plagiat merupakan tindakan tidak terpuji fileiv trust in the l ord and do good; dwell in the land...

FREQUENCY AND COLLOCATION OF

THE VERBS REFUSE AND REJECT

A SARJANA PENDIDIKAN THESIS

Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements

to Obtain the Sarjana Pendidikan Degree

in English Language Education

By

Diah Dwi Pratiwi

Student Number: 101214135

ENGLISH LANGUAGE EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAM

DEPARTMENT OF LANGUAGE AND ARTS EDUCATION

FACULTY OF TEACHERS TRAINING AND EDUCATION

SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY

YOGYAKARTA

2014

PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJIPLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI

i

FREQUENCY AND COLLOCATION OF

THE VERBS REFUSE AND REJECT

A SARJANA PENDIDIKAN THESIS

Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements

to Obtain the Sarjana Pendidikan Degree

in English Language Education

By

Diah Dwi Pratiwi

Student Number: 101214135

ENGLISH LANGUAGE EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAM

DEPARTMENT OF LANGUAGE AND ARTS EDUCATION

FACULTY OF TEACHERS TRAINING AND EDUCATION

SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY

YOGYAKARTA

2014


iv

Trust in the LORD and do good;

dwell in the land and enjoy safe pasture.

Take delight in the LORD,

and he will give you the desires of your heart.

Commit your way to the LORD;

trust in him and he will do this:

Psalms 37:3-5

“Be positive, and things will automatically fall in place.”

This thesis is dedicated to

Margono

and

Ester Sudiasih


vii

ABSTRACT

Pratiwi, Diah Dwi. (2014). Frequency and Collocation of the Verbs Refuse and

Reject. Yogyakarta: Sanata Dharma University.

There were some synonymous verbs in English which show refusal. The

verbs refuse and reject were the most similar among the other synonyms. The

etymologies and the definitions of those verbs definitely showed that they were

synonymous verbs. However, those synonymous verbs were not exactly

substitutable in use. It meant that those verbs could be used in the similar and

different contexts. Thus, the researcher was interested to study the occurrences

frequencies and the collocations of the verbs refuse and reject. By looking at the

collocations, it could be seen the context of the verbs occurrences.

There were two research problems addressed in this study. The first one

was 1) What were the frequencies of the verbs refuse and reject in Corpus of

Contemporary American English (COCA)? The second one was 2) What were the

collocations of the verbs refuse and reject? Therefore, the objectives of this study

were 1) to find out the frequencies of the verbs refuse and reject in Corpus of

Contemporary American English (COCA) and 2) to find out the collocations of

the verbs refuse and reject.

The study was quantitative research and qualitative research. It used

corpus study. The data were from COCA 2011 – 2012. The study used the

purposive sampling method. The researcher took samples which represented the

definitions of the verbs refuse and reject. To solve the first research problem, the

researcher employed the theories of corpus linguistics from some linguists who

mastered in corpus linguistics to classify and analyze the data. To solve the

second research problem, the researcher also used the theories from some linguists

and researchers. The researcher also used some dictionaries to obtain some

definitions of words.

The findings of this study showed that the frequency of the verb refuse

was higher than the verb reject. The percentage of refuse’s frequency was

57.59%, while the percentage of reject’s frequency was 42.41%. The collocations

of the verbs refuse and reject were various. The collocations of the verb refuse

were nouns, pronouns, and to infinitive forms. The collocations of the verb reject

were nouns and pronouns. The verbs refuse and reject shared three similar

collocations. They were money, treatment, him, and her, which represented a

lover or someone who loved.

This study could support English learning and teaching. English Language

Education Study Program students who were teacher candidates would aware of

the use of synonymous verbs refuse and reject. They should clarify that those

verbs could not been interchanged to another word.

Keywords: frequency, corpus, token, collocation, refuse, reject


viii

ABSTRAK

Pratiwi, Diah Dwi. (2014). Frequency and Collocation of the Verbs Refuse and

Reject. Yogyakarta: Universitas Sanata Dharma.

Ada beberapa sinonim dalam bahasa Inggris yang menunjukkan

penolakan. Kata kerja refuse dan reject dianggap sebagai sinonim yang artinya

paling mirip dari yang lainnya. Etimologi dan definisi dari kata-kata tersebut

menunjukkan bahwa keduanya adalah sinonim. Namun, kedua sinonim tersebut

tidak dapat secara tepat bergantian dalam penggunaannya. Kedua kata kerja

tersebut dapat digunakan pada konteks yang sama maupun berbeda. Maka dari

itu, peneliti tertarik untuk menyelidiki kolokasi dari kata kerja refuse dan reject.

Konteks kemunculan kata kerja refuse dan reject dapat dilihat dari kolokasinya.

Ada dua pertanyaan pada penelitian ini. Pertanyaan pertama adalah 1)

Apa frekuensi dari kata kerja refuse dan reject di Corpus of Contemporary

American English (COCA)? Pertanyaan kedua adalah 2) Apa kolokasi-kolokasi

dari kata kerja refuse dan reject?Oleh karena itu, tujuan dari penelitian ini

adalah 1) untuk menemukan frekuensi dari kata kerja refuse dan reject di Corpus

of Contemporary American English (COCA) dan 2) untuk menemukan kolokasi-

kolokasi dari kata kerja refuse dan reject.

Penelitian ini adalah penelitian kuantitatif dan kualitatif dengan

menggunakan corpus study. Data untuk penelitian ini diambil dari COCA 2011 –

2012. Penelitian ini menggunakan metode purposive sampling. Peneliti

mengambil sampel yang mewakili definisi-definisi dari kata kerja refuse dan

reject. Untuk mencari jawaban dari pertanyaan pertama, peneliti menggunakan

teori korpus linguistik dari beberapa ahli bahasa yang menguasai korpus

linguistic,untuk mengklasifikasikan dan menganalisis data. Untuk menjawab

pertanyaan kedua, peneliti juga menggunakan teori-teori dari beberapa ahli

bahasa dan peneliti lain. Selain itu, peneliti juga menggunakan beberapa kamus

untuk mendapatkan definisi dari kata-kata yang dibutuhkan.

Hasil dari penelitian ini menunjukkan bahwa frekuensi kata kerja refuse

lebih tinggi daripada kata kerja reject. Persentase frekuensi refuse adalah

57,59%, sedangkan persentase frekuensi reject adalah 42,41%. Kolokasi dari kata

kerja refuse dan reject bermacam-macam. Kolokasi kata kerja refuse adalah kata

benda, kata ganti orang, dan bentuk to infinitive. Kolokasi kata kerja reject

adalah kata benda dan kata ganti orang. Kata kerja refuse dan reject memiliki

tiga kolokasi yang mirip. Kolokasi tersebut adalah money, treatment, him, dan

her, yang menunjukkan seorang kekasih atau seseorang yang mencintai.

Penelitian ini dapat mendukung pembelajaran dan pengajaran bahasa

Inggris. Mahasiswa-mahasiswi Pendidikan Bahasa Inggris sebagai calon guru

akan sadar akan penggunaan sinonim kata kerja refuse dan reject. Mereka dapat

menjelaskan bahwa kata yang bersinonim tidak dapat digunakan saling

bergantian untuk sinonim lainnya.

Kata kunci: frequency, corpus, token, collocation, COCA, refuse, reject


ix

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

First and foremost, I would like to greatly thank Lord Jesus Christ for

His wonderful love and blessings in my life. He always gives me health, spirit,

and strenght to finish my study.

My deepest gratitude goes to my advisor, Barli Bram, Ph.D. for the

guidence and assistance during the process, spending time, reading and correcting

my thesis patiently, and giving attention and suggestion until the final process of

writing this thesis. Having a kind advisor like him is a blessing for me. I specially

thank my Proposal Seminar lecturer, Dr. Retno Muljani, M.Pd. and my

academic advisor, Henny Herawati, M.Hum. I thank all lecturers of English

Language Education Study Program for lecturing along the study in Sanata

Dharma University. I would also thank all secretariat staff of English Language

Education Study Program and Faculty of Teachers Training and Education

of Sanata Dharma University and all librarians for giving the best and friendly

service.

I would like to thank my family especially my parents, Margono and

Ester Sudiasih, who always love, encourage, and take care of me in finishing my

study. They are my strength and the reason for finishing my study. I would like to

mention my uncle, Paryadi and my aunt, Yulia Esti Katrini, who give care and

support during the process.

The special thank I address to all friends in PBI. I thank PBI 2010,

especially Class C, my group in Play Performance, Velum, and EEPro. I thank


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them for supporting with the great friendship. I thank Ardhi, Dea, Bayu, and

Amel, who give corrections and suggestions for my writing. I deliver my special

appreciation to Lilian, Disa, Nutnut, Ineke, Pandhu, Chaca, Lina, Yos, Nadia

Ijah, Kapuk, Ratri, and Sunu. I would like to thank Venni and SD Bopkri

Demangan 3 for lending me a laptop to work on my thesis.

Last, I would like thank everyone who has given me support. May His

blessing always pour on them.

Diah Dwi Pratiwi


xi

TABLE OF CONTENTS

TITLE PAGE ................................................................................................................ i

APPROVAL PAGE ..................................................................................................... ii

STATEMENT OF WORK’S ORIGINALITY ............................................................ v

LEMBAR PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN PUBLIKASI............................................ vi

ABSTRACT ............................................................................................................... vii

ABSTRAK .................................................................................................................. viii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ........................................................................................ ix

TABLE OF CONTENTS ............................................................................................ xi

LIST OF TABLES .................................................................................................... xiv

LIST OF FIGURE ...................................................................................................... xv

LIST OF APPENDICES ........................................................................................... xvi

CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION

A. Research Background .............................................................................................. 1

B. Research Problems .................................................................................................. 6

C. Problem Limitation .................................................................................................. 6

D. Research Objectives ................................................................................................ 7

E. Research Benefits .................................................................................................... 8

F. Definition of Terms.................................................................................................. 8

CHAPTER II. REVIEW ON RELATED LITERATURE

A. Theoretical Description ......................................................................................... 11

1. Word Classes .............................................................................................. 11

a. Verb ................................................................................................ 11

b. Noun ............................................................................................... 13

1) Subdivision of Noun .......................................................... 13

2) Noun Phrase ....................................................................... 14

c. Adjective ........................................................................................ 15


xii

d. Adverb ............................................................................................ 16

e. Preposition ...................................................................................... 17

f. Determiner ...................................................................................... 17

g. Conjunction .................................................................................... 17

2. Meaning Aspects ........................................................................................ 18

a. The Etymologies of Refuse and Reject ........................................... 19

b. The Definitions of Refuse and Reject ............................................. 20

3. Synonymy .................................................................................................. 22

a. Degrees of Synonymy .................................................................... 23

b. Thesaurus ....................................................................................... 24

4. Corpus Linguistics ..................................................................................... 24

a. The Main Data Source: Corpus of Contemporary American

English (COCA) .......................................................................... 26

b. Frequency ....................................................................................... 28

5. The Role of Collocation ............................................................................. 29

a. Types of Collocation ...................................................................... 29

b. The Benefits of Learning Collocation ............................................ 31

6. Previous Corpus Studies ............................................................................ 32

B. Theoretical Framework ......................................................................................... 34

CHAPTER III. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

A. Research Method ................................................................................................... 37

B. Research Setting .................................................................................................... 39

C. Data Source ........................................................................................................... 39

D. Instruments and Data Gathering Technique .......................................................... 41

E. Data Analysis Technique ....................................................................................... 42

F. Research Procedure ................................................................................................ 43

CHAPTER IV. RESEARCH FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION

A. The Frequencies of the Verbs Refuse and Reject .................................................. 45

1. The Frequency of the Verb Refuse ............................................................. 46


xiii

2. The Frequency of the Verb Reject ............................................................. 47

B. The Collocations of the Verbs Refuse and Reject ................................................. 51

1. Refuse ......................................................................................................... 53

a. As a Transitive Verb....................................................................... 53

1) The First Meaning of Refuse .............................................. 54

2) The Second Meaning of Refuse ......................................... 56

3) The Third Meaning of Refuse ............................................ 58

4) The Forth Meaning of Refuse ............................................ 59

b. As an Intransitive Verb .................................................................. 59

2. Reject .......................................................................................................... 62

a. The First Meaning of Reject ........................................................... 63

b. The Second Meaning of Reject ...................................................... 65

c. The Third Meaning of Reject ......................................................... 67

d. The Forth Meaning of Reject ......................................................... 68

e. The Fifth Meaning of Reject .......................................................... 68

f. The Sixth Meaning of Reject .......................................................... 69

g. The Seventh Meaning of Reject ..................................................... 69

CHAPTER V: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

A. Conclusions ........................................................................................................... 72

B. Recommendations ................................................................................................. 73

REFERENCES ......................................................................................................... 75


xiv

LIST OF TABLES

Table page

Table 2.1 Personal Pronouns and Possessive Pronouns ............................................. 14

Table 2.2 The Definitions of the Verbs Refuse and Reject ........................................ 21

Table 4.1 The Frequencies of Refuse and Reject in COCA 2011 – 2012 .................. 45

Table 4.2 The Frequencies of the Verbs Refuse and Reject in COCA 2011 – 2012 .. 49

Table 4.3 The Frequencies of Refuse and Reject in BNC .......................................... 49

Table 4.4 The Frequencies of the Lemmas Refuse and Reject in BNC ..................... 49

Table 4.5 The Collocations of Transitive Verb Refuse .............................................. 53

Table 4.6 The Right Collocations of the Verb Reject ................................................ 62


xv

LIST OF FIGURE

Figure page

Figure 3.1 The Appearance of COCA........................................................................ 40


xvi

LIST OF APPENDICES

Appendix page

Appendix A: The Tokens of Refuse ........................................................................... 80

Appendix B: The Tokens of Reject ............................................................................ 91


1

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

This chapter is going to provide the basic information and the rationale of

the study related to the subject matter. This chapter consists of six subchapters.

They are research background, research problem, problem limitation, research

objectives, research benefits, and definition of terms.

A. Research Background

Sometimes it is uncomfortable not to accept someone‟s request, offer, or

invitation. It is because actually he/ she has a good intention and he/ she maybe is

someone who has a higher authority than us to be not accepted. In daily

conversations, it is found that people can say anything to show that they do not

want to do or accept something. In English, there are synonymous verbs which

show refusal. Based on Oxford Thesaurus of English, the verbs refuse, decline,

reject, and spurn share the similar meanings. According to Dictionary of

Synonyms and Anonyms, another synonym of those verbs is deny. Although those

verbs have identical meanings, they are not used in the similar contexts or

situations. Besides, based on Shea (n.d.), sometimes, the use of the synonyms

deny, decline, refuse, and reject is confusing. He assumes that people can look at

the opposite of each verb to distinguish the synonyms. Following, the verbs refuse

and reject are the most similar among the other synonyms. Shea (n.d) adds that

the opposite of both verbs is accept. He utters that people have different


2

understanding of use the verbs refuse and reject. People are confused to decide

which verb should be used to communicate.

By looking at lexical semantics and etymology, the meanings of the verbs

refuse and reject will be comprehended. Lexical semantics and etymology will

show and explain the differences of both verbs. According to Oxford Thesaurus of

English, refuse and reject give the basic meaning to say „no‟ to something. Refuse

is the most neutral word for simply saying „no‟ to a request, suggestion, or offer

(“Refuse”). Reject suggests that what is on offer is felt to be not good enough

(“Reject”). Based on Dictionary of Synonyms and Antonyms, the synonyms of

reject are refuse, turn down, discard, exclude, and deny (“Reject”). Besides,

Online Etymology Dictionary shows that the verb refuse means reject, disregard,

and avoid (“Refuse”). The verb reject means to throw, which indicates not to

accept (“Reject”). Based on the lexical semantics and the etymologies, the verbs

refuse and reject can be used in similar and different situations, contexts, and

fields. According to Biber, et al. (2002), “synonymous words are typically used in

very different ways” (p.43). As well, in the similar contexts, those two

synonymous words, refuse and reject, have a meaning, which is not to accept

something.

Semantics theory is employed to understand the differences of the use of

the verbs refuse and reject. Semantics, that gives explanation about the meaning

of language, will show the meaning of reject and refuse in some contexts in which

they occur. According to Finegan (2004), semantics is studied by looking at the

language structure meaning especially in words and sentences. From sentences


3

which the verbs refuse and reject are used, the meaning of the verbs can be

studied. In sentences, the verbs will collocate with another word. Based on

Nesselhauf (2005), collocates are the words that commonly co-occur with a target

word. The words can be in the front or following the target word. Biber, et al.

(2002) say that “there is strong tendency for each collocate of a word to be

associated with a single sense of meaning” (pp.35-36). Palmer (2001) states that

“collocation is a part of the meaning of a word” (p.76). He adds that the

collocation can determine the meaning of the words. The context of situation

contains the meaning, which also can be found in all other levels of analysis.

This study focuses on the verbs refuse and reject comprehensively.

According to Kayaoğlu (2013), the verbs refuse and reject are listed as close

synonyms besides deny, decline, and rebuff. Kayaoğlu (2013) uses the verbs

refuse and reject, which are close synonymous verbs, in a vocabulary test.

Moreover, Liu (2011) assumes that people are more aware of the importance of

synonymous words, especially in writing. Liu (2011) adds that most synonyms are

not exactly substituted to each other based on the collocations. He uses a test

which questions the collocations of the synonymous verbs refuse and reject to

determine learners‟ proficiency level in using English. The test consists of 20

questions. The test result shows that lower and higher learners are still confused

about the use of refuse and reject.

Besides, it is found that there are some errors in conveying utterances by

English Language Education Study Program (ELESP) students. For instance, the

student says refuse ideas. It is supposed to use the verb reject to substitute refuse


4

in that context. It is because basically, reject is used to say that someone does not

support ideas (“Reject”). In addition, the verbs refuse and reject are recommended

to be investigated using corpus by University of Essex (“Corpus”, 2005). It is

interesting to study the verbs refuse and reject because both verbs are challenging

for English learners, especially beginners; both verbs are used in English

competence tests frequently; and both verbs are recommended to be investigated

by linguists.

A corpus is used as the data to discover the use of the verbs refuse and

reject in the real life. A corpus which is the collection of written and spoken

language that is stored in computers, can be used to present all the contexts in

which a word occurs (Biber, et al., 2002). In the corpus, it will be seen the tokens

of the verbs refuse and reject. From the tokens, the collocations of the verbs

refuse and reject will be identified. The tokens show the context in which the

verbs appear.

The source of the corpus needed will be obtained from Corpus of

Contemporary American English (COCA). COCA consists of written and spoken

language from 1990 to 2012 (Davies, 2009). It is chosen as the data because it

contains American English. To comprehend the recent use of the verbs refuse and

reject, the study will use tokens from 2011 to 2012 because the latest tokens in

COCA come from those years. It can be seen the use of refuse and reject in some

registers.

This study is useful for English learners and teachers. By studying the

synonymous verbs refuse and reject, ELESP students of Sanata Dharma


5

University will have better understanding of those verbs. The findings from the

tokens of the verbs refuse and reject can deepen the knowledge of lexical

meaning. According to Liu (2011), higher and lower learners‟ understanding of

syntactic and lexical collocations of the verbs refuse and reject are the same. It

means that learners in general do not have a good knowledge of the collocations

of the verbs refuse and reject (Liu, 2011).

A corpus shows the collocations which are used to recognize the meaning

of the verbs in certain contexts (Hunston, 2002). Thus, the students can put refuse

and reject in the correct context when they use them in producing sentences. As

teacher candidates, ELESP students must be aware and emphasize the collocation

patterns of synonymous verbs refuse and reject (Liu, 2011). Teachers introduce a

corpus to students as the examples of the use of the verbs refuse and reject. The

understanding of synonyms omits incorrect ideas in teaching and learning

English.

Moreover, the collocations can develop English fluency. ELESP students

are demanded to be fluent in using English. Collocations help language learners to

develop fluency (Shin & Nation, 2008). Pawley and Syder suggest that learners

need a similar number for native-like fluency (as cited in Shin, 2006). Shin (2006)

states that native-like collocations help learners to speak and write seem native-

like. By learning collocations, ELESP students are able to remember the lexical

patterns because of the frequent use by native speakers. It is effective to improve

language fluency and native-like selection in using language (Shin & Nation,

2008).


6

Besides, ELESP students who are prepared to be teachers can operate

corpus software which supports teaching and learning English. For instance, by

this study, they will be interested to use COCA to see the examples of English

use. The corpus-based evidence gives the instances of the use of English as the

second language for learning and teaching (Biber, et al., 2002).

B. Research Problem

This study has two research problems:

1. What are the frequencies of the verbs refuse and reject used in Corpus of

Contemporary America English (COCA)?

2. What are the collocations of the verbs refuse and reject?

C. Problem Limitation

The limitation of this research is to discover the answers to the research

problems. The first question is the frequencies of the verbs refuse and reject

which are used in COCA. The second question is the collocations of the verbs

refuse and reject. It must be highlighted that this study only examines the lemmas

of the verbs. It means that the word-forms of refuse such as refuses, refused, and

refusing and the word-forms of reject such as rejects, rejected, and rejecting are

not taken as the investigation. Hunston (2002) writes that a lemma makes

convenient to explore more the idea which has been taken. Thus, this study only

investigates the use of the lemmas, refuse and reject.


7

This study concerns the use of the verbs refuse and reject in the real life

context. The data are taken from COCA 2011 to 2012 to apprehend the recent use

of the verbs refuse and reject. They are chosen as the source of the data because

the data given are empirical and well-organized (Biber, et al., 2002). COCA will

show the frequencies of the verbs refuse and reject from 2011 to 2012. It will be

known which verb is used the most rather than another verb. COCA also presents

the registers of the verbs.

The researcher will study the use of verbs refuse and reject from a corpus.

Moreover, the researcher will examine the collocations of the verbs refuse and

reject. From the collocations, it will be known that refuse and reject may be used

in similar or different contexts, situations, and fields. O‟Dell and McCarthy

(2008) explain that collocation study is important in expressing meaning so the

language users can understand clearly and use the words correctly.

D. Research Objectives

The objectives of this research are:

1. To find out the frequencies of the verbs refuse and reject used in Corpus of

Contemporary America English (COCA).

2. To find out the collocations of the verbs refuse and reject.


8

E. Research Benefits

This study has benefits for students and teachers especially they who learn

about English. Furthermore, this study is beneficial for next researchers.

1. For Students

The benefit of this study for students is that the verbs refuse and reject can

be used appropriately both in written language and spoken language. Students will

be aware of the use of the synonyms. Thus, they can improve their English skills.

2. For English Teachers

This study will help English teachers to be aware to use the verbs refuse

and reject especially when they are teaching. Teachers can show a corpus as an

example to students. Thus, teachers can help students to understand the meanings

of synonyms in English.

3. For Future Researchers

This study will be beneficial for future researchers who are interested in

conducting study about similar or related topics. This study gives the information

about corpus study. This study may inspire them who have not found a topic for

writing. They can conduct a research about collocations by using corpus study in

other issues.

F. Definition of Terms

There are some terms that are mentioned in this study. The researcher gives

the definition of the terms to avoid misunderstanding of the topic discussed.


9

1. Collocation

Krishnamurthy (2006) defines “collocation as the fact that certain lexical

items tend to co-occur more frequently in natural language use than syntax and

semantics alone would dictate” (“Collocations”). According to Matthew (2007),

“collocation is a relation within a syntactic unit between individual lexical

elements” (p.81). In this study, collocation means a word that often be used

together and co-occur with the certain word which seems correct and acceptable

to people.

2. Corpus

Corpus (plural corpora or corpuses) is a large principled collection of

natural texts (Schmitt, 2002). Similarly, according to Kennedy (1998), corpus is a

body of written text or transcribed speech which can serve as a basis for linguistic

analysis and description. In this study, corpus refers to a collection of natural text

to be the empirical data for semantics analysis.

3. COCA

COCA stands for Corpus of Contemporary American English. Based on

Davies (n.d.), COCA is the largest freely-available corpus of English. It is the

only balanced corpus of American English. COCA contains corpora from 1990 –

2012. To know the recent use of the verbs refuse and reject, the corpora used in

this study are taken from 2011 to 2012.

4. Token

According to McEnery and Hardie (2012), “a token is any instance of

particular wordform in a text” (p.50). Similarly, based on Tang (n.d.), token is


10

“the individual forms (words) of a corpus.” In this study, token is any instance of

the words refuse and reject in COCA.


11

CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

This chapter consists of two subchapters: theoretical description and

theoretical framework. Theoretical description presents the theories related to this

study matter. Theoretical framework discusses all of the major relevant theories to

assist the researcher in answering the research problems.

A. Theoretical Description

Theoretical description gives a clear description of the theories related to

the topic of this study. It presents theories about word classes, semantics,

synonymy, corpus linguistics, the role of collocation, and previous corpus studies.

1. Word Classes

Word classes or parts of speech or lexical categories are a set of language

categories for classifying words (Bloor & Bloor, 2004). There are eight word

classes in English: verb, noun, adjective, adverb, determiner, preposition, and

conjunction.

a. Verb

Verb is a word class which contains words referring to actions (Davies &

Elder, 2006). According to Davies and Elder (2006), in English, verbs are used for

tense marking. Consider these sentences: (1) John eats three apples; (2) Jean

walked home. Those sentences have the endings, -s and -ed in the verbs eat and

walk. The endings after the verbs are named inflections (Aarts, 1997). Inflections


12

express grammatical properties. The –s ending in eats indicates that the verb is in

the present tense, so that it is called a present tense inflection (Aarts, 1997). Aarts

(1997) adds that the –ed ending shows that walked is in the past tense, therefore it

is called a past tense inflection.

According to Aarts (1997), there are two forms of verb: finite verb, a verb

which takes tense; and nonfinite verb, a verb which does not take tense. The

example of finite verb is in this sentence, He painted the wall. The finite verb of

that sentence is painted. Next, the example of nonfinite verb presented in this

sentence, She loves singing. The word singing is nonfinite verb of that sentence.

Verbs can be differentiated by how many nouns (arguments) they are

connected with. Based on Davies and Elder (2006), there are three types of verb:

intransitive, transitive and ditransitive. Intransitive is a verb which only takes one

argument. Take for instance, in the sentence, Peter died. The verb died is

intransitive because it takes only one argument, Peter. According to Carstairs-

McCarthy (2002), intransitive verbs are verbs which lack such an object. Take for

instance, in Tex studies, Tex is a subject and studies is a verb, which describes the

action what the subject does. There is no more information about what the subject

studies.

The second type of verb is transitive. Transitive is a verb which takes two

arguments (Davies & Elder, 2006). For example in a sentence, The hunter kills a

wolf. The verb kills has two arguments, which are the hunter and a wolf.

Therefore, the verb kills is transitive. Carstairs-McCarthy (2002) adds that

transitive verbs (or verbs which are used transitively) are ones with an „object‟


13

noun phrase. The noun phrase indicates the thing or person that is the goal of the

action of the verb. The third type, ditransitive means a verb which takes three

arguments. In a sentence, They give Joshua books, the verb give is ditransitive

because it has three arguments, which are they, Joshua, and books.

Bloor and Bloor (2004) say that a verb has many forms. For example, the

verb take has forms: takes, took, am taking, are taking, is taking, was taking, were

taking, has taken, has been taken, have been taken, had been taken, will take, may

take, and so on. The word take is called citation form because the word take refers

to all or any of the forms collectively in the list given (Bloor & Bloor, 2004). In

dictionaries, we look for the word take, not was taking or has taken. It is because

the word take is the citation form.

b. Noun

Aarts (1997) says that nouns are words that represent people, animals,

things, or places. Nouns identify Peter, bird, car, student, New York, etc. The

description given by nouns is called a notional definition, because it presents a

characterization, in term of concept of meaning (Aarts, 1997).

1) Subdivision of Noun

Based on Bloor and Bloor (2004), there are three subdivisions of noun:

pronoun, proper noun, and common noun. There are three subclasses of pronouns:

personal pronouns, possessive pronouns, and the so-called wh-pronouns. Table

2.1 below classifies the personal pronouns (left) and possessive pronouns (right).


14

Table 2.1 Personal Pronouns and Possessive Pronouns

Singular

First Person I, me, mine my

Second Person you, yours, your

Third Person he, him, his his

she, her, hers her

it, its its

Plural

First person we, us, ours our

Second person you, yours your

Third person they, them, theirs their

(Bloor & Bloor, 2004, p.21)

Table 2.1 above lists the personal pronouns and possessive pronouns.

Besides, there are so-called wh-pronouns. They include who, whom, whose,

which, what, and that (for example, the shoes that you are wearing). Bloor &

Bloor (2004) add that proper nouns define as the names of persons (for example,

Martin, Karen), places (Venice, Bali Island), transportations (Titanic, the Star

Express), institutions and organizations (Honda, Unilever), book and film titles

(Life of Pi), and similar categories. The proper nouns are written in capital letters.

The third one is common nouns. Based on Bloor & Bloor (2004), “nouns

(others than pronouns) which do not fall into this class are labelled common

nouns” (p.19). The examples of common noun are rice, donkey, rain, imagination.

2) Noun Phrase

According to Azar and Hagen (2009), a noun phrase can be used as a

subject or an object. Biber, Johansson, Leech, Conrad, & Finegan (1999) state that

“a noun phrase consists of a noun as a head, either alone or accompanied by


15

determiners (which specify the reference of the noun) and modifiers (which

describe or classify the entity denoted by the head noun)” (p.122). The examples

of noun phrase are a house, his bristly short hair, the little girl next door.

Moreover, the head of a noun phrase can be followed by complements, which is

that-clauses or infinitive clauses (Biber, et al., 1999). The meaning of the noun is

completed by complements. Take for instance in this sentence, [The popular

assumption that language simply serves to communicate ”thoughs” or “ideas”] is

too simplistic.

c. Adjective

Based on Bloor and Bloor (2004), the first function of adjective is to

modify nouns, for example, a pretty boy. The other function of adjective is to be a

head of a group that is the complement of a copular verb (be, seem, become), for

example: the shop is big.

Aarts (1997) states there are some adjectives (adj) that can change

(improve) nouns, for examples in: the red shoes, a patient girl. The adjectives

give more description about the nouns.

Adjectives can be formed by adding suffixes –ful, -less, and –ive and prefix

–un in some words (nouns, verbs) (Aarts, 1997). For instances: clue (noun) + –

lessclueless (adj); thank (verb) + –fulthankful (adj).

Aarts (1997) says that there are gradable adjectives which form adjectives

by giving words very, extremely, less, etc., for examples: very expensive,

extremely hot, less important. The adding of words very, extremely, less shows the

degree to which the adjective put to the word it joins (Aarts, 1997).


16

Adjectives can be identified by the endings –(e)r and –(e)st, which show

comparative and superlative forms, such as a smaller donkey, a smallest donkey

(Bloor & Bloor, 2004). The endings –(e)r and –(e)st are used for words which

contain one or two syllables (slower, prettiest). There are some items which also

can modify adjectives: very, fairly, quite, rather, somewhat. For the three syllables

word, for example beautiful, can be modified to be more beautiful.

d. Adverb

Many adverbs are identified from the form which has been related to

another form. According to Bloor and Bloor (2004), numerous adverbs are formed

from adjectives by adding the morphological feature –ly, for examples, bravely

(the adjective brave + –ly) and suddenly (the adjective sudden + –ly). Aarts (1997)

adds that there are other morphological features of adverb endings: -ward

(afterward,), -wise (clockwise), -ways (sideways). Besides, there are many

common words which are adverbs, such as soon, away, tomorrow, next.

Based on Aarts (1997), there are seven adverb subclasses. The first one is

adverb of manner which indicates how (e.g. quickly, beautifully, slowly). The

second subclass is adverb of time. It indicates when (e.g. now, tomorrow, then).

The third one is adverb of place which indicates where (e.g. here, there). The

forth subclass is adverb of frequency (e.g. seldom, often, always). The fifth one is

adverb of directional (e.g. upwards, sideways, forwards). The sixth subclass is

adverb of degree (e.g. extremely, more). The last subclass is adverb of sentence

(e.g. however, perhaps).


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“Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs” (Aarts, 1997, p.42).

The examples of adverbs modify verbs: The teacher speaks loudly (The teacher is

a loud speaker); She comes often; Mr. Smith goes here.

e. Preposition

Prepositions precede a noun phrase (Finegan, 2004), as in at the ballroom,

on Friday, under the sky. Finegan (2004) adds that prepositions show a semantic

relationship between other units.

f. Determiner

Determiners specify more exactly the meaning of the nouns they precede

(Aarts, 1997). According to Finegan (2004), determiners have some subclasses.

The first subclass is definite and indefinite articles (the, a, an). The second one is

demonstrative (e.g. this, those), the third subclass is possessive (e.g. my, your,

his). The forth one is interrogative (e.g. which, what, whose). The examples of the

use of determiners: the doll, an apple, those knives. Determiners precede noun

phrase such as my long hair, which big box, these red apples.

g. Conjunction

Aarts (1997) says that conjunctions have a linking function. Conjunctions

connect words in a sentence and/ or sentences. There are two types of

conjunctions. The first one is linking or coordinating conjunctions or co-

ordinators, such as and, but, or, for, so, then (Bloor & Bloor, 2004). Co-ordinators

join expressions which have the same category, for example, look and feel, bread

or cake. The second conjunction is binding or subordinating conjunctions or


18

subordinators, such as that, whenever, while, because. Subordinators link clauses

to another, as in She said that she would come, He felt regretful while he met her.

In this study, the verbs refuse and reject are taken to be examined. Having

knowledge about the word classes helps the researcher to understand the meaning

of the verbs when they collocate to other word classes.

2. Meaning Aspects

Semantics is the study of languages structure meaning in words and

sentences (Finegan, 2004). Based on Leech (1981), there are seven types of

meaning. The first type is conceptual/ denotative/ cognitive meaning. Leech

(1981) says that the meaning is the main factor in linguistic communication. It can

be seen to be integral to the essential functioning of language, in a way that other

types of meaning are not. Lyons (1996) adds that denotative meaning/ referential

is what the meaning refers to (or denotes), or stands for. The examples of it are cat

means either the general class of cats or the basic property which they all share.

Referential meaning is stated as one of linguistic meanings besides social meaning

and affective meaning (Finegan, 2004). Finegan (2004) says that “referential

meaning of Scott’s dog refers to particular domesticated canine belonging to

Scott” (p.182). Finegan (2004) adds that “the particular animal can be said to be

the referential meaning of the linguistic expression Scott‟s dog” (p.182).

The second type is connotative meaning. It is the communicative value that

an expression has by virtue of what it refers to, over and above its purely

conceptual content (Leech, 1981). The notion „reference‟ overlaps with


19

conceptual meaning. The third one is social meaning. It deals with the situation in

which an utterance occurs (Leech, 1981). Social meaning is that the language

expresses about social circumstances of its use. The forth type is affective

meaning. Based on Leech (1981), that meaning is often explicitly conveyed

through the conceptual or connotative content of the words used. The fifth type is

reflected meaning. It is the meaning which arises in cases of multiple conceptual

meaning, when one sense of a word forms part of our response to another sense

(Leech, 1981). The sixth one is collocative meaning. Leech (1981) says that it

consists of the associations a word acquires on account of the meanings of words

which tend to occur in its environment. The seventh type is thematic meaning is a

communication when the speaker or writer organizes the message, in terms of

ordering, focus, and emphasis (Leech, 1981).

In this study, the researcher is going to use the theory of denotative

meaning and collocative meaning to answer the research questions. O‟Grady,

Archibald, Aronoff, & Rees-Miller (2010) state that semantics approach attempts

to equate the meaning of a word or a phrase with the entities to which it refers –

its denotation or referents. Denotative meaning or referents explains the meanings

and the definitions of the verbs refuse and reject. Moreover, collocative meaning

helps in the analysis of the verbs when they collocate with other words.

a. The Etymologies of Refuse and Reject

Online Etymology Dictionary shares the definitions of the verbs refuse and

reject. Both verbs come from 1200 – 1500 AD. Based on Old French, the word

refuse is from the word refuser which means reject, disregard, avoid. The verb


20

refuse also comes from Vulgar Latin, refusare which is formed from the past

participle stem of Latin, refundere. Refundere itself means pour back, give back.

According to Old French, reject is from the word rejecter. In Latin, reject comes

from the word reiectus that means „throw away, cast away, vomit‟. From the

origin words, refuse and reject indicate similar meanings, not to accept something.

b. The Definitions of Refuse and Reject

In this study, the definitions of the verbs refuse and reject are given by two

dictionaries. The first dictionary is Merriam-Webster Dictionary Online Version

and the second one is Macquarie Dictionary also online version. Each dictionary

shares some definitions of each verb.

Based on Merriam-Webster Dictionary Online Version, the word refuse

has two functions, as a noun (which is pronounced /ˈref.juːs/) and a verb (which is

pronounced /rɪˈfjuːz/). The verb refuse has two categories of definition. It is as a

transitive verb and an intransitive verb. The transitive verb of refuse carries four

meanings. The first one is “to express oneself as unwilling accept, e.g. refuse a

gift, refuse a promotion” (“Refuse”). The second definition is “to show or express

unwillingness to do or comply with or deny, for example refused to answer the

question, they refused admittance to the game” (“Refuse”). The third definition is

“give up, renounce (obsolete), as in deny thy father and refuse thy name –

Shakespeare” (“Refuse”). The fourth definition is “to decline to jump or leap over

(of a horse)” (“Refuse”). The intransitive verb refuse means “to withhold

acceptance, compliance, or permission” (“Refuse”).


21

Based on Merriam-Webster Dictionary Online Version, the word reject has

two functions, as a noun (which is pronounced /ˈriː.dʒekt/) and a verb (which is

pronounced /rɪˈdʒekt/). The dictionary gives seven definitions of the transitive

verb reject. The first definition is “to refuse to accept, consider, submit, take for

some purpose, or use, for example rejected the suggestion, reject a manuscript”

(“Reject”). The second definition is “to refuse to hear, receive, or admit (rebuff,

repel) as in parents who reject their children” (“Reject”). The third definition is

“to refuse as lover or spouse” (“Reject”). The forth definition is “to cast off

(obsolete)” (“Reject”). The fifth definition is “throw back, repulse” (“Reject”).

Next, the sixth definition of reject is “to spew out (“Reject”).” The seventh

definition is “to subject to immunological rejection” (“Reject”).

Besides, there is another dictionary used to obtain the definitions of the

verbs refuse and reject. According to Macquarie Dictionary, the verbs refuse and

reject share seven definitions of each verb. Table 2.2 shows the definitions of the

verbs refuse and reject.

Table 2.2 The Definitions of the Verbs Refuse and Reject

No. Refuse Reject

1 to decline to accept (something

offered)

to refuse to have, take, recognise, etc.

2 to decline to give; deny a request,

demand, etc.

to refuse to grant (a demand, etc.)

3 to express a determination not (to

do something)

to refuse to accept (a person); rebuff

4 to decline to submit to to throw away, discard, or refuse as useless

or unsatisfactory

5 (of a horse) to decline to leap over

(a fence, water, etc.)

to cast out or eject; vomit

6 obsolete to renounce to cast out or off

7 to decline acceptance, consent, or

compliance

(of an organism) to not accept (a graft or

transplant)


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Macquire Dictionary is considered as the standard reference of Australian

English (Macquire Dictionary, n.d.). It is first published in 1981 and has been

online since 2003. The Macquarie Dictionary and Thesaurus Online gives annual

updates of new words and references of thesauruses. It means that the dictionary

is more excellent in giving definitions and references since it is always updated.

This study employs the last edition of Macquire Dictionary, the Sixth Edition

which published in October 2013. The features of the dictionary are gained to find

the most update definitions of the verbs.

3. Synonymy

“Synonymy is the lexical relation of sameness of meanings either among

lexical items or among sentences or proportions, although the latter is also called

paraphrase” (“Synonymy”). Based on Lyons (1996), “synonymous are

expressions with the same meaning” (p.60). Synonyms are words which have the

same meanings, but actually synonyms are not identical in meaning. Logical

synonymy can be substituted in some contexts without changing the truth

conditions of its proportion (“Synonymy”). It is also called sense synonymous or

just synonyms.

According to Finegan (2004), “two words are said to be synonymous if

they mean the same thing” (p.192). Finegan (2004) gives examples of synonyms,

the terms are movie, film, flick, and motion picture. People can use the terms

movie, film, and flick to define the term motion picture. The terms film, flick, and

motion picture also can describe the term movie. Finegan (2004) states that we can


23

say the term A is synonymous with the term B if every referent of the term A is a

referent of the term B and vice versa. The terms are synonymous if we state that

we are taking only linguistic meaning (Finegan, 2004).

a. Degrees of Synonymy

According to Cruse (2000), there are three degrees of synonymy: absolute

synonymy, propositional synonymy, and near-synonymy. Absolute synonymy

refers to a complete identity of meaning (Cruse, 2000). Two words are said

absolute synonymy if they contain these three conditions: all their meanings are

identical; they are synonymous in all contexts; they are semantically equivalent on

all meanings, descriptive and non-descriptive (Lyon, 1996). Absolute synonymy

is also called full synonymy. Full synonymy is logical synonyms in all senses

(“Synonymy”). This type of synonyms is rare, usually it is found in words with a

rather narrow range of senses. Cruse (2000) adds that “absolute synonyms can be

defined as items which are equinormal in all contexts” (p.157). The examples of it

are the species names, gorse and furze. Those words refer to a plant which grows

yellow flowers.

Secondly, there is propositional synonymy. It is defined as “if two lexical

items are propositional synonyms, they can be substituted in any expression with

truth-conditional properties without effect on those properties” (Cruse, 2000,

p.158). The examples of propositional synonymy are the words fiddle and violin.

Besides, there is near-synonymy or partial synonymy or plesionymy. Lyons

(1996) says that “expressions that are more or less similar, but not identical in

meaning is called near-synonymy” (p.60). Near synonyms can be substitutable in


24

specific contexts, not in all contexts (“Synonymy”). The examples of near-

synonymy are the nouns mist and fog.

b. Thesaurus

To find synonyms of a word, people can look at thesauruses. “Thesaurus

carry out three meanings which are (1) „special word list‟ or „lexicon‟, (2)

„semantic dictionary‟ or „nomenclator‟, and (3) „terminological database‟ or

„index‟” (“Thesauruses”). Having looked at the definitions, it means that

thesauruses help to explain and express ideas of words which have several

definitions. Oxford Thesaurus of English writes that the verb refuse has multiple

synonyms which are decline, turn down, say no to, reject, spurn, scorn, and etc.

(“Refuse”). As it has been mentioned, reject is one of the synonyms of refuse.

People can choose any form of words to express certain meanings. There

must be a reason why they prefer use the certain word over the others. “People

assume that the word they have chosen is more appropriate to the context than

other ones that they do not choose” (“Synonymy”). Since the verbs refuse and

reject have similar meanings, people may substitute the use of those verbs. After

studying the verbs refuse and reject, the researcher will know how far those two

verbs synonymous.

4. Corpus Linguistics

A corpus consists of collections of texts specifically for linguistic analysis

stored structurally (Kennedy, 1998). A corpus can be used to discover problems or

questions about all the aspects of linguistics. Schmitt (2002) says that corpora are


25

collected from natural occurring sources rather than from surveys and

questionnaires. According to McEnery and Wilson (2001), a corpus offers more

up-to-date info about language. Corpora give more complete and exact definitions

because there are many examples from daily life use. There are written and

spoken corpora as sources for studies. Spoken corpora are composed by recording

first and then transcribing speech. Based on Hunston (2002), “linguists have

always used the word corpus to describe a collection of naturally occurring

example of language, consisting of anything from a few sentences to a set of

written texts or tape recordings, which have been collected for linguistics study”

(p.2). In the recent time, the collections of those texts are stored in computers and

accessed electronically.

Biber, et al. (2002) state that there are four characteristics of a corpus-based

study of language: (1) it is empirical, analyzing the real patterns of language use

in natural texts; (2) it employs a great number and principled collection of natural

texts, or „corpus‟, as the basic data for analysis; (3) it makes wide use of

computers for analysis, using automatic and interactive techniques; (4) it can be

quantitative and qualitative analytical techniques. A corpus which is acquired by

computers really helps researchers to explore the use of language in real life and

eases to sort and analyze words.

Nowadays, a corpus-based study facilitates linguistics researchers to

explore language use in actual life. Based on Schmitt (2002), a corpus has a main

contribution to investigate patterns of the use of language, so it is empirical and

reliable. By using a corpus-based study, researchers can find how language varies


26

in different situations, for example in formal and informal conversations, or in

spoken and written language. Besides, researchers take a corpus as an important

data for describing language use that shows how lexis, grammar, and semantics

interact accurately (Davies & Elder, 2006). In addition, researchers are able to

find out how knowledge of language actually works in a certain real-life context.

Hunston (2002) states that a corpus can show frequencies, phraseologies, and

collocations. It means that a corpus-based study allows researchers to see what

collocation patterns co-occur. Additionally, a corpus which shows collocations of

words can indicate the relevant senses of words from word lists.

Moreover, a corpus-based study has several benefits to comprehend more

about language. The evidences from corpora help researchers and learners to

develop dictionaries, handbooks, and teaching materials (Biber, et al., 2002).

Corpora show the accuracy of the use of language for language learners of all

levels.

Corpus linguistics as the base theory is used to conduct this study. From a

corpus, the researcher will see the occurrences of the verbs refuse and reject.

Furthermore, the corpus shows the collocations of each verb, which will be

examined in this study.

a. The Main Data Source: Corpus of Contemporary American English

(COCA)

Corpora which are stored in computers help researchers to sort data easier.

Schmitt (2002) says that the feature of modern-day corpora is created accessible

to researcher, for free of charge. The computer technology stores a large number


27

of corpora from variety of sources (Biber, et al., 2002). Hunston (2002) adds that

computers maintain and process large amounts of information, the electronic

corpora which are used to study aspects of language. Biber, et al. (2002) state that

corpora are written in complete texts, so they will be not limited to sentence-

length excerpts to be analyzed.

There are corpora that are available online on corpus.byu.edu. That website,

which consists of billions words, is created by Mark Davies, a Professor of

Linguistics at Bringham Young University, USA. It consists of corpora from three

languages, English, Spanish, and Portuguese. There are seven English corpora:

Global Web-Based English (GloWbE), Corpus of Contemporary American

English (COCA), Corpus of Historical American English (COHA), TIME

Magazine Corpus, Corpus of American Soap Operas, British National Corpus

(BYU-BNC), and Strathy Corpus (Canada). The corpora are built to find out how

native speakers actually speak and write, look at language variation and change,

design authentic language teaching materials and resources, and find the

frequency of words, phrases, and collocates (Davies, n.d.). Davies (n.d.) says that

there are more than 100.000 people each month who use this site for teaching,

learning, and personal interest. The website also provides the publication of

corpus study by researchers all around the world.

In early 2008, COCA was released online (Davies, 2009). COCA is the first

large and diverse corpus of American English. It has 450 million words from 1990

to 2012, balanced between spoken (20%), fictions (20%), popular magazines

(20%), newspapers (20%), and academic journals (20%). Davies (2009) adds that


28

the composition of the texts can compare data diachronically across the corpus.

The changes in the language will be shown by looking at the equivalent of text

compositions which consist of spoken and written from year to year. The spoken

texts are almost entirely the transcription of unscripted conversation from

television and radio programs (Davies, 2009). The spoken corpora are accurate

although they are completely spontaneous.

b. Frequency

Hunston (2002) defines a frequency list as “a list of all the types in a

corpus together with the number of occurrences of each type” (p.67). The list has

some kinds of section which present frequency order, alphabetical order, and the

first occurrence of the type in the corpus. By investigating the frequency of words,

it will be known the most common and uncommon words in English (Biber, et al.,

2002). In the online corpus, including COCA, it gives an automatic list of words.

COCA shows the number of occurrences frequency of certain words. Hunston

(2002) says that “the words in a corpus can be arranged in order of their frequency

in that corpus” (p.3). Biber, et al. (2002) explain that the frequency lists of all of

the words in a corpus can be produced by COCA. They add that each form of a

word will appear in the list, for example the words deal, deals, dealing, and dealt.

Researchers may discuss the frequency of all the words or just one word. “The

term „lemma‟ is used to mean the base form of a word, disregarding grammatical

changes such as tense and plurality” (Biber, et al., 2002, p.29).

The frequency of each word is compared to another word through some

sections or registers. COCA has the sections to limit the frequency findings such


29

as spoken, fiction, magazine, newspapers, academic, and based on the year 1990

to 2012. Hunston (2002) says that the list of frequency of the words is useful for

identifying possible differences between corpora. Biber, et al. (2002) also verify

that “one use of frequency lists is to compare the frequency of a target word to

other words” (p.29). To determine the occurrences of a word which contains two

lexical categories, such as deal, the researchers must look at the forms in the

context, determine the grammatical category, and keep count (Biber, et al., 2002).

It facilitates to study the corpora of each word in details.

5. The Role of Collocation

Collocation required a quantitative basis, giving actual numbers of co-

occurrences in some texts (“Collocations”). Stubbs (2003) suggests that all lexical

items have collocations. Leech, Cruickshank, and Ivanic (2001) state that

“collocations are not part of grammar, but they make use of grammar, and part of

what it means to use English naturally” (p.104).

a. Types of Collocation

Based on Hunston (2002), “collocation is tendency of words to be biased in

the way they co-occur” (p.68). Hunston (2002) gives the example of collocation:

children toys. The word toys collocates with the word children because those two

words are frequently co-occur comparing to the other words, such as women or

men. The collocation is said to be motivated since there is a rational explanation

that the word toys belong to children rather than to women or men. Another

example of collocation is high mountain. The word high collocates with the word


30

mountain, not to the words man or tree, if it is compared. The word high

commonly co-occurs with the word mountain. Lyons (1996) says about the

collocational range, which means the set of contexts in which it can occur. The

collocational range of an expression is completely determined by its meaning.

Thus, synonyms must be essential having the same collocational range. Take for

instance, the adjectives large and big. There are some contexts that large cannot

be substituted for big. It can be considered from these sentences: (1) He is making

a big mistake; (2) He is making a large mistake.

Besides, there is unmotivated collocation. Unmotivated collocation has no

logical explanation for clarifying the form of collocation (Hunston, 2002). The

examples of unmotivated collocation are strong tea and powerful car. Biber, et al.

(2002) add that “in some cases, the observed patterns seem completely obvious

once we see them, while in other cases they can be quite unexpected” (p.25).

Nesselhauf (2005) defines collocation as “the co-occurrence of words at a

certain distance” (p.11). The frequent (or more frequent than could be expected if

words combined randomly in a language) co-occurrences make the distance on the

collocations (Nesselhauf, 2005). Sinclair describes collocation as “the occurrence

of two or more words within a short space of each other in the text” (as cited in

Nesselhauf, 2005, p.12). He adds that the „short space‟ refers to a distance of

around four words to the left and right of the target word explored. The target

word is called node by Sinclair (as cited in Nesselhauf, 2005, p.12). The example

for the node refuse is in this sentence, Your mother says that you refuse all their

invitations. The words your, mother, says, that, you, all, their, invitations are


31

counted to form collocations with the node refuse. Those words are called

collocates.

As cited in Nesselhauf (2005), Sinclair terms collocation as significant

collocation. It senses as “co-occurrence of words such that they co-occur more

often than their representative frequencies and the length of text in which they

appear would predict” (p.12). Take a look at the phrase the wedding, the words

the and wedding would not be a significant collocation. The word the often occurs

in every kind of text. The words dog and barked are more considered as a

significant collocation. The word barked is likely to be found near the word dog.

Phoocharoensil (2010) gives an example that the noun pride has a strong tendency

to co-occur with the adjective immense, as in immense pride, rather than the

adjective colossal, as in colossal immense. The adjectives immense and colossal

are considered having a close meaning. In that context, immense is selected

because immense pride sounds common for English native speakers rather than

colossal pride.

b. The Benefits of Learning Collocations

There are two main benefits of learning collocations especially for language

teachers and learners. Shin and Nation (2008) state that collocations facilitate

learner‟s language use to develop fluency and native-like selection. According to

Kaci and Zimmermann (n.d.), native-like selection is “the ability of native

speakers routinely to convey their meaning by an expression that is not only

grammatical but also native-like” (p.1). Pawley and Syder suggest that L2 learners

need a similar number for native-like fluency (as cited in Shin & Nation, 2008).


32

Native-like fluency is “a speaker‟s ability to produce fluent stretches of

spontaneous connected discourse” (Kaci & Zimmermann, n.d., p.1). Pawley and

Syder argue that “there are hundreds of thousands of „lexicalized sentence stems‟

that adult native speakers have at their disposal” (as cited in Shin & Nation, 2008,

p.340). Thus, “the chunked expressions help language learners to reduce cognitive

effort, to save time, and to have language available for immediate use” (Shin &

Nation, 2008, p.340).

Shin and Nation (2008) assume that learning collocations is very effective

to develop learners‟ language fluency and native-like selection of language use.

Collocations will ease the language learners to remember lexical patterns since

frequent collocations have bigger chances of being used, especially by native

speakers. Shin and Nation (2008) also assume that “the most frequent collocations

will usually be the most useful” (p.340).

In this study, the collocations of the verbs refuse and reject will be

investigated. Those verbs which are synonymous may have different collocational

range. By exploring the collocations of refuse and reject, it will be known the

similar collocations which can determine the contexts of those synonyms.

6. Previous Corpus Studies

There are some corpus studies which help the researcher to understand and

explore the study deeper. One of the studies has been conducted by Liu (2011). In

his study, Liu (2011) uses COCA and BNC to investigate the collocations of

refuse and reject. Liu (2001) gives a test to Taiwanese learners which questions


33

the collocations of the verbs refuse and reject. The result of the test shows that

lower and higher learners are still confused about the use of the verbs refuse and

reject. In conclusion, the understanding of syntactic and lexical collocations of the

verbs refuse and reject of learners in general is the same.

The second study is conducted by Kayaoğlu (2013). Kayaoğlu (2013) uses

COCA to conduct his study. He examines the feasibility of using a corpus to help

students differentiate between close synonyms which have similar meanings but

cannot be substituted one for another (Kayaoğlu, 2013). He employs t-test

analysis to find the results of the study. He lists reject as the close synonym of

refuse besides deny, decline, and rebuff. Kayaoğlu (2013) gives a vocabularies test

about close synonyms for English learners. His study shows that the use of a

corpus for deciding on close synonyms proved to be very effective. It is because

there is a statistically significant different result between the pre-test and the post-

test.

In the researcher‟s batch, there are four other researchers who conduct

corpus study. The first researcher is Samodra (2014). She examines the modal

shall in two registers. The second researcher is Krismaheryanti (2014). She

studies collocation patterns of the words pupil and student which convey their

meanings. The third researcher is Duanaya (2014, in process), who investigates

the syntactic patterns of the synonymous conjunctions, since and because. The

last researcher is Riski (2014, in process), who studies the collocations of the

verbs suggest and advice. Having same basic idea, the researcher shares the

references and knowledge through doing the study.


34

B. Theoretical Framework

In order to conduct the study, the researcher should look for some theories

which settle appropriately with the topic of the study. The theoretical framework

summarizes and synthesizes the relevant theories explained above. In this section,

the researcher relates the study matter to the theories.

In order to answer the research problems, the researcher implements the

theories which are appropriate with the topic of this study. The theory of

frequency is employed to answer the first research question. The frequencies of

refuse and reject will be analyzed to know the use of them. COCA, as the source

of the data, shares the frequencies of the occurrences of the synonymous words.

The clear numbers of occurrences given by COCA will facilitate to understand

more about the use of the verbs. COCA as a subsequent source has enabled the

automatic measurement of statistically significant co-occurrences

(“Collocations”). Knowing the frequency of the occurrence of the synonymous

words, inform which verb is common used in the daily life context.

The second research question deals with the collocations of the verbs

refuse and reject. The researcher takes theory of word classes which contains verb

as the aspect deliberated. The words refuse and reject themselves have some

senses according to word classes. They can be a noun and a verb. In this study,

refuse and reject refer to the word class verb, which indicates actions or

something to do by subjects. Each verb has certain meanings which describe the

use of it in the language.


35

According to theory of meanings, refuse and reject can be examined using

collocative meaning and denotative meaning. Collocative meaning underlies the

analysis of the verbs refuse and reject. To obtain rich interpretation of the use of

the verbs refuse and reject, it is given the definitions of each verb. They will

support the discussion in this study. The dictionaries mention that refuse and

reject are counted as synonyms that share similar ideas of the senses. Denotative

meaning is used to distinguish the definition of the synonymous words. O‟Grady,

et al. (2010) say that denotative meaning is one of the parts of semantics study

which endeavors to equate the meaning of a word or a phrase with the units to

which it refers. However, the similar words are not able to substitute one to

another. Thus, this study takes theory of synonyms which gives a clear description

of the synonym degree of refuse and reject.

The analysis of the verbs is employed by corpus linguistics approach,

especially semantics, which refers to “an approach to studying language in which

observational data from large text collections are used as the main evidence for

the uses and the meaning of words and phrases” (Stubbs, 2001, p.23). Therefore,

this study needs a corpus which provides the data of the verbs refuse and reject.

The tokens of the verbs refuse and reject are obtained from COCA that offers

some options to the study matter. The tokens will show the occurrences of the

combination of words (McEnery & Wilson, 2001). Combination of words

signifies the collocation of the synonymous verbs. To investigate the senses of

words, it can be looked at their collocates (collocation) (Biber, et al., 2002). They

add that “there is a strong tendency for each collocate of a word to be associated


36

with a single sense or meaning (although more than one collocate can be

associated with that same sense)” (p.35). Moreover, by looking at the common

collocations of each verb, it can be an effective and efficient way to analyze the

senses of the verbs refuse and reject. Thus, it will be known whether the verbs

have similar contexts in meanings based on the similar collocations.


37

CHAPTER III

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

This chapter presents the methodology which is used in this study. This

chapter consists of research method, research setting, data source, instrument and

data gathering technique, data analysis technique, and research procedure.

A. Research Method

The research methods of this study were quantitative research and

qualitative research. Quantitative research would be employed to answer the first

research problem. According to Biber, et al. (2002), quantitative research was

important to compare synonymous words. This study would know the frequencies

of synonymous verbs refuse and reject in a corpus. Thus, this study employed

descriptive statistics to analyze the data. Xiao (n.d.) said that “frequencies are a

type of descriptive statistics” (p.8). He added that “descriptive statistics were used

to describe a dataset” (p.8). Based on Tebbs (2006), “statistics is the development

and application of methods to the collection, analysis, and interpretation of

observed information (data) from planned investigation” (p.1).

Besides, another research method of this study was qualitative research.

Ary, Jacobs, and Sorensen (2010) stated that by using qualitative research, the

researcher looks for the understanding of a phenomenon by emphasizing on the

entire picture. It did not need to break the entire idea into some variables.

According to Lichtman (2013), in qualitative research, the researcher played an


38

important role. The researcher collected and gathered the data and the information

through his or her eyes and ears. The goal of qualitative research was a full and

depth understanding of a picture (Ary, et al., 2010).

Hunston (2002) said that corpus software would show the number of

frequency without doing calculation. The purpose of qualitative research was to

“understand and interpret social interactions” (Lichtman, 2013, p.15).

Furthermore, the qualitative research would assist the researcher to dig the

collocations of the verbs refuse and reject deeper which could occur in the similar

contexts. The explanation of the verbs discussed was qualitative.

This study used corpus study since this study would find out the

frequencies and the collocations of the verbs refuse and reject from a corpus.

Corpus study would facilitate the questions about the frequencies of the

occurrences of the words (Hunston, 2002). Stubbs (2001) stated that corpus study

assisted in studying language in which observational data from a corpus were used

as the main evidence for the uses and the meaning of words and phrases. A corpus

would show the occurrences of the verbs refuse and reject. Next, corpus study

helped to explore the collocations of the synonymous verbs refuse and reject.

According to Schmitt (2002), corpus study contributed to investigate patterns of

the use of language. The researcher considered that corpus study could be the best

method to answer the research problems of this study.


39

B. Research Setting

The study was conducted in Yogyakarta from February 2014 until July

2014. This study needed the tokens of the verbs refuse and reject from COCA as

the data. The corpus is obtained from a website, corpus.byu.edu/coca/. Because

the corpus stored in a computer, it meant that the researcher could conduct the

study virtually. She needed a good internet network to look for the data on COCA.

Thus, the researcher could conduct the study in any given time and place.

C. Data Source

The data source of this study were the tokens of the verbs refuse and reject

from COCA. COCA had 450 million words from time period 1990 until 2012. “It

is the only large and balanced corpus of American English” (Davies, n.d.). He

added that COCA was very suitable for looking at current and ongoing changes in

the language. To conduct this study, the tokens were taken only from 2011 to

2012 to see the current use of the verbs refuse and reject. There were some box

options in COCA which eased the search of target words and in which the

category of the words occurred. Figure 3.1 below was the appearance of COCA.


40

Figure 3.1 The Appearance of COCA

From Figure 3.1, there was a vertical line which separated the parts in the

left side and the right side. The left side offered some options to find words in

categories. The right side gave the result of the findings.

In addition, COCA presented the number of the frequency of the word

occurrences. It also showed the list of the tokens in which the target words

occurred. The researcher copied all the tokens of the words refuse and reject since

the tokens could not be downloaded.

The data given from COCA showed the collocations of the verbs. To

analyze the collocations deeper, the researcher chose 100 tokens for each verb.

Those 100 tokens would represent the context in which the verb occurred.

Therefore, to conduct this study, the role of COCA was really helpful since it was

easy to use and access. Besides, according to Biber, et al. (2002), COCA gave the

data which was reliable because of the excellent store in computers.


41

D. Instruments and Data Gathering Technique

The instruments of this study were the researcher and tokens of the verbs

refuse and reject. The researcher was the instrument of this study because the

researcher who was going to conduct the study. Ary, et al. (2010) stated that a

human could be an instrument for a study. They added that “in qualitative studies,

the human investigator is the primary instrument for gathering and analyzing of

data” (p.424). In addition, Lichtman (2013) said that the researcher became the

primary instrument because he or she who collected and gatherred the information

and the data. In this study, the data gathering was conducted by the researcher.

Later, she would analyze the data for this study.

The second instrument for conducting this study was the tokens of the verbs

refuse and reject from COCA. The researcher would see the occurrences of the

verbs refuse and reject in different registers, which could indicate the meaning

and the context they were used. The verbs refuse and reject could have different

collocations which distinguished the contexts from each other. The researcher

would take note and highlight the information from the token related to the

collocations. For instance, the tokens below showed the collocations of the target

word which would be analyzed.

(1) , when a state recognizes marriages, the federal government will

discriminate and - and refuse benefits to some of the married people that

the state recognizes and not others. (COCA: ABC This Week)

(2) understand the motivation to take up arms or call for military intervention,

we specifically reject this position as we find it unacceptable politically,

nationally, and ethically. Militarizing (COCA: Middle East Q)


42

E. Data Analysis Technique

In qualitative research, the first stage in analyzing data was organizing to

ease the data retrieved (Ary, et al., 2010). The data had to be put into a form ready

for analyzing. In organizing, the data was classified. The researcher put the data

into the table of classification. In this study, the researcher classified the data into

two. The first data consisted of the tokens of the verb refuse and the second one

consisted of the tokens of the verb reject. After doing it, the data on the tables

were interpreted. Ary, et al. (2010) defined interpretation as producing the

meaning and providing explanation. Ary, et al. (2010) added that “the quality of

the interpretation depends on the background, perspective, knowledge, and

theoretical orientation of the researcher and the intellectual skill he or she brings

to the task” (p.490). The researcher verified what he or she knew was supported

by the data.

In this study, the tokens of the verbs refuse and reject will be interpreted.

Here, it would be known more about the meanings of each verb in the tokens. The

researcher would investigate every token to comprehend the meaning in which

the verbs occurred, since there were some definitions of each verb. After that, the

researcher picked 100 tokens for each verb to give the examples and analyze them

deeper. Based on Ary, et al. (2010), “there is no general rule to include in a

qualitative study” (p.429). Those 100 tokens each verb were enough to know the

use of the synonymous verbs in the daily life context. Sampling, which was

selecting participants, was important in a qulitative study (Ary, et al., 2010). The

participants in this study also referred to the tokens of the verbs refuse and reject.


43

The researcher selected purposive samples, which was sufficient to provide

minimum insight and understanding of what the researcher was studying (Ary, et

al., 2010). Ary, et al.(2010) said that purposive samples had to be relevant to the

topic of the study. To do the sampling, the researcher used her experience and

knowledge, specially which was related to this study. Thus, the tokens used had to

represent all meanings of the verbs refuse and reject. Moreover, the collocations

of the verbs would present the meanings and contexts they took place. The

analysis would be conducted based on the definitions on the dictionaries and the

related references mentioned in Chapter II.

F. Research Procedure

There were six steps to conduct this study. Ary, et al. (2010) gave the steps

to conduct qualitative study. The first step was specifying the phenomenon to be

investigated. In this study, the researcher wanted to investigate the synonymous

verbs, refuse and reject by corpus study. The researcher was going to find out the

frequencies of the verbs refuse and reject and the collocations of the verbs. The

collocations would show the meanings of those verbs which might have similar or

different contexts in use.

By the guidance from Ary, et al. (2010), the second step was selecting the

source from which the observations were to be made. The researcher chose COCA

as the source of the data in this study. The researcher used a laptop to browse

COCA site to take the tokens of the verbs refuse and reject. Next, the researcher

would copy the tables of the tokens because the tokens could not be downloaded.


44

After doing it, the third step was classifying the data (Ary, et al., 2010).

The data were classified into two: the data of the tokens of the verb refuse and the

data of the tokens of the verb reject. The data would be presented in the form of

table to ease the researcher to see it. Then, it was selected 100 tokens for each

verb to be digged more in the next step. The researcher highlighted the

occurrences of the synonymous verbs and their collcoations in every token.

After that, the forth step was analyzing the data (Ary, et al., 2010). The

theories in Chapter II would help to analyze the data. The analyzing focused on

the frequencies and the collocations of the verbs refuse and reject. Thus, the

researcher would find whether those verbs had similar or different collocations

which occurred in the similar or different contexts.

Then, the fifth step was drawing conclusions (Ary, et al., 2010). After

analyzing the data, the researcher would find the conclusions. The conclusions

answered the research problems of this study.

The sixth step was reporting the result of this study (Ary, et al., 2010). The

researcher would make the report in a form of a thesis. Besides, there would be

recommendations for readers.


45

CHAPTER IV

RESEARCH RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

This chapter consists of two sections based on the results and the findings.

The first section describes the frequencies of the verbs refuse and reject. The

second section discusses the collocations of the verbs refuse and reject related to

the context meanings.

A. The Frequencies of the Verbs Refuse and Reject

To conduct this study, the data needed were taken from COCA. The tokens

of the verbs refuse and reject were from 2011 to 2012. It would be a discussion

about the comparison of the frequencies of the verbs refuse and reject. It would be

seen which one of the verbs that was used the most.

The words refuse and reject in COCA were not classified into the word

classes. Thus, in the lists of each word, refuse and reject could occur as a noun

and as a verb. This was the table of the occurrences frequencies of refuse and

reject in COCA 2011 – 2012.

Table 4.1 The Frequencies of Refuse and Reject in COCA 2011 – 2012

Word Frequency

Total 2011 2012

refuse 288 146 434

reject 217 93 310

Table 4.1 above showed that refuse had more number of occurrences than

reject from 2011 to 2012. Refuse occurred 288 times in 2011 and 146 times in


46

2012. In the total, refuse occurred 434 times. Reject appeared 217 times in 2011

and 93 times in 2012. The total occurrences of reject were 310. In result, refuse

had a higher number of the frequency rather than reject. It indicated that refuse

was commonly used more than reject.

1. The Frequency of the Verb Refuse

The occurrences of refuse in COCA from 2011 to 2012 were not only as a

verb. There were 16 tokens from COCA 2011 which showed refuse as a noun

which meant “something (such as paper or food waste) that has been thrown

away” (“Refuse”). Take for instance in the tokens below.

(3) events, today 119 souls have come to watch the Dotsons sell off the

abandoned refuse of shattered lives. # " Here are the rules, folks, " says

(COCA: USA Today)

(4) , pausing briefly to collect $50 from a resident planning to take 20 loads

of refuse to the town dump. " I'm not supposed to have to leave my

(COCA: NY Times)

(5) and go right back into the nest. Finally, midden workers toil over

the refuse pile and over the pebbles that the ants bring back to cover the

mound. (COCA: Natural Hist)

This case also happened in the tokens of refuse in COCA 2012. After

examining the tokens, it was found that there were 11 tokens which used refuse as

a noun. The tokens below were the examples which indicated the use of the noun

refuse.

(6) has command. They came in at night unseen, buried themselves amid

wreckage and refuse, two rifles, two cones of fire, and a long wait for a

(COCA: Alpha)

(7) vampire's remains just lying there, trickling into the gutter with all the

other refuse of the city. On the other hand, I couldn't do anything to

(COCA: Wicked City Zephyr)

(8) debris, and dirt, so, in this overflow of passions, all the refuse of men's

souls was washed up and brought to the surface; this added (COCA: Iowa

Rev)


47

As explained above, in year 2012, refuse as a verb was used only 135 times

after it was reduced from refuse as a noun in 11 tokens. Consequently, to find out

how many the verb refuse, the frequency of refuse in COCA 2011 to 2012 was

reduced by the tokens of the noun refuse. The noun refuse occurred 27 times in

two years. As a result, in COCA 2011 to 2012, the verb refuse occurred 407

times.

2. The Frequency of the Verb Reject

The occurrences of reject in COCA from 2011 to 2012 were not only as a

verb. As well as refuse occurrences, the word reject also had a role as a noun.

There were six tokens of the noun reject in COCA 2011. Three tokens below were

the examples which indicated that reject took a part as a noun which meant

“something that is not good enough for some purpose/ something that cannot be

used or accepted” (“Reject”).

(13) with disabilities recognized to have APE needs must receive APE

services (i.e., zero reject and zero fail, Sherrill, 1998; USDE, 1996).

Thus, (COCA: Teaching Exceptional)

(14) in an alpha level of.936; thus demonstrating homogeneity of variance by

failing the reject the null hypothesis and allowing us to proceed with

analysis using one-way ANOVA. # (COCA: Education)

(15) in an alpha level of.360; thus demonstrating homogeneity of variance by

failing the reject the null hypothesis and allowing us to proceed with

analysis using one-way ANOVA. # (COCA: Education)

Moreover, there were other two tokens of the noun reject. The definition of

the noun reject was “a person who is not accepted or liked by other people”

(“Reject”). The tokens below presented that intention.

(16) up to new people. FAUX BREAK-DANCE What it looks like: He's

a reject from America's Best Dance Crew. What it means: Yes, he's

(COCA: Cosmopolitan)


48

(17) " Bubba " Ball.) From the sidelines, Gingrich lashes out like

the reject who can't stand the letter-jacket handsome. " What we need is a

president (COCA: Newsweek)

The noun reject also occurred in COCA 2012. By examining the tokens,

there were five examples which used reject as a noun. These were three tokens of

the noun reject which had a sense that “something that is not good enough for

some purpose” (“Reject”).

(10) continues to sport his snaggle-toothed smile -- a collection of bright white

Chiclets from the reject bin, all of them chipped and unmatched, widely

set. " PAGE 80 (COCA: Esquire)

(11) " of the Individuals With Disabilities Education Act (IDEA; 2006):

zero reject, nondiscriminatory evaluation, individualized and appropriate

education, least restrictive environment, procedural due (COCA:

Teaching Exceptional)

(12) in their neighborhood schools (Smith, 2000). The IDEA principle of

zero reject applies in this case: special education services must be

available wherever there are students (COCA: Teaching Exceptional)

The discussion showed that the word reject could be a verb and a noun. By

investigating the role of the word reject, the verb reject occurred 299 times. That

number was the result after reducing the frequency of reject in COCA 2011 to

2012 (310) from the frequency of the noun reject (11).

After examining the occurrences of refuse and reject deeper, it was found

that not all those words in COCA 2012 to 2011 referred to a verb. By looking at

each token, the words refuse and reject were also used as a noun. In this study,

one of the aims was to find out the occurrence frequency of each word as a verb.

The table below presented the occurrences frequencies of the verbs refuse and

reject.


49

Table 4.2 The Frequencies of the Verbs Refuse and Reject

in COCA 2011 – 2012

Verb Frequency

Total Percentage 2011 2012

refuse 271 135 406 57.59%

reject 211 88 299 42.41%

Total 705 100%

From Table 4.2, it was shown that the verb refuse had a higher number than

reject. In total, the verb refuse occurred 406 times and the verb reject occurred

299 times. In calculation, the verb refuse had 107 more tokens than the verb

reject. The occurrence percentage of the verb refuse was 57.59% and the verb

reject was 42.41%. The ratio of those two verbs occurrences was 15.18%. The

number of ratio percentage given was not really considerable since it was not 50%

or nearly 50%, which was a half of 100%.

This finding was compared to BNC. BNC was a well-known corpus of

British English. The tables below showed the frequencies of refuse and reject in

BNC.

Table 4.3 The Frequencies of Refuse and Reject in BNC

Table 4.4 The Frequencies of the Lemmas Refuse and Reject in BNC

Based on Table 4.3, refuse and reject had different occurrences frequency.

Based on Leech, Rayson, & Wilson (2001), the verb refuse which was in four

forms (lemma, past participle, present participle, continuous) occurred 106 times

Verb Frequency Percentage

refuse 106 62.35%

reject 64 37.65%

Total 170 5100%

Verb Frequency Percentage

refuse 22 59.45%

reject 15 40.54%

Total 37 100%


50

(62.35%). Compared to the verb reject, it (in the same forms like refuse) occurred

64 times (37.65%) (Leech, et al., 2001). Refuse had more 42 occurrences rather

than reject.

Table 4.4 presented the frequencies of the lemmas refuse and reject.

According to Table 4.4, the lemma refuse occurred 22 times and the lemma reject

occurred 15 times (Leech, et al., 2001). The percentage of the lemma refuse was

59.45% and the lemma reject was 40.54%. It meant that refuse was used more

than reject although the ratio was not really significant (18.91%). The result in

BNC showed that the verb refuse was used more than the verb reject.

The findings showed that the verb refuse was commonly used rather than

the verb reject to express denial. There were some dictionaries which did not list

reject. Longman Dictionary of Common Errors did not have the verb reject in the

list. The explanation of the verb reject was in the verb refuse section. In that

dictionary, the use of reject was compared to refuse. In Dictionary of Word

Origins, reject was not found in the list of words. In addition, there was an

explanation of refuse. In Google, the occurrences frequency of refuse was higher

than reject, which the words refuse and reject could be a verb and a noun. The

word refuse occurred about 170.000.000 times in 0.19 second, while the word

reject occurred about 93.200.000 times in 0.20 second. As a result, the percentage

of the word refuse in Google was 64.59% and the percentage of the word reject

was 35.41%. The results showed that the word refuse (as a verb and a noun) had a

higher occurrence than the word reject (as a verb and a noun).


51

From the discussion, it could be concluded that the verb refuse had a higher

frequency than reject. As stated by Biber, et al. (2002), it would be known the

most common words by investigating the frequency of words. The verb refuse

was commonly used to express denial rather than the verb reject.

B. The Collocations of the Verbs Refuse and Reject

The tokens in COCA gave the clear use of the verbs refuse and reject in

their own utterances. There were 100 tokens from each verb to be investigated.

Each verb had some meanings that would be explained one by one according to

the certain meaning. As refuse and reject were transitive and intransitive verbs,

the study of collocation was adjusted to each kind of verb. The transitive verbs

focused on the right collocations. Biber, et al. (2002) wrote that the researchers

could investigate the right collocation of a certain word. They added that to find

some contexts of the word meaning, it could be looked at the right collocations

only.

It had explained about the definitions of the transitive verbs refuse and

reject in Chapter II. Refuse and reject were followed by words which intended to

express something that was being refused or rejected. To give a clear description,

here were the tokens of the transitive forms of refuse and reject.

(18) there were ladies who would travel miles in order to have a handsome

young werewolf refuse to sell them a hat. # He looked up to see Madame

Lefoux. (COCA: Timeless)

(19) too dangerous for vampires and humans alike. Which explained why

Aileen thought I would refuse to set foot in any establishment that served

the brew. # But the truth (COCA: Wicked City Zephyr)


52

(20) a dry lab? Dr-PATEL: No, not at all. We reject -- we reject products as

well. HANSEN: (Voiceover) In this email he blamed us for misleading

him (COCA: NBC_Dateline)

Based on the examples, there were two different forms of the collocations.

As it was seen, the left collocations of each example were subjects (a handsome

young werewolf, I, we) and could be followed by a modal (would). The right

collocation could be in the form of to infinitive (to reject) and another word such

as a noun (products). The examples showed that refuse and reject wanted to make

clear the things which were not accepted by the subjects. Besides, the right

collocations gave the context meaning of each verb used.

The verbs refuse and reject had similar and different collocations based on

the sentences they occurred. The collocations could show the certain meanings of

the verbs. Each verb had several specific meanings which made the differences in

the use of them. A corpus could show the examples of the use of words in some

contexts they occurred (Biber, et al., 2002). From the contexts, it could be

identified the different meaning associated with a word (Biber, et al., 2002). Thus,

by investigating the tokens of refuse and reject, it would be known the context

where refuse and reject occurred.

After exploring the occurrences of the verbs refuse and reject in COCA

2011 – 2012, it was found that there were numerous collocations of each verb.

There were left collocations and right collocations which could describe the

meanings of the verbs. Furthermore, it would be seen the similar collocations of

the verbs refuse and reject.


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1. Refuse

a. As a Transitive Verb

As a transitive verb, refuse collocated with other words which explained the

meaning of its occurrences. For the transitive verb refuse, the study only focused

on the right collocation. It was because the right word clarified the things which

were being denied. There were 75 tokens which contained refuse as a transitive

verb. This table below showed the collocations of refuse as a transitive verb.

Table 4.5 The Collocations of Transitive Verb Refuse

No Type of Collocation Total

1 noun 31

2 to infinitive 44

Total 75

Table 4.5 showed that there were two types of right collocation which

occurred after a transitive verb refuse. The first type of collocation was a noun,

which had 31 occurrences after refuse. There were various kinds of noun which

collocated with refuse such as challenge, proposals, invitations, help, treatment,

procedures, fare, and insurance. Those collocations were found in some registers.

As it was known, COCA made tokens from several kinds of sources such as from

spoken, magazines, newspapers, and fictions (Davies, 2009).

From Table 4.5, the right collocation of refuse could be in the form of to

infinitive. As stated by Azar and Hagen (2009), the verb refuse was one of

common verbs which were followed by infinitives. The occurrences of that form

were in 44 tokens. The infinitives which followed refuse to were various, e.g. to

excuse, to meet, to share, to give, to commit, to trade, to play.


54

The transitive verb refuse had several meanings according to Merriam-

Webster Dictionary and Macquarie Dictionary. After examining the tokens, the

researcher found that the definitions given by the dictionaries were used in the

real life by the people. However, not all the definitions gave many examples

presented in the corpus. For the definition “to renounce (obsolete)” (“Refuse”),

the researcher found one token only. Next, there was no token which shared the

meaning “decline to leap over a fence (horse)” (“Refuse”).

To answer the research problems, the explanation given was according to

the meanings of the verb occurrences in the tokens. By investigating the tokens,

the transitive verb refuse occurred in four meanings. The study investigated those

four meanings which could indicate the context of refuse.

1) The First Meaning of Refuse

The first definition of refuse was “to decline to accept something offered”

(“Refuse”). From COCA, the researcher found the examples of that meaning.

Based on that meaning, it was found that refuse collocated with other words

which were shown in the some contexts. The researcher had picked 25 tokens of

407 which presented that meaning. All of the right collocations for this meaning

were nouns, which presented things offered that was denied.

There were a lot of offered things which were refused. Having looked at

the right collocations, the verb refuse was used in many contexts. Here, the

researcher would explain some of the collocations. Firstly, it was found that there

were three occurrences of the noun treatment as the right collocations of refuse.

The occurrences of treatment were on the tokens below.


55

(21) that may not be the best practices, or even quackery. The option

to refuse a given treatment is still offered. In my 37 years in medical

practice I (COCA: Christ Century)

(22) to court. Even though the court decided that the parents had the right

to refuse treatment, the hospital refused to remove the ventilator. Instead,

they slowly weaned (COCA: Social Work)

(23) it, the U.S. Supreme Court held that a competent person has the right

to refuse medical treatment even if the lack of treatment will lead to their

death (Colby (COCA: Social Work)

The use of refuse in the examples above showed a denial to offered

treatment. According to those three examples, people had a right to decide

whether they would accept or refuse the treatment. The collocation of refuse +

treatment related to medical field.

Secondly, the noun help appeared twice in the tokens of refuse. The tokens

were in magazine and academic registers. Here were the tokens which carried

help.

(24) Shopping Tips # ln-store # Ask to unpack and pitch the tent yourself

(politely refuse help from sales clerks). Is it quick to lay out and erect?

(COCA: Backpacker)

(25) 66521244 ADULTS # ROUGH SLEEPING # A group of women who

sleep rough in London refuse help, seeing homelessness as their choice.

They do not take drugs or abuse (COCA: Community Care)

The tokens above presented the collocations of refuse help. The verb refuse

was used to decline help which was offered by other people. Help, which was a

good act, could be refused by the people who seemed to need it.

Next, refuse occurred with the noun proposals as the right collocation. The

occurrence of it was in fiction register. This token below had its occurrence.

(26) lining up the Eligibles is beyond me. " # " Sheer determination.

You refuse the proposals one by one, and honestly, Evie, Papa isn't as

(COCA: Lady Maggies Secret)


56

Based on the example, Evie did not want to have the proposals which were

offered to her. There was more than one proposal which were declined by her. In

that context, proposal was being a wonderful thing which was offered by men

who asked a woman to marry.

To stretch the use of refuse that carried the meaning discussed in this

section, next, refuse collocated with the noun money. The token of it was in

fiction register. Here was one of the tokens in which money occurred.

(27) favorite restaurant, an Italian place in Santa Monica where the ardent and

merry owners refuse to take his money and ask only permission to take

his photo, to have (COCA: Southern Rev)

From that example above, a man would like to give money to the ardent

and merry owners. They did not want to accept the money given by him. Money,

which was considered as a valuable thing, was denied although it might be in a

big number.

Those collocations showed that there were things offered which were

declined. From the collocations, it was clear that anything could be denied. Refuse

was used to “say no when someone wants you to accept something” (“Refuse”).

The verb refuse was used in the daily life and in many contexts.

2) The Second Meaning of Refuse

The second meaning of refuse was “to decline to give/ deny a request

demand, etc.” (“Refuse”). That meaning referred to “not allow someone to have

something (“Refuse”)” which sensed as a “request” or “demand.” By

investigating, that meaning was found in some tokens. The researcher had picked

25 tokens to understand the use of refuse in this meaning deeper.


57

The right collocations of refuse were mostly to infinitive forms which were

19, and the others were nouns. From 25 tokens, there were 7 to let forms, 4 to give

forms, and 4 to allow forms. The other collocations were to excuse, to meet, to

share, and to have vaccinated. To infinitive form was followed by a noun which

described something that was declined or a verb which expressed “something

could not to do.” The tokens below presented to infinitive forms that indicated

“deny a request or demand” (“Refuse”).

(28) shape. # As Denver Restaurant Week gets underway, we found five

chefs who refuse to let the demands of their jobs interfere # with their

physical and mental fitness (COCA: Denver)

(29) , for example, they publicly exaggerate the resulting civilian deaths.

Meanwhile, they refuse to give the United States permission to conduct

commando raids in Pakistan, swearing that (COCA: Foreign Affairs)

(30) just liberals who oppose spending cuts. Conservative members of

Congress from farm states refuse to allow major cuts in farm subsidies,

an antiquated program born back in the (COCA: USA Today)

The first and the second tokens ((28) and (29)) described that someone

declined to let and to give somethings which were considered as a “request” and a

“demand.” The following words of those two tokens were demands (as in (28))

and permission (as in (29)), which were nouns. It clearly described that the tokens

presented the use of refuse, “to deny request and demand.” The following words

of the collocations clearly referred to the meaning discussed. The next example

(30) showed that refuse to allow was followed by a verb which explained the

thing which was demanded by the people.

Other tokens obviously showed that the words request and demand were

the collocations of refuse. The tokens below showed that intention.


58

(31) mermaid this year. " # I almost laugh, knowing that Dad would

never refuse Sam's request. # But Tm too upset to laugh. # Sam goes

(COCA: Storyworks)

(32) a local farmer to supply eggs for the bakery, he'd been unable

to refuse Mrs. Becroft's request. " They need our help, " he'd told

(COCA: Storyworks)

(33) are now trained upon your remaining ships. You are hardly in a position

to refuse our demands. Relations between the Hegemony and your

Syndicate are of no concern to (COCA: Analog)

The examples showed the meaning of refuse as “refuse to give something

that someone needs or have asked for” (“Refuse”). The words request (as in (31)),

request (as in (32)), and demands (as in (33)), which followed refuse, clearly

showed the meaning discussed. The collocations of this meaning were directly the

words demand and request. Thus, it strengthened the explanation of the second

meaning of refuse.

3) The Third Meaning of Refuse

The third meaning of refuse was “will not to do something” (“Refuse”).

There were 24 tokens of this meaning which had been investigated. The tokens

showed that refuse collocated with other words to support the meaning.

The right collocations of refuse were in the form of to infinitive. The

collocations of 24 tokens were various. Every token had different collocations

such as to metamorphose, to remember, to contemplate, to sit down, to pray, to

trade, and to play. The verb refuse could collocate with other verbs (in the form of

to infinitive) to convey a determination not to do something. The tokens below

presented refuse which were used in the different registers.

(34) Proving he was more than just a highly paid mercenary, Curtin would

not only refuse to commit what amounted to perjury, but he also offered

in each case to (COCA: Kill Switch)


59

(35) the most robust surge in filmmaking since the 1960s. France, Italy and

Germany refuse to be ignored. # And then there is Greece. Your hazy

recollections of (COCA: NY Times)

(36) 's sunny but in this heart of mine the world is gloomy, the sun refuse to

shine. I've done the best that I could do all for you (COCA: NPR_Fresh

Air)

Those tokens appeared in the different registers. The first token (34)

occurred in a fiction book, the second one (35) appeared in news, and the last one

(36) was in spoken. The subject who did the refusal could be various in those

tokens (Curtin, France, Italy and Germany, the sun). Those tokens used refuse

and then were followed by a verb which described an act which was denied to do.

4) The Forth Meaning of Refuse

The forth definition of refuse was “to renounce” (“Refuse”) which was

used to say formally or publicly. From 407 tokens, the researcher only found one

token which referred to this meaning. The token below showed that meaning.

(38) national borders. " Nothing will stop us, " Hlne promises. " We refuse to

have Louis Renault remembered as a collaborator for eternity. It's our

duty (COCA: Town Country)

The verb refuse collocated with to have, and was followed by remembered.

The context of that example was announcing publicly. As Macquarie Dictionary

said about this meaning, the context of refuse here was used on the past time,

which was not used anymore at the recent time. That token occurred in magazine

register entitled „Town Country‟. As it was seen, refuse which referred to the

meaning discussed was still used in the year 2012.

b. As an Intransitive Verb

Besides, based on the definition in the dictionaries which had been

mentioned in Chapter II, refuse was also an intransitive verb. Here, the study


60

needed to investigate the left collocations since intransitive verbs lacked objects

(Carstairs-McCarthy, 2002). By looking at the left collocations, it would be

obtained the meaning of the verb refuse. The last meaning of refuse which was

discussed in this study was “to decline acceptance, consent, or compliance”

(“Refuse”). It implied that there was no right collocation of refuse which indicated

its‟ context.

The researcher had examined the tokens of this intransitive verb.

Unfortunately, not all tokens could show the objects which were being refused.

From 25 tokens, there were 18 tokens which presented the objects or actions

refused. Mostly, the left collocations of these 18 tokens were the word offer,

which occurred in 7 tokens. The other collocations were the words option, wine,

weapons, date, abortion, deals, and cuts. Those words signified to something

offered and agreement. There were to infinitive forms as the left collocations

which were to press and to cut. Those two collocations indicated a determination

not to do something. Seven other tokens did not show the certain object or action.

The tokens below showed the intransitive verb refuse which presented something

or action refused.

(39) If it is still technically optional, it's an option you can't refuse. # In a

recent debate, moderator John King invoked Romney's father George

(COCA: Town Country)

(40) federal funding is " coercive " by luring states into an offer they

can't refuse. They say it also will pull others into Medicaid who already

qualify but have (COCA: USA Today)

(41) against her dark skirt like a starry sky, there was simply no way

to refuse. # It had worked once. It had to work again. # " (COCA:

Paradise Dogs)


61

The examples above proved that refuse was an intransitive verb. Refuse had

no object and ended with a full stop. The first and second tokens ((39) and (40))

showed that the left collocations of refuse could indicate the meanings, which

were refusing an option (as in (39)) and refusing an offer (as in (40)). However, in

the third token (41), it could not certainly indicate the object or the action which

was refused.

From the finding, refuse was used in many contexts and fields. The

collocations of refuse were various. Additionally, refuse can be followed by to

infinitive to indicate the meaning. It might be the reason that refuse was common

used rather than other synonyms which referred to decline to do something.

Moreover, excluding 100 tokens which had been discussed above, refuse

seemed to be used to convey another meaning besides its own definitions. The

dictionaries listed that meaning as the definition of reject, which was “to refuse as

lover or spouse, not love” (“Reject”). In this discussion, there were two tokens of

refuse which carried that meaning. The tokens of refuse below showed that

intention.

(42) asked the Cutters. Sam had never asked her for anything. How could

she refuse him this? Pros: working on an engine that really needed her.

She (COCA: Undertow)

(43) moon about Tom's return. He sent this e-mail, and I couldn't refuse him,

even though I'm the shyest person on earth. I trust Tom (COCA: Harpers

Bazaar)

The collocations of refuse from those tokens above were him. Those tokens

((42) and (43)) occurred in fiction and magazine registers. In this context

meaning, the definition of reject was used by refuse (as in refuse him) might be

because refuse and reject were near-synonymy words. As a result, people used


62

refuse to utter that someone did not accept someone else‟s love, which should be

use reject to say that.

2. Reject

The verb reject shared several specific meanings according to the

dictionaries mentioned in Chapter II. COCA had the occurrences of reject in the

specific meanings. There were 100 tokens of the verb reject which would be

discussed deeper in this section. As well as refuse tokens, the tokens of reject

were taken by considering the intention of the utterances.

Since reject was a transitive verb, the analysis would be on the right

collocations only. The right collocations would explain the context meanings of

reject. Table 4.6 below presented the right collocations of reject.

Table 4.6 The Right Collocations of the Verb Reject

No Type of Collocation Total

1 noun 84

2 pronoun 16

TOTAL 100

After exploring 100 tokens, the verb reject collocated with two word

classes: noun and pronoun. The collocations were 84 nouns and 16 pronouns.

Those nouns and pronouns were various. Actually, those 84 nouns also contained

the noun phrases. When investigating the noun phrases, the researcher listed them

into noun by looking at their heads. The complements of the head were completed

the meaning of the noun (Biber, et al., 2002). Thus, only the heads of the noun

phrases which were considered in the collocation analysis.


63

There were 7 definitions appeared among 100 tokens. However, 5

definitions only occurred in 1 – 10 tokens. Two definitions occurred in a lot of

tokens. The explanation of the collocations would be based on the definitions.

a. The First Meaning of Reject

To start the discussion, the first meaning of reject was “to refuse to have,

take, recognize, etc.” (“Reject”). Carrying this meaning, reject had collocations

which occurred in some certain contexts. In COCA, there were many reject

occurrences in this meaning. By investigating the tokens of reject, there were 50

tokens which contained the meaning discussed. The collocations of reject were

the nouns, such as idea, bill, tax, money, proposal, treatment, argument, teaching,

beliefs, agreement and offer. From 50 tokens, there were some nouns which

appeared more than 2 times, which were agreement (3 times), bill (4 times), tax

and taxes (the plural form of tax) (4 times), and idea and ideas (the plural form of

idea) (12 times). The occurrences of idea and ideas were the highest among other

collocations. Here were the examples of the idea‟s and ideas‟ occurrences which

were in the different registers: the first token (44) was in news, the second token

(45) was in fiction, and the third token (46) was in academic.

(44) but the President sat on our set, talking to you, saying I categorically

reject the idea that this is a tax. I think you‟ll appear on the (COCA:

ABC_This Week)

(45) it themselves. # Or had they? Maybe they'd fabricated some reason

to reject the idea. Half of my joy balloons popped at that thought, but I

(COCA: Analog)

(46) treatment of enemy combatants captured in unconventional conflicts,

both wings of the Tea Party reject liberal internationalist ideas and will

continue to do so. The U.S. Senate, in (COCA: Foreign Affairs)


64

According to the examples, idea and ideas were being something which

was not considered by the subjects. Basically, reject was used to say that you did

not support an idea (“Reject”). Therefore, it was reasonable if the occurrences of

idea/ ideas were high.

Next, this study would like to discuss money as a collocation of reject. The

noun money occurred twice in the tokens. The appearances of money were in the

tokens below.

(47) of which $10,000 came from his own pocket. As part of his pledge

to reject special-interest money, Roemer has said he will not take PAC

donations and will limit (COCA: CS Monitor)

(48) we care? COKIE-ROBERTS-1-A# (Off-camera) Well, I should just say

that they did then reject that money and sent internal e-mails basically

saying this is totally unacceptable. We have (COCA: ABC_This Week)

The examples occurred in the different registers. The first example

occurred in news and the second one was in spoken. The noun money was also the

right collocation of refuse in fiction register. The collocation of reject/ refuse +

money could be in the different registers but in the similar context.

In this meaning, the verb reject also collocated with the noun treatment.

The occurrence of that collocation was only one. The token below presented its

occurrence.

(49) options available? # Patient preferences may conflict with the prevailing

evidence or they may reject a treatment because they do not understand

the risks or benefits correctly. Some of (COCA: Practice Nurse)

The example above occurred in academic register about medical matter.

Treatment was being the thing that was refused to take by the patients. This noun

also appeared as the right collocation of refuse. Both refuse and reject collocated


65

with treatment in the medical environment. Thus, the context meaning of the use

of those both verbs were similar.

Another collocation of reject was the noun proposal. Proposal occurred

twice in the tokens. Here were the tokens which contained proposal.

(50) a panel appointed by the governor and lawmakers, also will have the

power to reject or accept the proposal. # Gov. Jerry Brown has pushed

for some type (COCA: San Fran Chron) (51) in place. # In Oklahoma, for example, the EPA is likely to reject a

proposal, state officials say, after the state determined it wasn't cost-

effective (COCA: Assoc Press)

Those two tokens ((50) and (51)) appeared in news registers. The proposal

which were refused referred to “something (such as plan or suggestion) that is

presented to a person or group of people to consider” (“Proposal”). Principally,

reject was used to say that someone did not support proposals (plan or suggestion)

(“Reject”). The verb refuse had proposal as its collocation too. However,

proposal which occurred in refuse meant “the act of asking someone to marry

you” (“Proposal”). Although reject and refuse had the collocation proposal, that

noun shared different definitions. Thus, the context meanings were absolutely

different.

b. The Second Meaning of Reject

The second meaning of reject was “refuse to grant (demand)” (“Reject”).

By investigating COCA, there were some objects which were considered to be not

granted. It was found 9 collocations of reject which held this meaning. The

collocations were request and requests (the plural form of request) (4 times),

demand and demands (the plural form of demand) (2 times), appeal, plea, and

orders. The examples of those occurrences were presented below.


66

(52) the paperwork (some of it in English) in order definitively and legally

to reject any further demands for maintenance from her or her heirs. This

must be possible (COCA: New Statesman)

(53) Lawyers for Mr. Rumsfeld and the other military officials, urged the

high court to reject the appeal. # " Petitioners seek to provide enemy

combatants fighting against the United (COCA: CS Monitor)

(54) from Summit and WorldCat to avoid ILL requests, they decided it was

simpler to reject the few incoming loan requests when they were made. #

Using PCC Vendor Neutral (COCA: Library Resources)

The tokens above proved that reject was used to decline a need asked. The

words demand (as in (52)) and appeal (as in (53)), as the collocations of reject,

sensed something which were strong needed. Those words had the same idea as

the word requests (as in (54)). Followed by the occurrence of requests (as in (54)),

that noun also occurred in the token of refuse as its collocation. However, request

which followed refuse was less formal which referred to “something (such as a

song) that a person asks for” (“Request”), as had explained in the previous

section. The noun request which occurred once in the token of refuse was in

fiction register. Thus, request as reject‟s collocation was likely to be “an act of

politely or formally asking for something, the state of being sought after”

(“Request”). These tokens below showed other occurrences of request as reject‟s

collocation.

(55) has thrown out her files and cut off her company email, gotten employees

to reject her requests for information on the company's finances and

activities, fired the company (COCA: Assoc Press)

(56) , in particular Pacific Gas and Electric Co. TURN often urges the

commission to reject PG&E's requests for rate hikes, usually without

success. # Sandoval's expertise (COCA: San Fran Chron)

(57) a two-week- long protest at the White House, hoping to persuade the

administration to reject the permit request. About 1,000 people were

arrested. A few days into the (COCA: PBS_News Hour)


67

Those tokens above appeared in some registers. The tokens ((55) and (56))

occurred in news register, and the next token (57) was in spoken register,

specifically in a news program. Although request appeared as the collocations of

reject and refuse, the context of each verb‟s collocation seemed to be different. In

addition, in this meaning, reject referred “to use official powers to formally refuse

request” (“Reject”). Thus, the collocation of request in reject was more formal

rather than in refuse.

c. The Third Meaning of Reject

The third definition of reject was “to refuse to accept (a person)”

(“Reject”). Having this meaning, there were 31 tokens which took place in some

contexts and all registers. The collocations of reject in this meaning were 15

nouns and 16 pronouns. The nouns were candidate, someone, children, kids,

person, and also proper nouns such as Jesus, Nari, Perry, Bin Laden, and Mitt

Romney. The pronouns were you, him, them, me, her, and us. The tokens below

showed the use of a pronoun, a proper noun, and a noun as reject‟s collocations.

(58) difficult. The painters either modify the use of these familiar images

or reject them completely, often evolving a style of complete abstraction.

The film repeats (COCA: Framework)

(59) have no ability to sin nor moral conscience, do not have an ability

to reject Jesus, " therefore they get a free pass to heaven (USA Today,

(COCA: Christ Century)

(60) . # That makes long-term joblessness a problem that feeds on itself.

When employers reject someone who has been out of work awhile, it

only adds to the time (COCA: Atlanta)

Those three examples were in the different registers. The first token (58)

was in fiction; the second token (59) was in magazine; and the third token (60)


68

was in news. The use of reject which collocated with them, Jesus, and someone

obviously gave examples of the meaning.

d. The Forth Meaning of Reject

The forth meaning of reject was “to throw away, discard, or refuse as

useless or unsatisfactory” (“Reject”). After exploring, it was found two tokens

which contained this meaning. These tokens below presented the meaning

discussed.

(61) a dry lab? Dr-PATEL: No, not at all. We reject -- we reject products as

well. HANSEN: (Voiceover) In this email he blamed us for misleading

him (COCA: NBC_Dateline)

(62) speaker, the child will be able to perceive smaller acoustic differences

between productions and reject some productions as produced badly,

whereas such sounds would be acceptable for a low-acuity (COCA: J

Speech Language)

Based on those tokens, the collocation of reject was products and

productions, which described something discarded. Products and productions

were “thrown away because the quality was not good enough” (Reject”). The

tokens were in spoken and academic registers.

e. The Fifth Meaning of Reject

The fifth meaning of reject was “to cast out or off” (“Reject”). In this

definition, it was found 4 tokens which held this meaning. The collocations of

reject were oil, plant, addresses, and words. The tokens below presented the

collocations of reject in this meaning.

(63) vines, grading them for root length and even spacing. # " I

would reject this plant, " she said, holding one Friulano sapling, "

because it (COCA: San Fran Chron)

(64) adept at finding substitutes, but it still took his brain time to recognize

and reject the S words that came to mind automatically. # " Mr. Grant, of

(COCA: Win Her Heart)


69

The examples above were in the different registers. The first token (63) was

in news register and the second one (64) was in fiction register. The two other

tokens occurred in news and academic registers. Those tokens described that the

subjects did not want some things which irritated them. Consequently, they threw

out those things.

f. The Sixth Meaning of Reject

The sixth definition of reject was “(of an organism) to not accept (a graft or

transplant)” (“Reject”). From 100 tokens, there was only one token which held

this definition. This token below showed that intention.

(65) drugs the remainder of his or her life so his or her body does

not reject the transplanted organ. Besides the expense involved, the

drugs reduce the effectiveness of (COCA: Tech Engineer Teacher)

The token obviously showed the meaning discussed. The token showed the

collocation of reject was organ, from a noun phrase the transplanted organ.

Moreover, this meaning occurred in the medical environment.

g. The Seventh Meaning of Reject

The seventh definition of reject was “to refuse as lover or spouse, not

love” (“Reject”). After exploring the tokens of reject, there were 3 tokens which

beared this definition. The collocations of reject were her (twice) and love. Here

were the tokens of that defintion.

(66) feels superior to him... and for a moment he wants to hate

her... reject her... but to his surprise she suddenly looks more sensual and

beautiful than he (COCA: Framework)

(67) from me. She turns away each time I kiss her. She continues to reject my

love towards her. I truly long to serve Jesus, but I became (COCA:

NBC_Dateline)


70

Those tokens occurred in the different registers. The token (66) occurred in

fiction and the next token (67) occurred in spoken. Those tokens clearly described

someone who was not accepted in love with another else. This context also

occurred in refuse. Refuse collocated with him, while reject collocated with her,

which both him and her indicated to someone who loved.

The findings showed that reject was used in many contexts and situations.

Reject collocated with various nouns and pronouns which formed the meanings of

its used. Comparing to refuse, it had another form of collocation, to infinitive.

Reject did not have to infinitive form as its collocation.

Based on the discussion, the collocations of the verbs refuse and reject

were various. The collocations of refuse were nouns and to infinitive forms. The

new finding showed that the verb refuse was also used to deny a lover, which

presented by the words him. Thus, pronoun was also the collocation of the verb

refuse. The collocations of the verb reject were nouns and pronouns.

There were five similar collocations of the verbs refuse and reject. The

words which were the collocations of the verbs refuse and reject were money,

treatment, proposal, request, and him and her, which represented someone who

loved. However, not all those collocations had the similar contexts in use. The

words proposal and request had different definitions when they were used as the

collocations of refuse and reject. Thus, the similar collocations of the verbs refuse

and reject which occurred in the similar contexts were money, treatment, him, and

her. People could use both verbs refuse and reject to express that they did not


71

accept money, a treatment in the medical field, and, someone who loved, which

represented by the words him and her.


71

CHAPTER V

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

This chapter is divided into two subchapters. The first one is conclusions

and the second one is recommendations. The conclusions summarize the findings

of the discussion of the study. The content of conclusions is the answers of the

research problems. The recommendations are aimed to give suggestions to readers

related to the issues in this study.

A. Conclusions

This study examined the frequencies and the collocations of the verbs

refuse and reject in COCA. COCA 2011 and 2012 were taken as the data to

discover the research problems. After examining and discussing the data, this

study found the answers of the research problems.

The first research problem was the frequencies of the verbs refuse and

reject in COCA from 2011 to 2012. Based on the occurrences in COCA, the

frequency of the verb refuse was higher than the verb reject. The verb refuse

occurred 406 times, while the verb reject occurred 299 times from 705 tokens. In

the percentage, the occurrence frequency of refuse was 57.59% and the

occurrence frequency of reject was 42.41%. The ratio of refuse and reject

occurrences was 15.18%. That number of ratio percentage was not really

significant. As a result, refuse was used more than reject to convey denial, as the

basic sense of those synonymous verbs.


72

The second research problem of this study was the collocations of verbs

refuse and reject. The verbs refuse and reject had various collocations. The

collocations of the verb refuse were nouns, pronouns, and to infinitive forms. The

collocations of verb reject were nouns and pronouns. The verbs refuse and reject

had three similar collocations. Based on the finding, the first collocation was

money. The second collocation was treatment. The third collocation was him and

her, which represented someone who loved. Thus, the verbs refuse and reject

could be used to deny money, a treatment in the medical field, and a lover or

someone who loved.

B. Recommendations

This study proposed recommendations for English Language Education

Study Program students and English teachers for the practical use in teaching and

learning. Furthermore, the findings in this study gave recommendations for future

researchers.

1. For English Language Education Study Program Students/ English

Teachers

This study was useful for ELESP students and teachers. This study

concerned the synonymous words and their uses in the real life. The contexts of

the use of the words could be similar and different. Specially, this study discussed

the collocations of near-synonymy words. By looking at the examples from the

real use, it could be useful for ELESP students of Sanata Dharma University who

were English teacher candidates. English teachers might explain their students


73

about the synonymous words which had some degrees. Based on the findings of

this study, ELESP students could emphasize the use of the synonymous words.

They might show to their students that the verb refuse had an infinitive, while

reject did not although they were near-synonymous words. Moreover, as the

teachers, they clarified that some synonymous words could not been interchanged

to another synonym. To understand more about the use of synonymous words,

they could show the examples of them in some contexts from a corpus.

The findings in this study also observed the collocations of the synonymous

words. The term collocation itself was not really familiar among ELESP students.

ELESP students could be introduced to collocation to elevate their English

fluency. Learning collocation was effective to remember the lexical patterns

because frequent collocations had bigger chances of being used, especially by

native speakers. Moreover, it improved native-like selection for the students. It

aimed the students to be able to convey meaning fluently. Therefore, the students

were able to produce correct utterances.

2. For Future Researchers

This study concerned the frequencies and the collocations of the verbs

refuse and reject. This study might be interesting for further researchers. The

discussion and the findings of this study gave insights for future researchers.

Researchers could employ more tokens to investigate other issues about the verbs

refuse and reject. The more tokens used might give more findings in studies.

Next, researchers could conduct other topics related to corpus linguistics using

COCA and/ or other corpus software.


74

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%201.ppt.


79

APPENDICES


80

Appendix A: The Tokens of Refuse

A. As a Transitive Verb

1. The First Meaning of Refuse

No Year Register Source Token

1 2012 FIC Bk:QueensVowNov

el

knew quite well how impoverished we were. Just as pride hadn't let me refuse my

brother's challenge that it was time I learned to ride a proper horse

2 2012 FIC Bk:LadyMaggiesSec

ret

lining up the Eligibles is beyond me. " # " Sheer determination. You refuse the

proposals one by one, and honestly, Evie, Papa isn't as

3 2012 FIC Bk:OneNaughtyNig

ht

were here, " the duke said. " Your mother's friends say you refuse all their invitations.

" # " Because their balls and musicales and such are

4 2012 MAG Backpacker Shopping Tips # ln-store # Ask to unpack and pitch the tent yourself

(politely refuse help from sales clerks). Is it quick to lay out and erect?

5 2012 MAG ChristCentury that may not be the best practices, or even quackery. The option to refuse a given

treatment is still offered. In my 37 years in medical practice I

6 2012 MAG MotherJones agree that federalIy fund ed hospitals and clinics should not be allowed

to refuse procedures or medications based on religious beliefs. Sidebar # 82% of 66

advisers tapped

7 2012 MAG MotherEarth use precious natural resources wisely. We seek " real " food, and we refuse to accept

fare produced by an industrial system that is unsustainable, inhumane and unwilling

8 2012 ACAD PracticeNurse . # Ultimately the traveller takes responsibility for deciding to fly and the airline

can refuse carriage if the traveller's safety is in doubt. # BOX 2 CONDITIONS

WHICH


81

9 2012 SPOK CBS_ThisMorning is that the number of so-called free riders, the people who want -- will refuse to get

insurance until they get sick, is going to be very, very

10 2012 SPOK NBC_Dateline (Dark-hallway; (Announcements) MORALES: (Voiceover) Is it possible to find a

group of teens who will refuse a ride from a driver they think is drunk? Nicole, Alex

and Taylor

11 2012 SPOK ABC_ThisWeek , when a state recognizes marriages, the federal government will discriminate and -

and refuse benefits to some of the married people that the state recognizes and not

others.

12 2012 SPOK NPR_FreshAir some of the things that led these - this very brave group of people to refuse service

and to go to prison. TERRY-GROSS: But Germany had declared war on France

13 2012 FIC SouthernRev favorite restaurant, an Italian place in Santa Monica where the ardent and merry

owners refuse to take his money and ask only permission to take his photo, to have

14 2012 SPOK ABC_ThisWeek , when a state recognizes marriages, the federal government will discriminate and -

and refuse benefits to some of the married people that the state recognizes and not

others.

15 2012 SPOK NPR_FreshAir some of the things that led these - this very brave group of people to refuse service

and to go to prison. TERRY-GROSS: But Germany had declared war on France

16 2012 FIC SouthernRev favorite restaurant, an Italian place in Santa Monica where the ardent and merry

owners refuse to take his money and ask only permission to take his photo, to have

17 2011 ACAD SocialWork to court. Even though the court decided that the parents had the right

to refuse treatment, the hospital refused to remove the ventilator. Instead, they slowly

weaned

18 2011 ACAD SocialWork it, the U.S. Supreme Court held that a competent person has the right

to refuse medical treatment even if the lack of treatment will lead to their death

(Colby

19 2011 ACAD CommunityCare 66521244 ADULTS # ROUGH SLEEPING # A group of women who sleep rough in


82

London refuse help, seeing homelessness as their choice. They do not take drugs or

abuse

20 2011 ACAD SchoolCounsel when their child was seen for counseling at school. Parents had the right

to refuse permission for their child to complete the survey or to participate in

counseling. Each

21 2011 ACAD JournalEcumenical of loss points to the importance of a living faith in God. Those who refuse God's

mercy can only live in the hell of their own self-enclosure. What

22 2011 FIC Bk:WhatYouSeeInD

ark

customer comes in: this is why she was hired. Mr. Carson can not refuse the potential

business from these customers and leaves the girl to tend to them,

23 2011 ACAD PracticeNurse # Guilt and worthlessness are features of depression, which makes some people with

depression refuse treatment. Expressing depression as a deficiency disease for

specific neurotransmitters sometimes helps. #

24 2011 ACAD SchoolCounsel complete the survey or to participate in counseling. Each year only a few

parents refuse permission. # Researchers compiled a list of the code numbers of

students who self-reported

25 2011 FIC Bk:Scholar later? I have a few spare coppers. " # " How could I refuse such an invitation? " # "

You can't, " laughed the scholar

2. The Second Meaning of Refuse


1 2012 FIC Bk:DeaderHomesGa

rdens

. If you'll excuse me for a moment " I left before he could refuse to excuse me.

There were no landlines in the rooms downstairs or upstairs.

2 2012 FIC Bk:Vanishers have found it odd, given she'd presumably forgiven me, that she should refuse to

meet my gaze, that she should take the first available opportunity to slough


83

3 2012 FIC Bk:BookMadnessCu

res

for their universities of medicine and garner letters of recommendation -- how will

the guild refuse me then? " # " Yes, Gabriella. You'll practice your art

4 2012 MAG TodaysParent to you. He might not be a teaser, but he might kick or refuse to share, or tattle and

get his brother in trouble. Often the sore

5 2012 MAG USAToday Legg confronted a Maryland taw IhMpenmtted the state's Handgun Permit Review

Board to refuse a gun permit to anyone (he board believed failed to demonstrate "

good and

6 2012 MAG WashMonth to Perry, Gingrich, and Santorum. The challenge to the media is to refuse to let

itself or the public be fooled in the process so that, by

7 2012 NEWS USAToday (1) just liberals who oppose spending cuts. Conservative members of Congress from

farm states refuse to allow major cuts in farm subsidies, an antiquated program born

back in the

8 2012 ACAD ForeignAffairs , for example, they publicly exaggerate the resulting civilian deaths. Meanwhile,

they refuse to give the United States permission to conduct commando raids in

Pakistan, swearing that

9 2012 SPOK NBC_Today next... KOTB: Yes. Can your pediatrician refuse to treat your child if you refuse to

have your child vaccinated? That's a debate we're going to have

10 2012 FIC Storyworks mermaid this year. " # I almost laugh, knowing that Dad would never refuse Sam's

request. # But Tm too upset to laugh. # Sam goes

11 2012 FIC AntiochRev Lend me ten till Saturday. " Since I detested the man I could not refuse him the

money. And he was gone next day. Recently I told the

12 2011 NEWS CSMonitor . " # The anti-union story line, among other things, says that unions refuse to allow

student test scores to be a factor in major teacher evaluations. It

13 2011 NEWS Denver shape. # As Denver Restaurant Week gets underway, we found five chefs

who refuse to let the demands of their jobs interfere # with their physical and mental

fitness


84

14 2011 ACAD JournalSchoolHealth Faculty reported, " We have a system in place that is consistent. We refuse to let

that go. " A new administrator has helped increase perceptions of safety

15 2011 FIC Bk:BondNeverBrok

en

a local farmer to supply eggs for the bakery, he'd been unable to refuse Mrs.

Becroft's request. " They need our help, " he'd told

16 2011 FIC Bk:DreamsJoy . " # " But -- " # The line goes dead. # I refuse to allow my fury with and

disappointment in Joe to shake me # from my

17 2011 FIC Bk:TamedByHighla

nder

. She was a lass. What the hell kind of reason was that to refuse to let her return

home in the morning with the rest of her kin?

18 2011 MAG America church and continue to do so today. In politics I'm an independent and refuse to

allow anyone to diminish my ability to hear the Gospel or deprive me of

19 2011 MAG Bicycling the oldest rider out there. # ((pullquote)): # I REFUSE TO LET MYSELF RIDE IN

A COMFORT ZONE, AS IF I HAVE NOTHING MORE

20 2011 MAG Bicycling this fight against the clock. But for however long that is, I will refuse to let myself

ride in a comfort zone, as if I have nothing more

21 2011 NEWS CSMonitor previous five years. # Women are also using Facebook to campaign against fathers

who refuse to let them marry. Hundreds joined a group called " EnoughAdhl! "

22 2011 SPOK NPR_TalkNat an example that scientists cling on to a kind of particular school of thought

and refuse to let go even though there is evidence which is beginning to contradict

them.

23 2011 SPOK CNN_Grace court, before an Aruban judge. We also learn that he and his lawyer refuse to give

DNA to Aruban police in the search for Robyn Gardner. But then

24 2011 SPOK CBS_Early KATIE-LINENDOLL: That's correct. And I've called them every single day and

they refuse to give any information. But what we do know is coming probably

going to

25 2011 FIC Analog are now trained upon your remaining ships. You are hardly in a position

to refuse our demands. Relations between the Hegemony and your Syndicate are of


85

no concern to

3. The Third Meaning of Refuse


1 2012 FIC Bk:KillSwitch Proving he was more than just a highly paid mercenary, Curtin would not

only refuse to commit what amounted to perjury, but he also offered in each case

to

2 2012 FIC Bk:Timeless for some pretty peculiar genealogy, I must say. " No wonder the

vampires refuse to metamorphose those with children. Very tidy of them.

Vampires preferred to have

3 2012 FIC Bk:UntilNextTimeNovel Shows you how easy it is to hide the past and change history when

people refuse to remember. As I opened the journal once more, a newspaper

clipping fluttered

4 2012 FIC Bk:WickedCityZephyr tingled at just the thought of Amir. That was more than enough reason

to refuse to contemplate any wishes but my own. # * * * # A half-hour

5 2012 FIC Bk:LastRefugeDewey Allaire. " I gave you my answer two days ago, Tim. I refuse to sit down with the

president of Iran. It's that simple. "

6 2011 NEWS NYTimes the most robust surge in filmmaking since the 1960s. France, Italy and

Germany refuse to be ignored. # And then there is Greece. Your hazy

recollections of

7 2012 MAG ChristCentury and keep you... " It felt strange, but I wasn't about to refuse to pray over

someone's life. I spent some of my formative years in

8 2012 MAG Esquire 1915 to 1923. Turkey threatens to recall ambassadors, close air bases,

and refuse to trade with nations who properly recognize the genocide. To be the


86

man,

9 2012 MAG HarpersBazaar You'll feel committed to responsibilities you couldn't possibly abandon, but you

must refuse to get drawn into any con? icts. There is a peaceful route through

10 2012 MAG MensHealth be putty in your hands! # 4. Let them haggle # If you refuse to budge on price,

you'll risk the sale. Know your true bottom

11 2012 MAG MotherJones forced into prostitution in the United States- and the right of the Catholic Church

to refuse to provide them with access to birth control and abortion. # Thanks to

legislation

12 2012 MAG PsychToday substance abusers- whether the substance is alcohol, prescription drugs, or illicit

drugs- who refuse to get help for the problem. # " An addict's primary loyalty is

13 2012 MAG Redbook eventually it all winds up where it's supposed to. # Parents in France refuse to

play short-order chef. Children are offered only " adult food " from a

14 2012 MAG RollingStone to. The grown-ups in the party establishment and their lackeys in the press

simply refuse to take Paul seriously, which is part of the reason Paul is so

extraordinarily

15 2012 MAG Shape . " You can make up for it by adjusting your calorie intake. I refuse to torture

myself if I don't make it to the gym. I know

16 2012 MAG Smithsonian who captured our imagination. Sidebar # " It is splendid to have people

who refuse to recognise difficulties, " Scott (above) wrote early in the expedition.

17 2012 MAG MotherEarth the seeds they needed to do truly independent research. Moreover, the

agrochemical companies refuse to release rheir own research, citing concern that

" proprietary information " could be

18 2012 MAG MotherEarth Help combat seed industry monopolies and build local food security by

supporting local growers who refuse to use GM products, and work to pass food

sovereignty laws in your community

19 2012 SPOK NPR_FreshAir 's sunny but in this heart of mine the world is gloomy, the sun refuse to shine. I've


87

done the best that I could do all for you

20 2012 FIC Bk:ScrapbookSecrets I'm still here, walking the same street, the same path. I refuse to die. " # Beatrice

would not allow her daughter -- or anyone --

21 2012 FIC Bk:WickedCityZephyr too dangerous for vampires and humans alike. Which explained why Aileen

thought I would refuse to set foot in any establishment that served the brew. #

But the truth

22 2012 MAG Cosmopolitan spend the day energizing myself in the city, " she says. " I refuse to think about

my writing until I head home. " # Emily Heyward,

23 2012 MAG MotherJones this little brick of anxiety settled in my chest while I wondered if someone

would refuse to work with me, would stop being nice, would start being weird,

24 2012 NEWS AssocPress , but they remain skeptical of an Iranian climbdown, especially because Russia

and China refuse to join the effort. # #

4. The Forth Meaning of Refuse

No Year Register Source Corpus

1 2012 MAG TownCountry national borders. " Nothing will stop us, " Hlne promises. " We refuse to have

Louis Renault remembered as a collaborator for eternity. It's our duty

B. As an Intransitive Verb


1 2012 MAG TownCountry 3,700-acre estate in Lazio, an hour north of Rome, I therefore could not refuse. #

On hunting trips in the southern U.S., the more enthusiastic snore you


88

2 2012 MAG TownCountry . If it is still technically optional, it's an option you can't refuse. # In a recent

debate, moderator John King invoked Romney's father George

3 2012 NEWS AssocPress # Chief Deputy Rusty Thomas defended the practice, saying applicants have a

right to refuse. But no one has ever done so. Thomas said that " speaks well

4 2012 NEWS USAToday federal funding is " coercive " by luring states into an offer they can't refuse. They

say it also will pull others into Medicaid who already qualify but have

5 2012 NEWS SanFranChron # " San Francisco has given the Warriors a waterfront offer that they could

not refuse, " Blackwell said Tuesday. " And in the end, we will leave

6 2012 SPOK CNN_Showbiz have a glass of wine. " I'm, like, no, I refuse. UNIDENTIFIED-

FEMAL: Right. POLIZZI: Because I'm going to be that person that has

7 2012 FIC FantasySciFi . Is it something you can handle? " # He's expecting me to refuse, maybe even call

station security. Away from his region of space, the

8 2012 FIC FantasySciFi you can do to ease my passing. " # Fleur knew she could not refuse now, and she

bowed her head. # " I am already too weak

9 2012 FIC FantasySciFi America, and then this place. She felt dizzy. " What if I refuse? " # " Then you'll

have confirmed that you are unwilling to help

10 2012 FIC AmericanScholar join our sales sta " and work his way up. I knew he might refuse, but you'd have

thought selling Jaguars was a crime against humanity by the

11 2011 NEWS Chicago By 1991, Chico told Guthman he had received " an offer I can't refuse " - deputy

mayoral chief of staff, Guthman said. It required moving from

12 2011 NEWS NYTimes May I have some weapons-grade Pu-239, please?' I would be helpless to refuse. I

put Mira's honey back on the counter and we go through another

13 2011 NEWS NYTimes 'm always, like, bargaining with them to slow down. And sometimes they refuse,

as if, for instance -- oh, I don't know – they

14 2011 ACAD Humanist was asking a lady out on a date, but that she was about to refuse. Bruno would

then ask her, deadpan, whether she was about to make


89

15 2011 ACAD disClosure When she is advised to press charges against her attacker, Hazel is quick to refuse,

thereby demonstrating the fears often felt by many women in real-life: # pqp (to do

sth)

16 2011 FIC Analog with Wolf. You are the offer we're not supposed to be able to refuse. " " By selling

- " She frowns. " You said by selling

17 2011 FIC Bk:Lady-Protector . I haven't said anything. " " He'd be a fool to refuse. " " That's why I haven't said

anything. " Salyna merely

18 2011 FIC Bk:SomeLikeThemRich Right and finding Mr. Wrong. Well, I had a deal she couldn't refuse. Not that I

would let her. Jack was instrumental for my campaign,

19 2011 FIC Bk:DeadlyThreads and move to the Bahamas. She'd made me an offer I couldn't refuse, and

overnight, we were in the vintage clothing business. I was taking

20 2011 FIC Bk:HighlandMaster he could speak, she said, " Don't be so daft as to refuse. Someone wickedly

attacked you, and that arrow knocked you headfirst against yon tree

21 2011 MAG MotherJones have the abortion, she had to have the abortion. She just continued to refuse. They

then made her a promise: They said, 1If you get the

22 2011 MAG EEnvironmental underneath your property.' Sort of one of those deals you can't really refuse. " #

Nor were XTO representatives particularly honest with the couple prior to drilling

23 2011 MAG Atlantic offer to the national candidates-with all that it implies- may be one they dare

not refuse. Sidebar # Bob Vander Plaats (right) arrives with Ron Paul at Iowa

24 2011 NEWS Denver in budget cuts for every $1 in tax hikes, which all the GOP candidates refuse. That

is because it never becomes reality. We get the $1 in tax

25 2011 FIC Bk:TamedByHighlander escape his guilt over leaving? He asked me to come here knowing I would refuse.

" # " Well. " Her brother gave her hand a gentle squeeze (to do sth)


90

C. Another Meaning of Refuse


1 2011 FIC Bk:Undertow asked the Cutters. Sam had never asked her for anything. How could

she refuse him this? Pros: working on an engine that really needed her. She

2 2011 MAG HarpersBazaar moon about Tom's return. He sent this e-mail, and I couldn't refuse him, even

though I'm the shyest person on earth. I trust Tom


91

Appendix B: The Tokens of Reject

1. The First Meaning of Reject


1 2012 SPOK ABC_ThisWeek she's forfeited the good things that she did in her life. I just reject that on a human

level. JAKE-TAPPER-1-ABC# (Off-camera) Clarence, you don't think that

2 2012 SPOK ABC_ThisWeek but the President sat on our set, talking to you, saying I categorically reject the

idea that this is a tax. I think you'll appear on the

3 2012 SPOK ABC_ThisWeek . And that's a good debate to have. GEORGE-STEPHANOPOU# (Off-camera) But

you completely reject his argument? TIMOTHY-GEITHNER-# Oh, it's a

ridiculous argument. Ridiculous. It

4 2012 SPOK Fox_Susteren , they have to be thinking about what to do in the case that voters reject these

taxes. VAN-SUSTEREN: All right, well, what is the plan? If

5 2012 SPOK Fox_Baier $6 billion in automatic spending cuts, most of them from education, if

voters reject his proposed tax increases. Brown is already calling for more than $8

billion in

6 2012 SPOK PBS_NewsHour Greek people that they actually can not have it both ways. They

can't reject austerity and hope to stay in the European Union. If they reject

austerity,

7 2012 SPOK PBS_NewsHour is scrambling now to get back. What does Mitt Romney do? Does he reject the

president's action? Does he promise to repeal it? Does he promise

8 2012 SPOK NPR_FreshAir more than two million jobs, there are some economists on the conservative side

who reject those ideas completely and say that it's really, you know, it's


92

9 2012 FIC Bk:VariationsNovel the way the heart shines. I see a brightness around them. You'll reject the word,

Dominic, I know, but I see them as luminous.

10 2012 FIC Analog minifusion. But those are finicky systems, and some rich people are ideologues

who reject nukes. Trouble is, fossll fuel engines and fuel cells are not so good

11 2012 FIC SouthernRev for all the secrets he keeps for her parents. It is her habit to reject or ignore every

kindness offered by this man. # Now he is telling a

12 2012 FIC Analog # Jones essayed, " Atheists, then? Or - " # " We reject your labels, " the giant said

firmly. " No offense, Doc Jones

13 2012 FIC MichiganQRev priest - a dark, bulgy-eyed man who in his sermons encouraged the people

to reject the regime and starvation in favor of revolution and food. I took my face

14 2012 MAG ChristCentury I give in to my anxieties, I neglect the witness of scripture. I reject Christ's teaching

to consider the lilies of the field. As I fear the

15 2012 MAG ChristCentury , B and C is not fundamentally different from saying? urge the church to reject your

nomination because we disagree on X, Y and Z.' Both responses point

16 2012 MAG EEnvironmental , as a senior advisor to his 2012 campaign. # Obama's decision to reject approval

for the pipeline indicates the industry's influence on the executive branch may be

17 2012 MAG Newsweek sovereignty at sea. The U.S. is one of only a handful of countries to reject the

treaty, but China's recent maritime assertiveness has made many in Washington

look

18 2012 MAG Redbook my wife, Karel, and I get out of sync. She seems to reject sex at totally inexplicable

times, and want it at all the wrong ones.

19 2012 NEWS Atlanta Machinists Local 776 in Fort Worth began Monday after union members voted

overwhelmingly Sunday to reject the company's latest contract offer. The union

represents about a quarter of Lockheed

20 2012 NEWS Houston of 2008. Hopefully, they will be joined by equally clear-minded men who

will reject Obama's false utopian promises and retire him to his beloved golf


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courses. #

21 2011 SPOK NPR_TalkNat joins us to recap the week in politics. This week, voters in Colorado reject taxes left

and right. New polls put Herman Cain in front in Iowa and

22 2012 NEWS CSMonitor the military council ruling Egypt until power is transferred to a civilian president,

to reject the constitution and refuse to put it to a referendum, furthering Egypt's

political

23 2011 NEWS SanFranChron . Brown, however, did not propose having those cuts take effect if

voters reject taxes. # " I'm proposing what should happen. If that's rejected

24 2011 SPOK ABC_ThisWeek we care? COKIE-ROBERTS-1-A# (Off-camera) Well, I should just say that they

did then reject that money and sent internal e-mails basically saying this is totally

unacceptable. We have

25 2012 ACAD MiddleEastQ understand the motivation to take up arms or call for military intervention, we

specifically reject this position as we find it unacceptable politically, nationally,

and ethically. Militarizing

26 2011 NEWS Denver economy a powerful boost. # That's one reason why our U.S. senators

should reject the budget bill the House is pushing. The bill would slash

conservation funding and

27 2011 NEWS NYTimes to the Tea Party,' said his spokesman, Mark Helmke. " We reject that premise.' #

Mr. Holwager argued that there is a disconnect between Tea

28 2012 NEWS CSMonitor ideological issues and strike a deal. # Ayatollah Khamenei is torn between hard-

liners who reject any agreement with the West in principle - his own rhetoric has

long pointed in

29 2011 SPOK PBS_NewsHour your coalition partner, Deputy Prime Minister Nick Clegg, he says the decision

to reject the E.U. agreement was -- quote -- " bad for Britain " and Britain is

30 2011 SPOK PBS_NewsHour And we talk with British Foreign Secretary William Hague about his country's

decision to reject an agreement aimed at fixing Europe's debt crisis. WILLIAM-


94

HAGUE-Bri: " In Europe,

31 2011 SPOK CNN_JohnKing prove this. You have a birth certificate. You have an announcement. They reject the

truth. They don't want the truth to be true. Why do

32 2011 SPOK NBC_MeetPress to undermine the American way and wants to deny individuals their freedom. Do

you reject those beliefs? REP-CANTOR-: I... MR-GREGORY: As a leader in our

Congress

33 2012 ACAD PracticeNurse has significant implications for those who drive for a living and many patients will

initially reject the idea out of hand. # Alternative options at this stage are glitazones

(

34 2012 NEWS SanFranChron a panel appointed by the governor and lawmakers, also will have the power

to reject or accept the proposal. # Gov. Jerry Brown has pushed for some type

35 2012 FIC Analog it themselves. # Or had they? Maybe they'd fabricated some reason to reject the

idea. Half of my joy balloons popped at that thought, but I

36 2012 FIC Bk:BorgiaMistress some form of the powder safely? " # I was prepared for her to reject the idea out of

hand, in which case I had rehearsed my argument.

37 2011 NEWS CSMonitor of which $10,000 came from his own pocket. As part of his pledge to reject special-

interest money, Roemer has said he will not take PAC donations and will limit

38 2011 MAG ChristCentury for No. 5 and for his generosity to continue- and even grow. " I reject any idea that a

person's Christianity should cause them to step away from what

39 2011 FIC Framework or in a room talking about his problems. # 4. Idea evolves to reject the idea of doing

a documentary film but to change it into a feature film-

40 2011 SPOK NPR_TalkNat Well, there are two points, and I heard them both clearly. I reject the idea that the

effects have been exaggerated. Indeed, there have been those

41 2011 SPOK Fox_Susteren to apportion blame for this terrible event. President Reagan said, " We

must reject the idea that every time a law's broken, society is guilty, rather

42 2011 ACAD GeographRev " and Peru's as the original (Andina 2007). Why Peru would reject this offer is an


95

important question, especially given that other countries with similar transborder

43 2011 ACAD ForeignAffairs treatment of enemy combatants captured in unconventional conflicts, both wings of

the Tea Party reject liberal internationalist ideas and will continue to do so. The

U.S. Senate, in

44 2011 NEWS USAToday a long time to shift. " # It's not that potential car buyers reject the idea of being

green. Most love the idea -- until it involves the

45 2011 ACAD PracticeNurse options available? # Patient preferences may conflict with the prevailing evidence

or they may reject a treatment because they do not understand the risks or benefits

correctly. Some of

46 2011 NEWS AssocPress in place. # In Oklahoma, for example, the EPA is likely to reject a proposal, state

officials say, after the state determined it wasn't cost-effective

47 2011 ACAD CommCollegeR School Class of 1972 (NLS-72). In all specifications, they failed to reject the

hypothesis of equivalence, indicating that sheepskin effects were not evident.

Finally

48 2011 SPOK PBS_NewsHour Congress over extending the payroll tax cut continued. Senate Democrats made

clear they will reject a House Republican bill. It would extend the tax cut, but

would also

49 2011 NEWS AssocPress benefits for two months. # A " yes " vote is a vote to reject the bill. # Voting yes

were 0 Democrats and 229 Republicans. # Voting

50 2011 SPOK CBS_NewsEve conversation again in six months is reason enough for every member of this

chamber to reject that bill. CORDES: As the nation's biggest banks begged

Congress for compromise warning


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2. The Second Meaning of Reject


1 2012 NEWS AssocPress has thrown out her files and cut off her company email, gotten employees

to reject her requests for information on the company's finances and activities, fired

the company

2 2012 NEWS CSMonitor Lawyers for Mr. Rumsfeld and the other military officials, urged the high court

to reject the appeal. # " Petitioners seek to provide enemy combatants fighting

against the United

3 2012 ACAD LibraryResources from Summit and WorldCat to avoid ILL requests, they decided it was simpler

to reject the few incoming loan requests when they were made. # Using PCC

Vendor Neutral

4 2012 ACAD MiddleEastQ the context in which a jihadist attack is perpetrated, they are more likely to reject an

insanity plea. " The jury held that holding extremist views does not make

5 2011 NEWS SanFranChron , in particular Pacific Gas and Electric Co. TURN often urges the commission

to reject PG&E's requests for rate hikes, usually without success. # Sandoval's

expertise

6 2011 ACAD ForeignAffairs el-Fatouh, will draw away significant numbers of supporters, while disaffected

youth activists will reject the Guidance Office's orders on how to vote. These

tensions, they argue

7 2011 SPOK PBS_NewsHour a two-week- long protest at the White House, hoping to persuade the administration

to reject the permit request. About 1,000 people were arrested. A few days into the

8 2011 FIC NewStatesman the paperwork (some of it in English) in order definitively and legally to reject any

further demands for maintenance from her or her heirs. This must be possible

9 2011 NEWS CSMonitor : Jerusalem belongs to the Jews. # Not so, say Palestinians, who reject Israel's

demand for exclusive control of Jerusalem. The ancestral roots of today's


97

3. The Third Meaning of Reject


1 2012 SPOK ABC_ThisWeek assumption on many parts, that the evangelical vote in South Carolina would

naturally perforce reject the Mormon candidate, hasn't happened. GEORGE-

STEPHANOPOU# (Off-camera) That's exactly what I

2 2012 SPOK CNN_DrDrew everyone's so fearful. They are afraid if you confront them then they'll reject you

and you'll never be able to reach them again. PINSKY: Right.

3 2012 SPOK NBC_MeetPress advisers, people like President Obama. MR-MURPHY: Mm-hmm. MR-

GREGORY: They don't want to reject him necessarily, but they want to... MR-

MURPHY: Right. MR-GREGORY: They're certainly

4 2012 SPOK CNN Newsroom , raised the debt ceiling. By today's standards, the Republican party

would reject him. And that's because, Ana made an important point about the

inconsistencies

5 2012 MAG ChristCentury have no ability to sin nor moral conscience, do not have an ability to reject Jesus, "

therefore they get a free pass to heaven (USA Today,

6 2012 MAG NGKids the rescue team carries him to the water. Hassard worries that the pod

may reject Nari after such a long absence. That concern vanishes when Nari's friend

Echo

7 2012 NEWS Atlanta . # That makes long-term joblessness a problem that feeds on itself. When

employers reject someone who has been out of work awhile, it only adds to the time

8 2012 NEWS Denver voters, faced with too many ways to legalize marijuana through the ballot,

may reject them all. Removing marijuana from Schedule I will not legalize it, but

will

9 2012 NEWS CSMonitor Among them is the guaranteed issue provision, a requirement that insurance

companies may not reject a potential customer based on a prior medical condition


98

or history. Another, the

10 2012 ACAD JournalAmerican , Buck suggests, American indifference is as bad as Asian hostility. Those

who reject these children are " small-minded, narrow-hearted, prejudiced "

individuals, " Un-American Americans

11 2011 NEWS AssocPress trustworthy or is too kooky. " # If die-hard conservatives believe crucial

independent voters would reject Perry in November 2012, Galen said, they may

turn to Romney or others

12 2011 ACAD Humanist faith. " If a part of him wasn't convinced that God really did reject him, he might

rise up and fight back. If someone had pressed into

13 2011 ACAD CommCollegeR to elite and other 4-year institutions are sorted before admission, as colleges accept

or reject them according to their test scores and other criteria. Less-advantaged

students are sorted after

14 2011 ACAD MiddleEastQ Washington, D.C., Dec. 2, 2010. # 28 " Saudi Arabians Overwhelmingly Reject Bin

Laden, Al Qaeda, Saudi Fighters in Iraq, and Terrorism; Also

15 2011 ACAD AmerScholar have so often been needlessly bitter about him and how many others who seemed

to reject me out of hand -- I seize this irremediable opposition between us, to (

16 2011 SPOK CNN_DrDrew that taught me how to parent, I learned how to shame my daughter and reject her in

a way that I don't think Christ ever would. And Mary

17 2011 SPOK CNN_DrDrew for their kids. It's horrible for the families when they're talk to reject and shame

their kids, and the kinds wind up leaving home. One guy

18 2011 SPOK ABC_20/20 , she insists they've known all along about their children and instead chose

to reject them, until recently. BOBBI-ANN-FINLEY-# Shane, I sent him pictures

after the baby

19 2011 SPOK CNN_Cooper that has been created by -- you have Mitt Romney, which grassroots voters

absolutely reject Mitt Romney. He has a very moderate record. He has a very

inconsistent


99

20 2011 SPOK CNN_Behar me. BEHAR: Is she religious? WRIGHT: That's what tells her she needs

to reject me, is what she thinks she understands from religion. And she thinks I

21 2011 SPOK CNN_Behar no doubt, but a lot of parents are being told by their churches to reject their

children. And although I had a very tough day the day my mom

22 2011 MAG ChristCentury be allowed, but if they are going to use that line of reasoning to reject us, they

should be consistent. " # James Fitz, Dayton's vice

23 2011 MAG Essence I've found there are three main reasons for rejection: # 1. People reject us when we

exceed their expectations. # Ever wonder if you weren't hired

24 2011 MAG Essence for other options that may be just right for you. # 2. People reject us when the

timing Is off. # Your sister won't float you a

25 2011 MAG Essence or going back to school to pursue a higher degree. # 3. People reject us when we

don't meet their expectations. # This is the most common

26 2011 MAG Essence they're not the real deal. # WHAT YOU NEED... # Before you reject a person,

spend time with him or her, and find out if he

27 2011 MAG USAToday might be orbiting stars at great distances and that the parent stars really did

not reject and eject their children. Rather, the parent star is so far away dial

28 2011 NEWS NYTimes , the chamber's No. 3 Democrat, said on MSNBC that the Senate would reject all

riders concerning Planned Parenthood and the E.P.A. # For many Republicans,

particularly

29 2011 NEWS WashPost New Jersey, New York and Pennsylvania. # State guidelines call for schools

to reject out-of-state undergraduates if that population rises above 25 percent, but

state officials have never

30 2011 FIC Framework diffi cult. The paint ers either modify the use of these familiar images or reject them

completely, often evolving a style of complete abstraction. The fi lm repeats

31 2011 MAG ChristCentury religious identity do not make sense to him, but he is careful not to reject them out

of hand. " Lots of things are hard to imagine and are


100

4. The Forth Meaning of Reject


1 2011 ACAD JSpeechLanguage speaker, the child will be able to perceive smaller acoustic differences between

productions and reject some productions as produced badly, whereas such sounds

would be acceptable for a low-acuity

2 2012 SPOK NBC_Dateline HANSEN: Is this a dry lab? Dr-PATEL: No, not at all. We reject -- we reject

products as well. HANSEN: (Voiceover) In this email he blamed us

5. The Fifth Meaning of Reject


1 2012 NEWS AssocPress said to loud applause. He said Obama has " radical environmentalist policies "

that reject robust extraction of oil and gas from many U.S. areas, including the

Arctic National

2 2012 NEWS SanFranChron vines, grading them for root length and even spacing. # " I would reject this plant, "

she said, holding one Friulano sapling, " because it

3 2012 ACAD Communications Policy Framework (SPF) uses the Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP)

to reject forged email addresses. Another is DomainKeys Identified Mail (DKIM),

verifying the

4 2011 FIC Bk:WinHerHeart adept at finding substitutes, but it still took his brain time to recognize and reject the

S words that came to mind automatically. # " Mr. Grant, of


101

6. The Sixth Meaning of Reject

7. The Seventh Meaning of Reject


1 2011 FIC Framework feels superior to him... and for a moment he wants to hate her... reject her... but to

his surprise she suddenly looks more sensual and beautiful than he

2 2011 FIC Framework door... She is unsure suddenly... Is he going to leave her there... reject her? Did she

go too far? He is giving her every impression that

3 2011 SPOK NBC_Dateline from me. She turns away each time I kiss her. She continues to reject my love

towards her. I truly long to serve Jesus, but I became


1 2012 ACAD TechEngineerTeacher drugs the remainder of his or her life so his or her body does not reject the

transplanted organ. Besides the expense involved, the drugs reduce the

effectiveness of


plagiat merupakan tindakan tidak terpuji fileiv trust in the l ord and do good; dwell in the land...

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