uld be tramped especially well near the wall as friction with the wall retards setting. Good re~ults are achieved by this method with corn, millet and sorghum forages if it contains sufficient water (not more than 65 to7007o M.C.) to pack. But if the forage is too dry to pack well, then water should be added by sprinkling to ensure good packing. However greater compression is achieved by use of tractor or heavy roller .

The result of good compression

With the compression of the forage, the material settles con­siderably at an inside temperature of about 80°C and top temperature or '60 - 80°C. The result is that bacteria , yeast, moulds and enzymes present will initiate a fermentation pt"ocess and acids such as acetic, lactic, proprionic and butyric acids are released from sugars in the forage. As the silage material reduces downwards due to settlement, more forage can be added to ensure that the silo is filled to capacity. But before more forage is added, 7.5 em to 15 em (3 to 6 inches) of spoiled forage arising from the previous filing, should be removed. Inadequate compression leads to the following problems.

1. Excessive respiration and overheating 11. High loss of dry matter 111. Reduction iri digestibility of protein in silage 1v. Loss of carotene.

Good compression encourages rise in acidity of the silage but discourages further fermentation. Chemically good silage contains more lactic acid than any other acid. The pH of a good silage is 5.6. Legumes generate less acid at pH 4.0 because of their low sugar con­tent which is one of the reasons additives are used in silage produc­tion.

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The use of additives in silage making

Additives are subst~nces used to improve the quality of si lages. They are added in measured amounts while the silo is being filled with silage material. Additives are used especially when legumes or grass or both forages are being ensiled as they do not easil y pass through the fermentation process as u result of their low sugar content . fhe ad­ditives used in silage production include tht following:

i. Molasses 11. Cereal grains 111. Sodium mctabisulphate IV. Calcium formate with sodium nitrate

About 45.5kg of molasses should be added per metric tonne of legumes and 27 .3kg per metric tonne added to grass forage. The molasses is used to increase the percentage of fermentab le car­bohydrate and also to improve the acceptabilit y of the silage to animals. Alternatively, the addition of between 27 . ~kgand 136.4kg of dried ground cereal gain per metric tonne of forage wi ll absorb excess moi~turc red uce seepage and increase the feed value of the silage. The range in the amount of g rain used will depend on the moisture cont­

ent of the fo rage. Forage with higher moisture content will attract higher amount of g rains .

In places such as the U. S. A. and Europe, the use of chemical ad­ditives is practised. Such a ddit ives or preservatives are thoroughly mixed with forage material during ensiling. The preservatives include sodium metabisulphate which is used at the rate of 3 to 3.5kg per tonne or a mixt urc of calcium formate and sodium nitrate added at a rate of 2%kg to 4 1!2kg , per metric tonne of forage.

How to seal the silo aftet ensiling The silo should be sealed as soon as ensiling is completed. Sealing

could be done with ·weighted.Piast icsheet which should be spread over the forage after which waste straw is placed on the plastic to make it firm . Sealing should be properly done as improperly sealed silo can waste the labour and expense of getting the crop into the silo.

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Charactetistics of good silage A good silage should have the following characteristics:­

!. It should be palatable to animals 11. It should have no bad odour, neithermouldnorrot but good

aroma. 111. It should be of uniform green or brownish colour iv . It should be discernible, the utiginal plant tissues or leaves.

Dark-brown colour in silage indicates excessive heating or too high a water content. Black colour of silage shows that the material is ran­cid.

Advantages of silages over hay 1. Silages are all-season feed.

11. They have higher feeding value than hay as over 800Jo of the feeding value of the original green material is preserved in them.

111. Silages have higher carotene and vitamin content s than in hay.

1v. Silage crops arc harvcs ied earlier at their mus t nutritious stage compared to hay usually harvested when tramloca­tiun of nutriCnl !'> might have taken place .

v. There is less feed waste in feeding silage than in feeding hay.

vt. Silage occupies less space and reduces fire hazards which is not the case in hay.

Disadvantages of silage over hay t. Storing a tonne uf silage requires the h: .ndling of 2 to 4

times more weight than storing hay 11. Silage made from high moisture crops that have received

no wilting or preservative may have an offensive odour and not be too acceptable to livestock.

It should be noted that silage should nut replace good hay entirely in livestock reeding but can replace a major portion.

CROP RESIDUES

Crop rc~ iduc~ arc post-harvest crup matcriab which include sorghum, millet and maiLe stovers , cowpea and groundnut haulm~ . Gcncrally thcy arc characterised by luw nutrient status, low digestibility and poor voluntary intake.

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Cowpea Haulms

Residues from cereals such as maize, millet and guinea corn have lower crude protein, higher crude fibre and lower mineral content'> than those from cowpea, groundnut and soyabean. Thu" for ruminant . animals to make good usc of cereal crop residues, they must be sup­plemented with oil seed cakes or other nitrogenous and mincr.tl sources.

Maize stover

1 I

Estimation of the amount of residue obtainable after farm harvest enables the farmer to know the amount of residue feed available to ruminant animals or how much revenue he can obtain from their sales. From maize, millet and guinea corn the resulting stover or straw is approximately estimated as twice the weight of grain.

Maize Cobs From groundnut, and cowpea, the amount of residue (haulms) ob­

tainable is one part by weight of seed to 3 and 5 part s by weight of groundnut and cowpea residue, respectively.

Groundnut Haulms

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Thus :r a farmer harvested a tonne (lOOOkg) of guinea corn, maize or millet he will expect to get:

1000 x 2 = 2000 kg or two tonnes of straw or residue. Also from groundnut if he harvested a tonne of the grain he will expect to get:

1000 x 3 = 3000 kg groundnut haulms. Similarly, the amount of residue from cowpea.can be calculated.

Storage of crop re_sidues Losses in quality and quantity of crop residues can be minimised

either by grazing the residues in the farm or by collecting them for storage in a barn. Crop residues can be stored in barns similar to those used for the storage of hay. Whether crop residues are grazed o n the farm or gathered for storage in a barn, they should not be allowed to stay beyond 28 days on the farm after grain harvest in order to avoid deterioration in nutritive value and reduction in quality.

B. CONCENTRATES

These are feeds with high concentration of nutrients such as pro­tein, carbohydrates, and minerals. They are usually high in energy and low in fibre. They include crop and animal by products and grains.

i. Protein concentrates Protein concentrates contain crude protein levels ranging from 1807o

and above. They include bloodmeal, fish meal cotton seed, Urea, cake, groundnut cake, palm kernel cake,cashewnut cake, soyabean meal, and meat meal.

Cotton Seed Cake Blood meal 23

Urea is non-protein nitrogen source. Urea could be formed from the metabolism of nitrogenous substance in the ruminant animal or it can be synthesized.

Urea

Synthetic urea is a while crystalline product or ammonia (NH3) and carbon dioxide (CO/

2 NH3

+ CO2

CO(NH2

)2

+ H2 0

Ammonia Carbon dioxide Urea Water

Synthetic urea exists in two forms (1) fertilizer grade urea (450Jo N or 281% CP) and (2) feed grade urea ( 42% N or262%CP). Urea does not supply energy as grains and oil seed cakes do.

One method of utilizing urea is through ensilage with crop residues (CRUPROCESS). A known quantity of fertilizer urea is dissolved in water and sprayed on a known quantity of maize, guinea corn or millet residue placed in a pit. The pit is covered for 20 days with polythene materials after which the ensiled material is fed to ruminanl animals. Cattle can be fed at 5 kg daily per animal. The urea enha­nces the nitrogen content and the digestibility of the residues.

ii. Carbohydrate Concentrates Carbohydrate concentrates supply mainly energy to animals con­

suming them.

24

Sugarcane Molasses in a drum

These include maize. gu inea corn. millet. sugarcane molasses , cassava tuber, potato tuber. They are high in nitrogen free extract which is known also as soluble carboh ydrate.

iii. Mineral Concentrates

Mineral con cent rates .)upply the major or minor mineral elements to ruminants. Among the commonest sources of minerals are bonemeal, mineral salt lick, oyster shell, dicalcium phosphate, limestone and kanwa.

25

i

Commercial mineral salt m1x is used for ruminant and monogastric feeding.

Factors affecting Choice of Feeds for Conservation

Choice of feeds to conserve depends primarily on their function and r~ctors such as:-

a. cost and avai labi lit y b. ease or handling and distribution c. animal acceptance d. storage faci lities e. capital equipment need r. versa1i lity- useful other than in adverse conditions.

Thus the que. tion or which feed to conserve ca n be answered only by analysing critically what is needed from a conserved feed. The li vestock producer having known the nature or the various feeds, the nutr ient ~ each type adds to stock ration and \Vhat conbinations best suits his animals, he takes a decision along the line that suit his needs.

Generally speaking, and considering the factors enumerated above, the choice of feeds for conservation in the Northern States may nar­row down to the fo llowing:-

a. Oil seed cakes b. Legume and grass hays c. Crop residues d. High quality silage e. Fertilizer grade urea r. Bloodmeal g. Grains of cereals

Should feed be produced or purch.ased? Having selected one or a combination of reeds, you have to decide

o n whether to produce it on the farm, purchase and store or purchase only during times of need. Factors innuencing such decision wi ll vary from farm to farm .

While purchasing in times of need may have advantages in not tie­ing up capital for long periods it has the major disadvantage that you may have to pay high pr ices for feed in times or scarcit y. Worse still,

you may not even be able to buy suitable feed at all. ll also sometimes leads to a delay in starting 1 he reeding which can result in heavy loss of body weight in an imals.

HOW MUCH TO PRODUCE OR PURCHASE?

With enough land and labour, you may like to set up your own cropping programme to meet the needs of your particular situation. The problem then becomes that of deciding for example how much grain, in addition to oil seed cakes, urea, hay and or ~ il agc you wi ll need.

In order to be able to make a wise decision, you will need to ask your self questions such as:-

1. How many animals do 1 want to cater for in the supplemen-tary feeding programme?

2. How much land is available for pasture and cropping? 3. What variety of crop do I want to grow? 4. From past experience or that of neighbouring farmers or

through an educated guess, what is likely to be the yield per hectare of each of the crops?

5. Willi be feeding for maintenance or production? 6. How much of each feed in the ration do I want to offer per

animal per day? 7. What is going to be the length of the feed ing period per

animal per day?

As much as possible you should also consider the economics of your prograr.1me. Answers to the above quest ions will help you in planning for enough feed reserve to meet your production situation.

However, planning or calculating the amount of feed reserve should include at least lOOJo more feed than needed. Most livestock farmers or producers make the mistake of trying to keep too many animals and then lose much of their profits by under-feeding them. Similarly if a livestock man or producer is going to have more feed than he needs, he can with careful planning either sell some of the extra feed when prices are highest or watch for chances to buy addit ional good animals at reasonable prices to utilize the extra feeds. Good management therefore affords an opportunity to balance the numbers of livestock with the avai lable feed which should be judiciously fed to ruminant animals on the basis of Animal Unit.

'2 7

ANIMAL UNIT EQUIVALENT (A.U) Animal Unit or Livestock Unit means a unit of measurement for

animal feeding operation calculated by using as the case may be, the following Tropical Animal Unit figures: 0.125, 0.5, 1.2 and 1.0. In feeding operations these figures are used to bring livestock to the size of an average mature cow. Aminal Unit therefore means a mature cow. In the tropics, an Animal Unit is considered to be a 250 kg. mature cow, whereas in the temperate countries, it is taken as 454 kg mature cow. The variation in size is because tropical cattle generally are smaller than those of temperate regions.

Therefore in planning the extent of utilization of grazing land and in calculating hay and concentrate requireme.nts, livestock are normal­ly considered on the basis of Animal Unit. The various Animal Unit · equivalents that could be used to calculate ruminant stock feed needs are: -

Cattle

Mature cows and steers Bulls , 2 or more years old Weaned Calves and yearlings Unweaned calves

Sheep and Goats . 8 Ewes or Does 8 Rams or Buck 8 Weaned lambs or kids

= 1.0 Animal.Unit = 1.2 Animal Unit = 0.5 Animal Unit = 0.125 Animal Unit

= 1.00 Animal Unit 1.2 Animal Unit

= 0.125 Animal Unit Thus 10 bulls, two or more years o ld will be the equivalent of:-

10 X 1.2 = 12 COWS

Also 30 ewes will be the equivalent of:-30~8 = 3.75 Animal Unit 3.75 x 1.0 = 3.75orapprox4cows

Similarly 30 rams will be the equivalent of:-30"'8 = 3.75 Animal Unit 3. 75 x 1.2 = 4.5 or approx 5 bulls

Thus feed meant for 10 bulls can equally take care of 12 mature non­miling cows, hence a livestock producer can make wise use of his feed resources by Animal Unit calculations .

28

Worked Examples No te: I kg = 2.2 lbs I metre = 3.3 Ft Let us suppose you have the equi va lent o r 30 rn ilking cows (20 plus 19 head of yearling stoc k) I yearling = 0 .5 of a cow 19 yearlings = 9.5 = I 0 cows approx. You wa nt to feed concentra te mixtu re fro m October I to April 30 = 2 I 2 days o r 7 mo nths. You wa nt to feed 3.64 kg (could be approximated to 3. 7kg) o r a con­cent ra te mixture per cow pe r d a y. Yo ur concen tra te mixture is made up o r: -

70o/o conttonseedcake 20 0Jo guinea corn 10 % gro undnu t ca ke N. B. Minera l sa lt mix is fed free c ho ice. a. G ra in Reserve

r. T he re fo re200Jo of 3. 7 kg = 3.7 x 20 = 0 .74kg = 0 .74kg sorghum

11 T hus fo r 30 cows, the to ta l g rain need:

= 30 X .74 X 212 = 22 .2 X 2 12 = 4706.4 kg = 4.7 1 tonnes Of guinea corn. ii i. Now, sho uld yo u want to p rod uce yo ur own guinea corn, how much la nd do yo u have to p ut in to the p roduction to be a ble to pro­vide the above requirement ?

a) Let 's suppose one hectare o r la nd will yidd 1500kg threshed g uinea corn from lara ra ra va rie ty = 1.5 to nnes .

b) Thefo rc we need 4. 7 1 : 1.5 hecta res o f la nd = 3 .2 hectares or land .

c) Therefore you" il l p la n to sow say about 3.2 hectares. d ) If o n the other ha nd you plan to buy your g uinea corn , then

) o u will need to buy 4. 7 1 ton nes for reserve for the 2 12 days.

B. Couon seed and Groundnut caJ...e Reserve. It is better to purchase the above supplements . 13ased o n the rat ion fo rm ulation above we need:

1. 700Jo Cotton seed cake in our 3.7 kg = 3.7:.; 70 = 2.6kg. In ot her words, 30 CO\\'S x 2.6 colton seed per 212 days = 30x2.6x212 = 78x2 12 = 16536kg = 16.6 to nnes or cotton seed.

11. Also 100Jogroundnutcakeisthe3.7kg = 100Joof3.7 = 3.7x 10 = 37kg = .4kg. Therefore 30 cows x .37kg groundnut cake for 212 days = 30x.37x212 = 11.1 x212 = 2353.2kg = 2.4 tonnes approximately of groundnut cake.

111. Cross-checking the various amoWlts of the 3. 7 kg ration Guinea corn = . 7 4 Cottonseed = 2.60 Groundnut cake = .37 Total amount = 3.7lkg

C. Hay Reserve In calculating feed needs for native cattle, a sound practice is to

allow about .5kg of grass hay together with a supplement of legume hay or concentrate.

1. Suppose you want to produce the grass hay to be used for your stocks. Each cow should receive 5kg grass hay i.e. 30 cow x 5kg hay x 212 days. = 30 X 5 X 212 = 150x 212 = 31800 kg = 31.8tonnesofhay.

11. Suppose in addition to grass hay, you want to produce and preserve stylo or cowpea hay to be used as supplementary fodder. We assume that the animals will require 2kg legume hay per head per day i.e. 30cow x 2kg hay x 212 days. = 30x 2x 212 = 60 X 212 = 12720 kg = 12.72 tonnes

111. A hectare of grass will produce 4800kg (4.8 tonnes) grass hay and a hectare of cowpea yields 3000kg cowpea (3.0 ton­nes) hay, we require:

a) 31.8 = 6.63 hectares of land for grass hay 4.8

30

b) 12720 = 4.24 hectares of land for legume hay 3000

The above hectares of land are a lot and all might not easily be put into hay production. Therefore you might decide to buy the hay required . Your choice of action will depend on whichever is more economical.

D. Bloodmeal and urea reserve Let us assume that in addition to 5kg grass you want to supplement

with 210kg bloodmeal, or 80g fertilizer urea per cow per day.

1. With urea i.e. 30 cows x 80g x 212 days = 30 X 80g X 212 30 X 21 0 X 212 = 240 X 212 = 6300 X 212

50880g 1335600g 50880 : 1000 1335600g : 1000 50.88 kg = 1335.6kg : 1000

1.4 tonnes of bloodmeal The 50.88 Kg urea is a little more than a bag. ii. With blood meal i.e. 30 cows x 21 Og x 212 day

The urea and bloodmeal should be purchased since they are not easily produced.

E. Silage Reserve: i. Supposing silage is to be fed, together with grass hay at

13.6kg per cow per day. Therefore 30 cows x 13.6kg x 212 days.

= 30 x l3.6 = 408 X 212 = 86496kg approxi mately = 86.5 tonnes of silage

11. Assuming hectare of silage surghum gives us 30 ronncs of sorghum silage. Therefore we will need 86.5 : 30 of land = 2.9 hectares.

111. The next thing is to determine the size or silo (trench or pit) that will enable us prod uce 86.5 tonnes of silage. The follow­ing Table gives an estimated capacity for a trench or pit silo with the given dimensions.

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Table 1: Estimated Capacity of Trench Silo

No. Depth(M) Top Wid th(M) Bottom Approximate Width(M) Tonnage per

lineal 0 .305m A B c D

1 1.22 2.14 1.53 0.4 2 1.22 2. 8 1.83 0 .5 3 1.22 3. 1 2.14 0 .5 4 1.83 2 . 8 1.83 0.7 5 2.44 3. ) · 1.83 1.0 6 2.44 3. 7 2.1 4 1.2 7 2.44 4. 6 2 .44 1.3 8 3. I 3. 4 1.83 1.3 9 3. I 4. 6 2.44 1.8

10 3. I 5. 5 3. I 2.2

Now because of varia tion in the compact ness of va rio us sil ages in silos , the average weight per lineal 0.305m (a foot) o f sil ages is taken as 15.91 kg (35 Ibs).

With 15.91 kg in mind , we can calcula te the amount of silage th a t can be produced using the dimensions on the above Table .

Thus from the Table above: For a 3m by 5.5m by 3m trench silo, we shall expect to get 6.6 tonnes of silage per lineal meter. Therefore for a trench silo of 14lineal meters, we shall obtain 14 x 6.6 = 92 tonnes .

The 92 tonnes fro m a trench silo with the above dimensions should adequately cater for the requirement of 30 cows for 212 days .

: . .

The Information Used in this Publication is based on the work done by the:

NATIONAL ANIMAL PRODUCTION RESEARCH INSTITUTE (NAPRI)

Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria

Produced and distributed by: National Agicultural Extension and Research Liaison Service Ahmadu Bello University P . M. B~ 1067, Zaria, Nigeria. Published March 1989

Pr inted by: Mogl:>a Techno·Grap hic Press, Kaduna. Tel : 214140.